An Introduction to the Philosophy

The given text is an introduction to the study of Indian Philosophy as part of a Massive Open Online
Course (MOOC) on Indian Knowledge Systems conducted by Dr. R. Venkata Raghavan. The instructor
begins by emphasizing the significant contributions of India to the field of philosophy and how it
continues to be relevant today.

1. Why Do We Need Philosophy?

The instructor starts by exploring the necessity of philosophy through an example:

 Suppose we ask, "Why should one not commit theft?"

 Different people may give different answers based on their perspectives:

o A religious person might say holy books prohibit theft to keep us away from sin.

o A legal-minded person might say the law prohibits theft to maintain order in society.

 If we keep asking "why?" at each step, all explanations ultimately lead to the conclusion
that:

o The goal is to maximize happiness and minimize suffering.

 This fundamental pursuit of happiness leads to deeper philosophical questions, such as:

o Who am I?

o What is the meaning of life?

o What is the nature of the world?

o Does God exist? If so, what is His nature?

 The field that systematically examines such fundamental questions is called philosophy.

2. Philosophy in the Indian Context – Darshana

 The word Philosophy originates from the Greek tradition.

 In the Indian tradition, it is known as Darshana, derived from the Sanskrit root "Drish" (to
see).

 Darshana refers to both "the right vision" and "the means of attaining the right vision."

 A person who studies Darshana is called a Darshanika (similar to a philosopher).

3. Other Names for Indian Philosophy

Apart from Darshana, Indian philosophy is also referred to as:

1. Anviksiki – Used by Kautilya in the Arthashastra, meaning "the science of inquiry."

2. Moksha Shastra – Since philosophy seeks ultimate happiness (Moksha).

3. Tattva Shastra – Since it explores the true essence (Tattva) of existence.

4. Influence of Indian Philosophy

 Just as Greek philosophy influenced various fields in the West, Darshana influenced many
branches of Indian knowledge, including Ayurveda (medicine), ethics, and governance.

 The lecture will later discuss how Indian philosophy originated, developed, and its different
schools of thought.

Development of Indian Philosophical

Systems

Explanation of the Text: Development of Indian Philosophical Systems

This section outlines the evolution of Indian philosophy, focusing on its historical development, the
central themes explored, and its distinct features.

1. The Quest for Ultimate Happiness: The Context of Indian Philosophy

 The central goal of Indian philosophy is the pursuit of ultimate happiness (Moksha), which is
achieved through understanding the nature of the self (Jiva), the world (Jagat), and the
divine entity (Ishvara or God).

 Jiva (the self) is at the core of the inquiry, but it is always understood in the context of its
relationship with Jagat (the world) and Ishvara (the divine). These three concepts form the
philosophical backdrop against which Indian philosophical ideas were developed.

2. The Phases of Development

 Initial Focus on the Jagat (World):

o Early philosophical inquiries in India began by looking at the Jagat, the external
world. The Nasadiya Sukta from the Rigveda is an example of this early exploration,
questioning the origins and nature of the world.

o The Vedic philosophers asked questions about how the world came into existence
and sought explanations for natural phenomena, like rainfall, the sun, wind, etc.

o They realized that there must be an entity that governs and regulates these natural
occurrences. This led to the idea of a Divine Entity (Deva/Ishvara).

 The Shift to the Divine Entity (Ishvara):

o Once the idea of a governing divine entity was posited, philosophers began exploring
the nature of this Ishvara. This divine entity could be a person, like Indra or Varuna,
or an abstract cosmic principle, like Rita (the cosmic order).

o Philosophers spent time contemplating and trying to understand this divine entity,
believing that it was essential to explain the world’s regulated nature.
  The Final Focus on the Self (Jiva):

o However, philosophers soon realized that answers to the ultimate happiness could
not be found solely by looking outside in the Jagat or by focusing on Ishvara. True
happiness lies within, in understanding the nature of the self (Jiva).

o This inward focus is beautifully captured in the Kathopanishad, which suggests that
the senses are directed outward, but the wise person (Dheerah) looks inward to find
the path to ultimate happiness.

3. The Conceptual Development of Indian Philosophy

 The evolution of philosophical ideas in India thus follows a three-phase process:

1. Exploration of the Jagat (external world)

2. Inquiry into the Ishvara (divine entity)

3. Understanding of the Jiva (self)

4. Diverse Philosophical Traditions

 While all Indian philosophical systems address these three concepts—Jiva, Jagat, and Ishvara
—different schools of thought emphasize one or more of these aspects:

o Theistic Traditions (Focus on Ishvara):

 Examples include Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and Dvaita Vedanta, where God

(Ishvara) plays a central role in achieving ultimate happiness, often through
devotion and prayer.

 Similarly, Saiva Darshanas focus heavily on the worship of God.

o World-Focused Traditions (Focus on Jagat):

 Nyaya, Vaisesika, and Samkhya are examples of schools that focus on

understanding the material world (Jagat), explaining natural phenomena
and the nature of reality.

o Self-Centered Traditions (Focus on Jiva):

 Philosophies like Advaita Vedanta, Bauddha (Buddhism), and Yoga place

emphasis on understanding the self (Jiva), seeking liberation through
introspection and understanding one’s true nature.

Unique Features of Indian Philosophical

Systems

The unique features of Indian philosophical systems are integral to understanding the foundational
principles that shaped Indian thought. The approach to philosophy in India was deeply intertwined
with religious and spiritual ideas, creating a seamless connection between philosophy and religion.
One of the distinctive aspects of Indian philosophy is the Guru-shishya Parampara, or the teacher-
student tradition, which was essential in transmitting knowledge. Philosophical learning was
primarily through oral dialogues, though foundational texts like Sutras, commentaries (Bhashyas),
and explanatory texts (Varthikas) played a significant supporting role.

Key Features:

1. Philosophy and Religion Intertwined: In contrast to many other traditions, Indian philosophy
did not distinguish sharply between philosophy and religion. Philosophical ideas were often
embedded in religious texts such as the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagavad Gita.
These works, though religious, also offered profound philosophical insights into existential
issues, with philosophy providing the theoretical basis and religion offering the operational
principles for day-to-day life.

2. The Role of Karma and Reincarnation: All the Indian philosophical systems acknowledged
the principle of Karma, which emphasizes that actions have consequences that may manifest
in the current or future lives. This belief was closely linked to the notion of samsara (the
cycle of birth and death), and liberation (moksha) from this cycle was seen as the ultimate
goal. Importantly, although karma was seen to influence one's life, the concept of free will
was also recognized—people could make choices that would affect their future.

3. The Goal of Liberation (Moksha): The central pursuit across all traditions was moksha, or
liberation from the cycle of birth and death, which was achieved through the cultivation of
knowledge (gyana) and the practice of ethical actions (karma). Each tradition defined
ontology (what exists) and epistemology (how knowledge is acquired) in a rigorous manner,
contributing to their vision of attaining moksha.

4. Debating and Reconciliation: Despite the diversity of views, there was a strong culture of
debate and dialogue. Philosophical schools critiqued not only other traditions but also their
own positions. This culture encouraged healthy intellectual engagement and mutual
learning, which allowed for the evolution and refinement of ideas.

Schools of Indian Philosophy:

Indian philosophy can be broadly classified into two categories:

 Astika (Vedic schools): These accept the authority of the Vedas. The six major schools are:

1. Sankhya

2. Yoga

3. Nyaya

4. Vaisesika

5. Mimamsa

6. Vedanta

 Nastika (Non-Vedic schools): These do not accept the Vedas as authoritative, but they have
their own rich philosophical systems. The three major schools are:

1. Charvaka (materialistic)
 2. Jaina

3. Bauddha (Buddhism)

Despite their differences, both the Vedic and non-Vedic schools addressed core issues like the nature
of reality, the self, and the path to liberation.

These foundational characteristics, such as the integration of philosophy and religion, the belief in
karma and reincarnation, the focus on moksha, and the culture of intellectual debate, remain
essential to understanding Indian philosophy. In the following discussions, each of these schools will
be explored in more detail, starting with Sankhya and Yoga.

Vedic Schools of Philosophy

The Vedic schools of philosophy, also known as the Vedic Darshanas, are rooted in the belief that the
Vedas contain the ultimate truth, and all the traditions within this category accept the authority of
these sacred texts. The six major Vedic schools—Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and
Vedanta—share certain core characteristics while differing in their approaches to understanding the
nature of reality and achieving liberation.

Commonalities Among the Vedic Schools:

1. Goal of Liberation (Moksha): All the Vedic schools aim for the ultimate goal of moksha,
which is liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). A crucial part of this
journey is answering the question "Who am I?" This self-realization is essential to attain
liberation.

2. Context of Jiva, Jagat, and Ishwara: The understanding of the self (jiva), the world (jagat),
and the divine (Ishwara) is common to all these schools. While the interpretation of these
concepts may vary, they all aim to understand the relationship between the individual, the
world, and the ultimate reality (Ishwara).

3. Diverse Approaches: Although all the Vedic schools share the same goal and context, their
paths to liberation vary:

o Sankhya and Yoga: These schools focus on understanding the properties of matter
and its role in achieving moksha. They examine how the mind, body, and soul
interact with the physical world and how overcoming attachment to material
existence leads to liberation.

o Nyaya and Vaisheshika: These schools emphasize valid knowledge and the nature of
reality. They seek to understand how one can gain reliable knowledge and discern
truth from falsehood, which is seen as necessary to achieve liberation.

o Mimamsa and Vedanta: These schools take a direct approach by examining the
Vedic texts themselves. They focus on interpreting the Vedas and their teachings
about liberation to understand how the texts provide guidance on the path to
moksha.
Key Features of the Vedic Schools:

 Sankhya and Yoga: These schools are often grouped together because both emphasize the
analysis of the material world and its role in spiritual liberation. Sankhya provides a
systematic approach to understanding the elements of the cosmos and the self, while Yoga
focuses on practical techniques for realizing this knowledge, especially through meditation
and discipline.

 Nyaya and Vaisheshika: These schools focus on logic, reasoning, and metaphysics. Nyaya is
known for its sophisticated methods of logical debate and analysis to determine the valid
means of knowledge (pramanas). Vaisheshika focuses on the nature of reality, proposing
that everything in the universe can be categorized into a set of fundamental elements and
substances.

 Mimamsa and Vedanta: These schools are focused on interpreting the Vedic texts
themselves. Mimamsa emphasizes the correct understanding and performance of ritual
actions prescribed in the Vedas, while Vedanta focuses on the philosophical teachings of the
Upanishads and the nature of the ultimate reality (Brahman), aiming at realizing the self’s
oneness with Brahman.

Sāṅkhya Approach of Philosophy

The Sāṅkhya tradition, a key Vedic school of thought, focuses on understanding the world and self
through the concepts of Prakriti (the material world) and Purusha (the conscious principle). These
two principles represent the essential dichotomy of existence. Here's a summary of its key ideas:

Core Concepts:

1. Prakriti and Purusha:

o Prakriti: The material cause of everything in the universe, always changing, and
responsible for creation and evolution.

o Purusha: The conscious principle or the final cause of the world, changeless, passive,
and eternal.

2. Material vs. Final Cause:

Just like a pot has a material cause (clay), an efficient cause (the potter), and a final cause
(the purpose of the pot), the world has Prakriti (material cause) and Purusha (final cause).
The world exists for the sake of Purusha.

Theory of Tri-Gunas:

Sāṅkhya posits that everything in the material world consists of three qualities or gunas:

1. Sattva: Light, illuminating, associated with purity, calmness, and positive thoughts.

2. Rajas: Restless, dynamic, causes excitement and action, associated with restlessness and
pain.
 3. Tamas: Heavy, obstructing, associated with ignorance, lethargy, and concealment.

These qualities are not separate entities but inherent in Prakriti, and they work together to shape the
universe. Balance among them results in stability, while imbalance leads to change and evolution.

Evolution of the Universe:

1. Purusha and Prakriti interact, leading to the evolution of various entities.

2. The first evolution is Mahat or Buddhi, the principle of intelligence and cognition.

3. From Mahat, the ego or Ahankara arises, followed by the five Tanmatras (subtle elements)
and eventually the Pancha Bhutas (five gross elements: earth, water, fire, air, ether).

Path to Liberation:

Liberation, or Kaivalya, in Sankhya comes when the Purusha realizes that it is distinct from Prakriti
and ceases identifying with its changes. This knowledge—discriminative knowledge that separates
the conscious self (Purusha) from the material world (Prakriti)—frees the individual from the cycle of
birth, death, and rebirth (samsara).

The role of Yoga in Sankhya is to discipline the mind (Chitta) to achieve this clarity and realization.

Key Points:

 Kapila, the sage associated with systematizing Sankhya, outlined this framework, and it is
further elaborated in the Sāṅkhya-Kārika by Ishvara Krishna.

 Sankhya’s dualistic worldview focuses on the separation of consciousness (Purusha) and the
material world (Prakriti), a foundation for many subsequent Indian philosophies, including
Yoga.

Thus, Sankhya provides a theoretical framework for understanding the universe and the self, setting
the stage for practices like Yoga that help realize the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti to
achieve liberation.

Introduction to Yoga

The passage provided is a detailed introduction to the Yoga philosophy, particularly through the lens
of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. Let's break down the main points and concepts covered in the text:

Yoga Philosophy and Its Purpose

Yoga is not just a physical practice but a deep philosophical tradition aimed at realizing the true
nature of the self (the "purusha"). It serves as a methodology to distinguish between prakriti (the
material world) and purusha (the individual consciousness or spirit). According to Patanjali, yoga
helps the individual see this distinction, leading to the realization of one's true self and ultimately to
liberation (kaivalya).

The Definition of Yoga

The second sutra of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras defines yoga as “yoga chitta vritti nirodha”, which
translates to "yoga is the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind." The aim is to calm the mind such
that it can recognize the true nature of reality — to see the difference between prakriti (the material
world) and purusha (the true self).

The Eightfold Path (Ashtanga Yoga)

The process of achieving this distinction involves a set of practices that include physical,
psychological, and moral transformation. This system is called Ashtanga Yoga, which means the
eightfold path. These steps are outlined as follows:

1. Yama (Restraints or Ethical Disciplines):

o These are negative guidelines that focus on moral and ethical conduct, primarily
related to one's behavior towards others and society. The five Yamas are:

 Ahimsa (Non-violence)

 Satya (Truthfulness)

 Asteya (Non-stealing)

 Aparigraha (Non-greed, non-possessiveness)

 Brahmacharya (Moderation, especially in sexual activities, and self-

discipline)

2. Niyama (Observances or Positive Duties):

o These are positive practices or commandments that focus on self-discipline and

personal development. The five Niyamas are:

 Shaucha (Cleanliness)

 Santosha (Contentment, not seeking constant happiness but being at peace

with what is)

 Tapas (Austerity, tolerance towards hardships)

 Svadhyaya (Study of scriptures and self-reflection)

 Ishvara Pranidhana (Surrender to or devotion to God, which Patanjali

defines as a teacher figure, not necessarily as a supreme, all-controlling
being)

3. Asana (Physical Posture):

o In the context of yoga, Asana is the practice of physical postures. However,

Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras give only a minimal description of it, stating that Asana is
something that is stable (Sthira) and comfortable (Sukha). The physical postures are
meant to support the practitioner in achieving a calm and stable mind.

4. Pranayama (Breath Control):

o The regulation and control of breath is used as a method to calm the mind. Focusing
on one's breath helps slow down mental fluctuations and aids in concentration.
 5. Pratyahara (Withdrawal of the Senses):

o Pratyahara involves turning inward by withdrawing attention from external sensory

distractions. The goal is to direct one’s focus away from external stimuli and toward
internal awareness.

6. Dharana (Concentration):

o Dharana is the practice of single-pointed focus. In this step, the practitioner

concentrates the mind on one object, such as a mental image or a point on the body
(e.g., the tip of the nose).

7. Dhyana (Meditation):

o Dhyana is a deeper form of concentration, where the flow of thoughts is

uninterrupted and continuously directed toward the chosen object or mental image.

8. Samadhi (Union or Enlightenment):

o Samadhi represents the highest state of yoga, where the practitioner achieves
complete union with the object of concentration. In this state, the distinction
between the self and the object of meditation disappears, and the purusha (the true
self) shines in its pure form.

The Role of Ishwara (God or Supreme Teacher)

In Yoga, Ishwara is not understood in the traditional sense as an all-powerful deity but as a teacher
who can guide the practitioner toward Samadhi. By dedicating oneself to Ishwara, the yogi can make
progress on the path of meditation and eventually reach the state of mental calm and clarity.

The Holistic Approach of Yoga

Yoga is not just about physical fitness or stress relief; it is a comprehensive system that transforms
the body, mind, and spirit. As one practices yoga, it leads to an improvement in psychological and
moral well-being, and it guides the practitioner towards spiritual liberation. It encourages living a
disciplined life that is aligned with ethical values and mindfulness. This is why yoga is described as a
"way of life" rather than just an occasional practice for stress relief.

Liberation (Kaivalya)

Ultimately, the goal of yoga is not just mental calmness or physical health, but liberation from the
cycle of mundane existence. It is about realizing one's true nature (the purusha) and breaking free
from the limitations of the material world (prakriti). This leads to Kaivalya or spiritual freedom,
where the self is no longer bound by worldly distractions and desires.

Conclusion

Yoga, as outlined by Patanjali, is a deeply transformative practice that integrates physical, mental,
and moral aspects of life to lead the practitioner toward self-realization and liberation. While the
practice of Asana (physical postures) and Pranayama (breath control) are widely known, yoga's
ultimate goal is much greater: to achieve clarity of mind, realize one's true self, and live in harmony
with the universe, transcending the limitations of the material world.
 Tenet of Nyāya Philosophy

Nyāya Philosophy: A Comprehensive Explanation

Introduction to Nyāya Philosophy

Nyāya is one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy (Darśanas). It is often paired with the
Vaiśeṣika school due to their shared focus on analyzing reality and experience. While Nyāya primarily
investigates the means of acquiring knowledge (pramāṇa), Vaiśeṣika focuses on the nature of reality
or the objects that can be known.

The fundamental premise of both schools is that whatever is perceived or cognized through valid
means and remains uncontradicted is real. This contrasts with other Indian philosophical traditions
that argue perceptual reality may be an illusion.

Nyāya, meaning "logic" or "reasoning," is known for its rigorous epistemology and methodology in
seeking knowledge and truth. It provides a systematic framework for understanding valid knowledge
(pramā), the nature of reality, and the means to liberation (mokṣa). The school was founded by
Gautama Rishi (also called Akṣapāda Gautama) through his seminal text, the Nyāya Sūtras.

Core Concepts of Nyāya Philosophy

Nyāya philosophy focuses on logical reasoning, systematic inquiry, and a structured approach to
debate and knowledge acquisition. It defines knowledge, its sources, and its validity, all aimed at
attaining liberation.

1. The Purpose of Nyāya: Attaining Liberation (Mokṣa)

 The ultimate goal of Nyāya, like all Vedic schools, is liberation (mokṣa).

 Nyāya defines liberation as the cessation of all suffering and pain.

 Unlike some other schools that describe liberation as a state of infinite bliss, Nyāya presents
a negative conception of liberation—where suffering ceases, but whether absolute bliss
exists is not emphasized.

2. Knowledge (Pramā) and Its Sources (Pramāṇas)

Nyāya extensively analyzes knowledge and its validity. It recognizes four main pramāṇas (means of
valid knowledge):

1. Pratyakṣa (Perception): Direct knowledge through the senses.

o Ordinary perception: When sense organs interact with external objects.

o Extraordinary perception: Includes intuitive knowledge or yogic insight.

2. Anumāna (Inference): Knowledge derived from logical reasoning.

o Example: If there is smoke on a hill, we infer that there is fire.

 3. Upamāna (Comparison): Knowledge gained by analogy or comparison.

o Example: Learning what a wild ox (gavaya) looks like by comparing it to a

domesticated cow.

4. Śabda (Testimony): Knowledge gained through the words of a reliable authority, especially
the Vedas.

o Nyāya considers Iśvara (God) as the author of the Vedas, making them infallible.

3. Distinction from Vaiśeṣika Philosophy

Although Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika are closely related, they differ in their primary focus:

 Nyāya: Focuses on the means of knowledge (pramāṇa).

 Vaiśeṣika: Focuses on the objects of knowledge (ontology).

Both schools agree that correct knowledge leads to liberation, but while Nyāya is concerned with
epistemology and reasoning, Vaiśeṣika categorizes reality into different entities such as substances
(dravya), qualities (guṇa), actions (karma), and atoms (paramāṇu).

4. Nyāya’s Contribution to Logic and Debate

Nyāya developed a structured method of reasoning and argumentation, which became a

foundational framework for Indian logic and debate. Some key contributions include:

 Nyāya Syllogism (Five-Step Argument)

1. Pratijñā (Proposition): "The hill has fire."

2. Hetu (Reason): "Because there is smoke."

3. Udāharaṇa (Example): "Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (as in a kitchen)."

4. Upanaya (Application): "There is smoke on the hill."

5. Nigamana (Conclusion): "Therefore, the hill has fire."

 Rules for Debate

o Valid and invalid arguments were classified.

o Logical fallacies (hetvābhāsa) were identified to prevent false conclusions.

o This logical approach influenced later Indian philosophical traditions.

5. Role of Iśvara (God) in Nyāya

Nyāya accepts the existence of Iśvara (God) but not as the creator ex nihilo (out of nothing). Instead:

 The material cause of the universe is eternal atoms (paramāṇu).

 Iśvara is the efficient cause, like a potter shaping a pot out of clay.
  Iśvara is also the author of the Vedas, making them infallible.

 Iśvara administers karma (adr̥ṣṭa), ensuring moral order in the world.

Thus, Iśvara plays a role in creation, scriptural revelation, and karmic justice.

6. Navya-Nyāya (New Nyāya)

 Around the 14th century, Gangeśa Upādhyāya refined Nyāya philosophy, shifting the focus
to pramāṇas (means of knowing).

 This development led to the Navya-Nyāya (New Nyāya) tradition, which introduced more
advanced logical and epistemological analysis.

 Navya-Nyāya profoundly influenced Indian and even early modern Western logic.

Principles of Vaiśeṣika

Here’s a comprehensive explanation of the Vaiśeṣika school of Indian philosophy.

Vaiśeṣika Darśana: An Overview

Vaiśeṣika is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy (Āstika Darśanas) and is traditionally
attributed to the sage Kaṇāda. This school is closely associated with Nyāya, and over time, both
merged into what is now known as the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika system.

The term "Vaiśeṣika" comes from the Sanskrit word viśeṣa (विशेष), meaning "particularity" or
"distinction." Vaiśeṣika philosophy focuses on categorization of entities in the world based on their
fundamental differences. Unlike Advaita Vedānta, which asserts that all existence is ultimately one
(Brahman), Vaiśeṣika emphasizes plurality and diversity as the fundamental nature of reality.

Vaiśeṣika is a realist and pluralist philosophy that classifies existence into fundamental categories
and posits an atomic theory of the universe.

Core Principles of Vaiśeṣika

1. Ontology: The Seven Categories (Sapta Padārtha)

Vaiśeṣika attempts to explain all phenomena in the world using seven fundamental ontological
categories (Padārtha):

Category (Padārtha) Meaning Examples

Dravya (Substance) That which exists Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether (Ākāśa),
independently and is the Time (Kāla), Space (Dik), Soul
substratum of qualities and
Category (Padārtha) Meaning Examples

actions. (Ātman), Mind (Manas).

Attributes that inhere in Color, Taste, Smell, Number, Size,

Guṇa (Quality) substances but do not exist Distance, Conjunction, Disjunction,
independently. Cognition, Pleasure, Pain.

Movement or activity that

Karma (Action) Walking, Running, Falling, Jumping.
belongs to substances.

"Cow-ness" (Gotva) is a common

Sāmānya Common characteristics shared
attribute of all cows. "Human-ness"
(Generality/Universality) by a group of entities.
(Mānavatva) is present in all humans.

The unique identity that

Viśeṣa Each atom (Paramāṇu) is unique and
distinguishes an entity from
(Particularity/Individuation) different from every other atom.
others.

The inseparable relation

Samavāya The blackness of charcoal cannot
between qualities and
(Inherence/Relation) exist separately from charcoal itself.
substances.

The negation or absence of an

Abhāva
entity in a given place and "There is no brown cow here."
(Non-existence/Absence)
time.

Vaiśeṣika's categorization allows it to systematically classify everything in the universe and study the
relationships among them.

2. Atomic Theory (Paramāṇu Vāda)

Vaiśeṣika developed an atomic theory of the universe, which was later accepted by Nyāya as well.
According to this theory:

 All physical objects are composed of atoms (Paramāṇu), which are the smallest indivisible
particles.

 These atoms are eternal, unchangeable, and distinct from one another due to their intrinsic
particularity (Viśeṣa).

 Four types of atoms exist, corresponding to the four elements:

o Prithvī Paramāṇu (Earth Atom)

o Jala Paramāṇu (Water Atom)

o Tejas Paramāṇu (Fire Atom)

o Vāyu Paramāṇu (Air Atom)

 Atoms combine to form dyads (dvyaṇuka) and larger compounds (tryaṇuka, etc.) which give
rise to the physical world.
  The difference between Vaiśeṣika atoms and modern atomic theory is that Vaiśeṣika atoms
are inherently unique (one gold atom is different from another gold atom, whereas in
modern chemistry, all gold atoms are identical).

This theory explains the formation and destruction of the material world through atomic
recombination and separation.

3. Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)

Vaiśeṣika, like Nyāya, accepts four sources (Pramāṇas) of valid knowledge:

Pramāṇa Definition Example

Pratyakṣa Direct sensory experience of an

Seeing a tree.
(Perception) object.

Drawing conclusions based on

Anumāna (Inference) Seeing smoke and inferring fire.
reasoning.

Upamāna Knowing what a lion is after hearing it is

Knowing something by analogy.
(Comparison) like a tiger.

Relying on authoritative verbal

Śabda (Testimony) Learning history from a teacher.
statements.

Vaiśeṣika emphasizes that knowledge of the Padārthas (categories of existence) leads to liberation
(Mokṣa).

4. Concept of Liberation (Mokṣa)

According to Vaiśeṣika:

 The ultimate goal of human life is Mokṣa (liberation).

 Liberation is achieved through right knowledge (Jñāna) of the Padārthas.

 It is a state of pure consciousness, free from pleasure and pain.

 The Ātman (Soul) is eternal, separate from the body, mind, and senses.

 Unlike Vedānta, Vaiśeṣika does not believe that liberation means merging with Brahman.
Instead, it is a state of complete independence and detachment from worldly suffering.

5. Concept of God (Ishvara)

Initially, Vaiśeṣika did not propose a creator God (Iśvara), but later commentators, under the
influence of Nyāya, accepted Ishvara as the ultimate cause of the world.

 Ishvara is the efficient cause (Nimitta Kārana) of creation.

 The material cause (Upādāna Kārana) is the combination of atoms.

  Ishvara does not create matter but only arranges and directs it.

Comparison with Other Schools

Aspect Vaiśeṣika Nyāya Advaita Vedānta

Pluralistic realism (diverse Logical realism (focuses on Monism (only Brahman is

Reality
entities exist). reasoning). real).

Achieved by knowledge of Achieved by logical reasoning Achieved by realizing

Liberation
categories. and correct knowledge. everything is Brahman.

Initially absent, later Strong theism, Ishvara is the Ishvara is a lower reality;
God
included as a creator. ultimate creator. only Brahman is real.

Doctrine of Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā Darśana

The Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā Darśana is one of the six orthodox (Āstika) schools of Indian philosophy,
focusing primarily on the interpretation of Vedic rituals and duties as a means to attain liberation
(moksha). It is also referred to as Dharma Mīmāṃsā since it is concerned with dharma (righteous
action) as prescribed in the Karma Kanda of the Vedas. The philosophy was systematized by Rishi
Jaimini in his text Mīmāṃsā Sūtras, which laid down rules for interpreting Vedic texts and
understanding their application in rituals.

Relationship with Vedanta (Uttara-Mīmāṃsā)

Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā is often contrasted with Vedanta (also called Uttara-Mīmāṃsā), which is based on
the Jñāna Kanda (Upanishads) of the Vedas. While both share common ground in acknowledging
karma (action), atman (soul), and rebirth, they differ in their approach to moksha:

1. Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā: Believes that liberation (moksha) is achieved through correct performance

of Vedic rituals, leading to purification of karma.

2. Vedanta: Argues that liberation is attained through knowledge (jnana) and detachment, not
through ritual action.

3. Concept of Ishvara (God):

o Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā does not accept the necessity of an Ishvara (God) in explaining the
Vedic injunctions. It considers the Vedas as eternal and unauthored.

o Vedanta acknowledges Ishvara as an important entity, often equated with Brahman,

the ultimate reality.
Despite these differences, both systems agree on karma and rebirth as fundamental principles
governing human life.

Core Doctrines of Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā

The philosophy of Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā is centered on understanding and correctly performing Vedic

rituals. Its core doctrines include:

1. Eternality and Authority of the Vedas

o The Vedas are considered unauthored (apauruṣeya) and eternal.

o The Mīmāṃsakas argue that since the Vedas have no human origin, they are free
from error.

o The knowledge contained in the Vedas is self-evident and does not need validation
from any external source.

2. Theory of Dharma (Righteous Duty)

o Dharma is known only through the Vedas and cannot be established through mere
logic or personal experience.

o The correct understanding and performance of Vedic yajñas (sacrifices) and rites
lead to acquisition of punya (merit) and eventual liberation.

3. Theory of Karma and Moksha

o Karma (action) determines the future of the atman (soul).

o Accumulating punya (merit) through Vedic rituals leads to swarga (heaven) and
eventually moksha (liberation).

o Misinterpretation of the Vedic texts leads to adharmic karma (sinful actions),

causing paapa (demerit) and rebirth.

o Unlike Vedanta, which emphasizes jnana (knowledge) and renunciation, Mīmāṃsā

believes correct ritual action is the path to liberation.

4. Rules of Interpretation (Mīmāṃsā Hermeneutics)

o The science of interpreting texts (hermeneutics) is central to Mīmāṃsā.

o The Mīmāṃsā Sūtras outline systematic rules of interpretation to resolve

contradictions and ensure correct performance of rituals.

o This system of interpretation was later applied beyond Vedic texts, influencing legal
and linguistic traditions.

Major Texts and Scholars

1. Jaimini's Mīmāṃsā Sūtras (c. 3rd century BCE)

 o The foundational text containing around 2,500 aphorisms on the principles of Vedic
interpretation.

o It systematically explains ritual obligations and their philosophical justification.

2. Śabara Bhāṣya (Commentary on Jaimini Sūtras)

o A detailed and authoritative commentary by Śabara, elaborating on Jaimini’s

aphorisms.

o Establishes the core doctrines of Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā.

3. Two Major Schools of Mīmāṃsā:

o Bhāṭṭa School (founded by Kumārila Bhaṭṭa)

o Prābhākara School (founded by Prabhākara)

o These two schools differ in technical interpretations but agree on the importance of
Vedic rituals.

Modern Relevance of Mīmāṃsā

Although Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā primarily focuses on Vedic ritualism, its principles of interpretation have
broader applications:

1. Legal Studies

o The rules of textual interpretation developed by Mīmāṃsā scholars have been

applied in Hindu legal traditions and even influenced Indian constitutional law.

o Legal arguments often involve contextual interpretation, precedence, and internal

consistency—ideas that are deeply rooted in Mīmāṃsā logic.

2. Linguistics and Semantics

o Mīmāṃsā contributes to the philosophy of language by exploring how words convey

meaning.

o It has influenced Sanskrit grammar, Nyāya (logic), and Indian linguistic theories.

3. Discourse Analysis and Hermeneutics

o The Mīmāṃsā approach to textual interpretation can be extended to the study of

religious, legal, and philosophical texts.

o It provides a structured methodology to resolve ambiguities and contradictions in

scriptures and legal documents.
 Thesis of Vedānta and Synopsis of Advaita

Comprehensive Explanation of Vedānta and Advaita Vedānta

Introduction to Vedānta

Vedānta is one of the six classical philosophical systems (Darśanas) of India. It is primarily focused on
the teachings found in the Upaniṣads, which constitute the concluding sections of the Vedas, hence
the name "Vedānta" (Veda + Anta, meaning "the end of the Vedas"). Vedānta deals with
metaphysical questions regarding the nature of reality, the self (Ātman), and the ultimate reality
(Brahman).

The foundational texts of all Vedānta schools are collectively called the Prasthānatrayī, which
consists of:

1. Upaniṣads – Philosophical scriptures that discuss the nature of Brahman, Ātman, and
liberation (Mokṣa).

2. Brahma Sūtras – Logical aphorisms (written by Bādarāyaṇa Vyāsa) that systematically explain
Vedānta’s principles.

3. Bhagavad Gītā – A spiritual dialogue from the Mahābhārata that synthesizes Vedāntic
philosophy with the duties of life.

Though Vedānta is a single tradition, it has branched into multiple sub-schools due to different
interpretations of the relationship between Jīva (the individual self) and Brahman (the absolute
reality). The three most influential schools are:

1. Advaita Vedānta (Non-Dualism) – Propounded by Ādi Śaṅkarācārya.

2. Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta (Qualified Non-Dualism) – Propounded by Rāmānuja.

3. Dvaita Vedānta (Dualism) – Propounded by Madhvācārya.

Each of these schools attempts to answer the fundamental question:

"What is the relationship between Jīva (individual soul) and Brahman (ultimate reality)?"

Advaita Vedānta: The Philosophy of Non-Dualism

The Advaita Vedānta school, primarily developed by Ādi Śaṅkarācārya (8th century CE), is one of the
most influential schools of Indian philosophy. The word "Advaita" means "not two," signifying
absolute non-duality—the belief that there is no fundamental difference between Jīva and Brahman.

Core Principles of Advaita Vedānta

1. Jīva = Brahman (Non-Dualism)

o Advaita Vedānta asserts that the relationship between Jīva (individual self) and
Brahman (absolute reality) is one of identity.

o The equation Jīva : Brahman :: A : A means that there is no distinction between the
two. The self is not a part or an aspect of Brahman—it is Brahman.
 o The problem is that due to Māyā (illusion) or Avidyā (ignorance), the Jīva mistakenly
perceives itself as separate.

2. The Concept of Māyā (Illusion)

o Māyā is the veil of ignorance that causes individuals to experience duality—the

distinction between the self, others, and the external world.

o The world we perceive is Vyāvahārika Sattā (Transactional Reality)—a relative

reality that exists temporarily.

o The ultimate truth is Pāramārthika Sattā (Absolute Reality)—only Brahman exists

eternally and unchangingly.

3. Reality: The Three Levels of Existence Advaita Vedānta classifies reality into three categories:

o Vyāvahārika Sattā (Transactional Reality) – The empirical world we interact with

daily.

o Prātibhāsika Sattā (Illusory Reality) – Like dreams or mirages, which are unreal but
seem real temporarily.

o Pāramārthika Sattā (Absolute Reality) – The ultimate truth, which is Brahman.

4. The Nirguṇa (Attributeless) Nature of Brahman

o Brahman is Nirguṇa (without attributes), meaning it is formless, nameless, and

beyond all material qualities.

o Any depiction of Brahman with attributes (such as deities in Hinduism) is Saguna

Brahman, a conceptualization for devotional purposes.

5. The Metaphor of the Dream

o A common analogy used in Advaita Vedānta is the dream state.

o Just as a dream feels real while we are dreaming but disappears upon waking, our
perception of separation (duality) is an illusion caused by Māyā.

o Upon enlightenment (self-realization), we awaken to the truth that only Brahman

exists.

Path to Liberation (Mokṣa) in Advaita Vedānta

According to Advaita, Mokṣa (liberation) is not a process of becoming something new but rather the
removal of ignorance that veils our true identity as Brahman.

The Two-Step Process

1. Chitta-Śuddhi (Purification of Mind)

o One should first perform Karma Yoga (selfless actions) and follow Dharma to purify
the mind.

o This prepares the seeker for the knowledge of the self.

 2. Jñāna Yoga (Path of Knowledge)

o The core practice consists of Śravaṇa, Manana, and Nididhyāsana:

 Śravaṇa (Hearing): Listening to the teachings of the Upaniṣads from a Guru.

 Manana (Reflection): Contemplating and removing doubts about these

teachings.

 Nididhyāsana (Meditation): Deep meditation to internalize and

experientially realize the truth that "I am Brahman" (Ahaṁ Brahmāsmi).

Mokṣa: A Realization, Not an Attainment

 Mokṣa is not something to be attained in the future.

 One is already free (Mukta) but simply unaware of it due to ignorance.

 Just as a person wearing glasses on their forehead may search for them unknowingly, the Jīva
is already one with Brahman but does not realize it.

 The process of Advaita Vedānta is about removing ignorance, not acquiring something new.

Conclusion: The Essence of Advaita Vedānta

1. Only Brahman Exists – Everything else is an illusion caused by Māyā.

2. Jīva and Brahman are One – The perceived separation is due to ignorance.

3. Mokṣa is the Removal of Ignorance – The self is already free; enlightenment is simply
recognizing this truth.

4. Knowledge (Jñāna) is the Key – Through Śravaṇa, Manana, and Nididhyāsana, one can
overcome illusion and realize their true nature.

Advaita Vedānta remains one of the most profound and influential philosophies, shaping Hindu
spirituality, mysticism, and modern interpretations of consciousness and reality.

Philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita

Here’s a comprehensive explanation of Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta:

Overview of Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta

Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta is a major school of Vedānta philosophy, formulated by Rāmānuja (1017–1137

CE). The term "Viśiṣṭādvaita" means "qualified non-dualism," where the non-duality (Advaita) of
Brahman is "qualified" by acknowledging real distinctions within Brahman.
This system provides an alternative to Śaṅkarācārya’s Advaita Vedānta, which proposed absolute
non-duality. While Advaita Vedānta claims that Jīva (individual soul) and Brahman are identical
(A=A), Rāmānuja instead argues that the Jīva is a part of Brahman (Jīva : Brahman :: Part : Whole).

Key Features of Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta

1. Relationship between Jīva (Individual Soul) and Brahman

 According to Rāmānuja, Brahman is a unity, but it is not an undifferentiated entity.

 The universe and individual souls (Jīvas) are real, and they are integral parts of Brahman,
just as the body is related to the soul.

 This is a "qualified monism"—there is only one ultimate reality, Brahman, but Brahman
includes real attributes and distinctions.

 The Jīvas and the material world (Jagat) are the "body" (śarīra) of Brahman, who is the
Supreme Soul (Paramātman).

2. The Nature of Brahman

 Brahman is not Nirguṇa (without attributes), as Advaita Vedānta claims, but Saguna (with
attributes).

 In Viśiṣṭādvaita, Brahman is identified with Lord Viṣṇu (Nārāyaṇa), who possesses infinite
auspicious qualities (kalyāṇa-guṇas).

 The universe is real and is an essential, dependent reality within Brahman.

Thus, the Supreme Reality is not an impersonal, formless entity, but a personal God, Viṣṇu, who is
both the creator and sustainer of the universe.

3. Concept of Jīva (Individual Soul)

 The Jīvas are eternal and distinct from Brahman, yet inseparably connected to Him, much
like waves in the ocean.

 Unlike Advaita, which considers Jīvas to be identical with Brahman but covered by ignorance
(Māyā), Viśiṣṭādvaita maintains that Jīvas remain eternally distinct from Brahman, even
after liberation (Mokṣa).

 However, they are dependent on Brahman for their existence, much like a limb depends on
the body.

4. The Reality of the World (Jagat)

 The world is real (satya), not illusory (Mithyā) as in Advaita Vedānta.

 The material world (Jagat) is an actual manifestation of Brahman’s body and serves as His
divine play (Līlā).
  The universe is a real transformation (pariṇāma) of Brahman’s divine energy (Śakti).

The Path to Mokṣa (Liberation) in Viśiṣṭādvaita

Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta prescribes two primary ways to attain Mokṣa (liberation):

1. Bhakti Yoga (Path of Devotion)

 Bhakti (devotional surrender) is the primary means of attaining Mokṣa.

 Just as a baby monkey clings to its mother while she moves from tree to tree, the devotee
must hold onto God through love, devotion, and righteous actions.

 This devotion should be cultivated through ritual worship (Pūjā), prayer, and adherence to
dharma (righteousness).

 Lord Viṣṇu, as the Supreme Brahman, is the object of this devotion.

2. Prapatti (Total Surrender to God)

 This is an easier path than Bhakti Yoga, as it requires complete surrender to Viṣṇu’s grace
(Śaraṇāgati).

 Rāmānuja compares this to how a kitten surrenders itself to the mother cat, letting her
carry it to safety.

 The devotee simply abandons all ego and self-effort, placing full trust in the Lord to grant
liberation.

These two paths offer different approaches to attaining liberation, accommodating people of various
temperaments and spiritual capabilities.

Comparison of Viśiṣṭādvaita and Advaita Vedānta

Feature Advaita Vedānta (Śaṅkara) Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta (Rāmānuja)

Nature of Brahman Nirguṇa (without attributes) Saguna (with qualities; Viṣṇu)

Jīva-Brahman Relationship Identity (A=A) Part-Whole Relationship

Reality of the World Illusory (Mithyā) Real (Satya)

Path to Mokṣa Jñāna Yoga (Knowledge) Bhakti Yoga or Prapatti

Ultimate Goal Realizing one's identity with Brahman Attaining the Feet of Viṣṇu

Ideology of Dvaita
Dvaita Vedānta: The Dualistic Philosophy of Madhvacharya

Dvaita Vedānta, formulated by Madhvacharya (1238–1317 CE), is a strongly theistic and dualistic
school of Vedānta. The term "Dvaita" means "dualism," emphasizing the absolute difference
between Jīva (individual soul) and Brahman (Supreme God, Viṣṇu).

Madhvacharya rejected Śaṅkara’s Advaita (non-duality) and even Rāmānuja’s Viśiṣṭādvaita

(qualified non-duality) by arguing that Brahman (Viṣṇu) and Jīva (soul) are completely distinct
realities—not just parts of a whole, but fundamentally different entities.

Core Tenets of Dvaita Vedānta

Madhvacharya’s philosophy can be summarized in seven key principles:

1. Viṣṇu (Hari) is the Supreme Reality (Brahman)

 Viṣṇu is the only independent entity (Svatantra-Tattva).

 Everything else—souls (Jīvas), the world (Jagat), and all other realities—are dependent on
Him (Paratantra-Tattva).

 Unlike Advaita Vedānta, which considers Nirguṇa Brahman (Brahman without attributes),
Madhvacharya’s Brahman is Saguna (with attributes), full of divine qualities such as
omniscience, omnipotence, and compassion.

2. The World (Jagat) is Real

 Madhvacharya opposes Śaṅkara’s idea that the world is Māyā (illusion).

 The world is real and eternal (Satya) because it is created by Viṣṇu, who is real.

 The differences within the world are also real.

3. The Five Fundamental Differences (Pañca-Bheda)

Madhvacharya placed a major emphasis on difference (Bheda). He classified five types of differences
that are eternally real:

Type of
Explanation
Difference

Jīva-Iśvara The individual soul (Jīva) is different from God (Viṣṇu). The soul will never merge
Bheda with God, even in Mokṣa.

Jīva-Jīva Each soul is different from every other soul. Unlike some Vedāntic schools that say
Bheda all souls are the same, Madhvacharya believes souls have unique identities.

Jīva-Jagat The soul is different from the world. The material world is not a projection of the
Bheda mind; it exists independently of the Jīva.

Jagat-Iśvara The world (Jagat) is different from God (Viṣṇu). The world is real but is controlled
Type of
Explanation
Difference

Bheda and sustained by Viṣṇu.

Jagat-Jagat Every object in the world is different from every other object. No two things are
Bheda identical.

Thus, difference (Bheda) is the foundation of reality.

4. All Jīvas are Servants of Viṣṇu

 Every Jīva (individual soul) is eternally dependent on Viṣṇu.

 The goal of life is to serve Viṣṇu through devotion (Bhakti).

 Unlike Advaita, which says that the Jīva is ultimately identical to Brahman, Dvaita states that
Jīvas will always remain distinct from God, even in Mokṣa.

5. Gradation Among Jīvas (Hierarchy of Souls)

 Not all souls are equal.

 Madhvacharya proposed that there is a hierarchy of souls:

o Some souls (Muktas) are eternally liberated and never enter the cycle of birth and
death.

o Some souls (Nityasamsārins) are eternally trapped in the cycle of rebirth.

o Some souls (Mumukṣus) can attain liberation through devotion to Viṣṇu.

 Some souls are inferior (Tamo-Jīvas), destined for eternal suffering (Hell/Naraka).

This concept is similar to Jainism, which also classifies souls into different categories.

6. Mokṣa (Liberation) is the Realization of One’s Own Blissful Nature

 Liberation (Mokṣa) does not mean merging with God, as in Advaita Vedānta.

 Instead, Mokṣa means experiencing one’s own true bliss (Svarūpānanda), while remaining
eternally distinct from God.

 In Mokṣa, the Jīva enjoys infinite joy, serving Viṣṇu in Vaikuṇṭha (Viṣṇu’s divine abode).

 Liberation is granted by Viṣṇu alone, not attained through self-effort.

7. The Path to Liberation is Through Bhakti (Devotion) to Viṣṇu

 Bhakti (devotion to Viṣṇu) is the ONLY way to Mokṣa.

  However, Bhakti must be supported by Karma (ritual duties) and Jñāna (knowledge of
scriptures).

 The devotee must:

o Follow Vedic rituals and Dharma.

o Study the Prasthānatrayī (Bhagavad-Gītā, Upaniṣads, and Brahma-Sūtras).

o Pray to Viṣṇu, who alone has the power to free the soul from rebirth.

Comparison of Dvaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, and Advaita Vedānta

Viśiṣṭādvaita
Feature Advaita (Śaṅkara) Dvaita (Madhva)
(Rāmānuja)

Nature of Nirguṇa (Without Saguna (Viṣṇu with

Saguna (Viṣṇu with Attributes)
Brahman Attributes) Attributes)

Jīva-Brahman Part-Whole (Jīva is part

Identity (A = A) Completely Different (A ≠ B)
Relationship of Brahman)

Reality of the Real (as part of

Illusory (Māyā) Fully Real
World Brahman)

Bhakti (Devotion) or
Path to Mokṣa Jñāna (Knowledge) Bhakti (Devotion to Viṣṇu)
Prapatti (Surrender)

Nature of Merging with Serving Viṣṇu in Experiencing Bliss while remaining

Liberation Brahman Vaikuṇṭha distinct from Viṣṇu

Souls are dependent on Souls are hierarchical (some are

Equality of Souls All Souls are Equal
Viṣṇu superior, some are eternally bound)

Tenets of Jaina

Dvaita Vedanta (Dualism) – The Philosophy of Madhvacharya

Dvaita Vedanta is one of the major sub-schools of Vedanta, founded by Madhvacharya (1238–1317
CE). It is a theistic and dualistic school of thought that strongly asserts the absolute distinction
between Jiva (individual soul) and Brahman (supreme reality, Vishnu). Unlike Advaita Vedanta (non-
dualism), which considers Brahman as the only ultimate reality, Dvaita Vedanta maintains that the
world and individual souls are real and eternally distinct from Brahman.
Key Tenets of Dvaita Vedanta

1. Vishnu or Hari is Supreme (Brahman = Vishnu)

o The highest reality is Vishnu (Hari), who is both transcendent and immanent.

o Unlike Advaita Vedanta, which considers Brahman as formless, Madhvacharya

describes Vishnu as a Saguna Brahman (with attributes).

2. The World is Real (Not an Illusion or Maya)

o The physical universe and all differences within it are real and not an illusion (Maya)
as claimed by Shankaracharya (Advaita).

o The world operates independently but remains dependent on Ishwara (Vishnu) for
existence.

3. Five Fundamental Differences (Pancha-Bheda) Exist in Reality

Madhvacharya emphasized that difference is fundamental to existence. He categorized
reality into five types of eternal distinctions:

o Jiva-Ishwara Bheda: The soul (Jiva) is different from God (Ishwara).

o Jiva-Jiva Bheda: Every soul is distinct from another soul.

o Jiva-Jagat Bheda: The soul is different from the material world.

o Jagat-Ishwara Bheda: The material world is distinct from Ishwara.

o Jagat-Jagat Bheda: Different objects in the world are distinct from one another.

4. All Jivas (Souls) are Servants of Vishnu (Taratamya - Hierarchy Among Beings)

o Every individual soul is dependent on Vishnu and exists in a state of servitude

towards Him.

o There is a hierarchical structure among Jivas:

 Some Jivas are eternally liberated (e.g., Narada, Garuda).

 Some Jivas are eternally bound (e.g., demons like Ravana, Duryodhana).

 Some Jivas can attain liberation through devotion and grace of Vishnu.

5. Moksha (Liberation) is the Realization of One’s Own Blissful Nature

o Liberation does not mean merging into Brahman (as in Advaita), but realizing one's
eternal blissful nature.

o The liberated soul exists eternally separate from Vishnu but in complete blissful
servitude.

6. Bhakti (Devotion) is the Only Path to Liberation

o Liberation can be attained only through pure devotion (Bhakti) towards Vishnu.

o Karma (rituals) and Jnana (knowledge) play a role, but they must be guided by
Bhakti.
 7. Ishwara’s Grace is Necessary for Liberation

o The individual soul cannot attain Moksha by itself. Only Vishnu’s grace can free a
soul from samsara (cycle of birth and death).

o Prayer, surrender, and unwavering faith in Vishnu are essential.

Comparison of Dvaita with Other Vedantic Schools

Feature Dvaita Vedanta Advaita Vedanta Vishishtadvaita Vedanta

Nature of Reality Pluralistic (Dual) Monistic (Non-dual) Qualified Non-dualism

Jiva = Brahman (Maya

Relationship Between Completely
causes illusion of Jiva is a mode of Brahman
Jiva & Brahman Different
difference)

Real, but dependent on

World Real Mithya (Illusory)
Brahman

Path to Liberation Bhakti (Devotion) Jnana (Knowledge) Bhakti & Prapatti (Surrender)

Servitude to Vishnu Realizing Brahman as one's Union with Brahman while

Liberation
in Vaikuntha true nature retaining individuality

Jaina Darshana – The Philosophy of Jainism

Jainism is a non-Vedic, atheistic school of Indian philosophy that does not accept the authority of the
Vedas. It is one of the oldest Śramaṇa (ascetic) traditions, alongside Buddhism.

Jainism was propagated by Mahavira (24th Tirthankara) but claims a long tradition of 23 previous
Tirthankaras before him.

Key Tenets of Jaina Darshana

1. Pluralistic Reality – Anekantavada (Doctrine of Many-sidedness)

o Reality is not singular but consists of multiple aspects.

o Every entity has infinite attributes that can be perceived in different ways by
different observers.

2. Relativity of Truth – Syadvada (Doctrine of Conditional Truth)

o Truth is relative and multifaceted.

o No single statement can fully describe reality because different perspectives exist.

o Example: Six blind men touching an elephant—each perceives it differently.

3. Classification of Reality (Jiva and Ajiva)

o Reality is divided into two broad categories:

 Jiva (Living beings): Conscious entities that have the potential for liberation.
  Ajiva (Non-living entities): Includes matter, time, space, motion, and rest.

o Jivas are further categorized as:

 Mukta Jiva (Liberated souls)

 Baddha Jiva (Bound souls)

 Baddha Jivas are again classified into mobile and immobile beings.

4. Karma as a Physical Substance

o Unlike other Indian philosophies, karma in Jainism is a fine material substance that
attaches itself to the soul.

o Bad karma binds the soul to the cycle of birth and death (Samsara).

o Liberation (Moksha) is attained by purging all karmic particles.

5. Path to Liberation – Three Jewels (Ratnatraya)

Jainism prescribes a threefold path to Moksha:

o Samyak Darshana (Right Faith) – Belief in the teachings of Tirthankaras.

o Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge) – Understanding reality correctly.

o Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct) – Practicing non-violence and ethical living.

6. Ahimsa (Non-violence) is the Supreme Virtue

o Jainism places extreme importance on non-violence (Ahimsa) towards all living

beings.

o Even insects and microorganisms must not be harmed.

o Jain monks wear masks and sweep the ground before walking to avoid harming
even the smallest creatures.

7. No Creator God – The Universe is Eternal

o Jainism rejects the concept of a creator God.

o The universe operates eternally through its own natural laws.

o Tirthankaras are enlightened beings who serve as spiritual guides.

Comparison of Jainism with Other Indian Philosophies

Feature Jainism Buddhism Vedanta (Dvaita)

Concept of God No Creator God No Creator God Personal God (Vishnu)

Karma Physical Matter Psychological Intent Divine Law

Liberation Removal of Karma Nirvana (Cessation of Suffering) Eternal Service to Vishnu

Ahimsa Extreme Non-violence Non-violence with exceptions Limited Non-violence

Feature Jainism Buddhism Vedanta (Dvaita)

Doctrine of Buddhism

Doctrine of Buddhism: A Comprehensive Explanation

Buddhism is one of the most influential philosophical and spiritual traditions that emerged in India. It
was founded by Gautama Buddha, who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE. The central aim of
Buddhism is to provide a path to end suffering and attain enlightenment.

1. Life of Gautama Buddha

Gautama Buddha, originally named Siddhartha Gautama, was born as a prince in the Shakya clan in
present-day Nepal. He was raised in luxury, shielded from the realities of life. However, upon
witnessing old age, sickness, and death, he was deeply moved and embarked on a spiritual quest to
find a way to end human suffering. After years of meditation and asceticism, he attained
enlightenment (Bodhi) under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya. He then spent the rest of his life teaching
the Dharma (truth or doctrine).

2. Major Schools of Buddhism

Over time, Buddhism evolved into two major schools:

1. Theravāda Buddhism (Southern Buddhism)

o Also called Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) by some Mahayana followers.

o Emphasizes individual enlightenment (Arhatship).

o Found mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.

o Relies on the Pali Canon (Tipitaka).

2. Mahāyāna Buddhism (Northern Buddhism)

o Means Great Vehicle, emphasizing compassion and enlightenment for all beings
(Bodhisattva path).

o Found in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Nepal, and Tibet.

o Introduces texts beyond the Tipitaka, including Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra, and
Prajñāpāramitā Sutras.

Other sub-schools of Mahayana include Vajrayāna (Tibetan Buddhism), Zen Buddhism (Japan and
China), and Pure Land Buddhism.
3. The Sacred Texts: Tripitaka (Three Baskets)

The canonical scriptures of Buddhism are known as Tipitaka (Pali) or Tripitaka (Sanskrit), meaning
"Three Baskets":

1. Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket) – Rules for Buddhist monks and nuns.

2. Sutta Pitaka (Discourse Basket) – Buddha’s teachings, including the Dhammapada.

3. Abhidhamma Pitaka (Higher Knowledge Basket) – Philosophical and psychological analysis of

Buddhist teachings.

4. The Core Teachings of Buddhism

a) The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths (Chattari-ariya-saccani) form the foundation of Buddhism:

1. Dukkha – Life is full of suffering (pain, aging, sickness, and death).

2. Samudaya – There is a cause of suffering (attachment, desire, ignorance).

3. Nirodha – There is an end to suffering (by eliminating desire).

4. Magga – There is a path to end suffering (Eightfold Path).

b) The Eightfold Path (Astangika Marga)

The Fourth Noble Truth provides the solution to suffering through the Eightfold Path:

1. Right View (Samyag-Drishti) – Understanding reality and the Four Noble Truths.

2. Right Intention (Samyag-Sankalpa) – Developing the will to free oneself from suffering.

3. Right Speech (Samyag-Vāk) – Speaking truthfully and compassionately.

4. Right Action (Samyag-Karmānta) – Acting ethically (e.g., no killing, stealing, or harmful

behavior).

5. Right Livelihood (Samyag-Ājīva) – Engaging in work that does not cause harm.

6. Right Effort (Samyag-Vyāyāma) – Making an effort to improve oneself.

7. Right Mindfulness (Samyag-Smṛti) – Developing awareness and self-reflection.

8. Right Concentration (Samyag-Samādhi) – Deep meditation to attain enlightenment.

By following the Eightfold Path, a person can reach Nirvana, the ultimate liberation from suffering.

5. The Concept of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda)

Buddha explained that suffering arises due to causal conditions. This is called Pratītyasamutpāda
(Dependent Origination).

The 12 Links of Dependent Origination explain how suffering continues in a cycle (Bhavachakra or
Wheel of Life):
 1. Avidyā (Ignorance) – Not knowing the truth of suffering.

2. Samskāras (Mental Formations) – Past karma shaping consciousness.

3. Vijñāna (Consciousness) – Mind’s awareness of existence.

4. Nāmarūpa (Name & Form) – Mental and physical existence.

5. Ṣaḍāyatana (Six Senses) – Eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

6. Sparśa (Contact) – Interaction between senses and objects.

7. Vedanā (Feeling) – Sensory experiences leading to pleasure or pain.

8. Tṛṣṇā (Craving) – Desire for pleasurable experiences.

9. Upādāna (Clinging) – Strong attachment to objects and experiences.

10. Bhava (Becoming) – Karmic actions shaping future rebirths.

11. Jāti (Birth) – Entry into a new life.

12. Jarā-maraṇa (Aging & Death) – The inevitable suffering of existence.

This cycle repeats endlessly unless one attains Nirvana by breaking free from desire and ignorance.

6. The Doctrine of No-Self (Anattā)

Buddha rejected the idea of a permanent, unchanging soul (Atman). Instead, he taught Anattā (Non-
Self), which means that what we call the "self" is merely a collection of changing elements:

1. Rūpa – Physical body (matter).

2. Vedanā – Feelings (pleasure, pain, neutral).

3. Saññā – Perceptions (sense recognition).

4. Samskāras – Mental formations (thoughts, habits).

5. Viññāṇa – Consciousness (awareness).

Since everything is impermanent, clinging to a fixed identity leads to suffering.

7. The Goal: Nirvana

 Nirvana means "blowing out" the flames of desire, ignorance, and suffering.

 It is the ultimate freedom from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara).

 It is beyond words and concepts, often described as peaceful and transcendent.

 Buddha remained silent about the nature of Nirvana, encouraging followers to experience it
themselves.

8. Buddhist Ethics and Way of Life

Buddhists follow ethical guidelines to cultivate inner peace and harmony:

The Five Precepts (Pañcasīla) for Laypeople

1. Refrain from killing any living being.

2. Refrain from stealing.

3. Refrain from sexual misconduct.

4. Refrain from lying.

5. Refrain from intoxicants.

The Ten Precepts (for Monks and Nuns)

In addition to the five above, monks follow:

6. Refrain from eating after noon.
7. Refrain from entertainment.
8. Refrain from cosmetics and adornments.
9. Refrain from luxurious beds.
10. Refrain from handling money.

Notions of Cārvāka

The Cārvāka Darśana, also known as Lokāyata, is one of the Nāstika (heterodox) philosophical
systems in Indian thought. It stands apart from the six Āstika (orthodox) systems that accept the
authority of the Vedas. The Cārvāka philosophy is unique because it is fundamentally materialistic
and hedonistic, rejecting metaphysical entities and concepts like God, Atman (soul), afterlife, karma,
and moksha (liberation).

Sources and Reconstruction of Cārvāka Thought

One of the major difficulties in studying the Cārvāka system is that no original texts from this school
have survived. What we know about it comes from fragments found in critiques by other
philosophical traditions. This means that our understanding of Cārvāka comes indirectly from those
who opposed its views.

Core Principles of Cārvāka Darśana

The Cārvāka school is based on the principle of materialism, which asserts that matter is the only
reality. Everything, including consciousness, is seen as a product of material interactions.

1. Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)

Cārvāka holds a strict view on how knowledge is acquired. It recognizes only Perception (Pratyakṣa)
as the valid means of knowledge. Other means of knowledge, such as Inference (Anumāna) and
Testimony (Śabda), are rejected because they can lead to error. According to Cārvāka:

 If something cannot be directly perceived, it should not be accepted as real.

  Concepts like karma, rebirth, and God are not perceived directly and are therefore
considered baseless.

2. Ontology (Theory of Reality)

Cārvāka denies the existence of supernatural entities and believes that only material objects exist.

 The world is composed of four elements: earth, water, fire, and air.

 Ākāśa (ether) is rejected because it is not perceivable.

 Consciousness is not an independent entity like the Ātman (soul), but an emergent property
of matter—similar to how the combination of betel leaf, lime, and areca nut produces a red
color that does not exist in any one of them separately.

3. Ethics and the Purpose of Life

Cārvāka rejects religious morality and the concept of dharma (righteousness). The philosophy is
hedonistic, meaning that it considers pleasure (Kāma) as the ultimate goal of life.

 Among the four traditional goals of life (Puruṣārthas)—Dharma (righteousness), Artha

(wealth), Kāma (pleasure), and Mokṣa (liberation)—Cārvāka accepts only Artha and Kāma.

 Dharma and Mokṣa are rejected as illusions.

 The pursuit of wealth and sensual enjoyment is encouraged, as death is the final end and
there is no afterlife.

4. Critique of Religious Beliefs

Cārvāka rejects all forms of supernatural belief, including:

 Ishvara (God) – There is no divine creator.

 Ātman (Soul) – Consciousness is a result of material combinations.

 Rebirth and Karma – Since they cannot be perceived, they are considered false.

 Vedic Rituals and Scriptures – They are dismissed as means of exploitation by priests.

Comparison with Other Indian Philosophical Schools

Aspect Cārvāka Other Schools (e.g., Vedānta, Sāṅkhya, etc.)

Ultimate Reality Matter Spiritual reality (e.g., Brahman, Ātman)

Source of Knowledge Perception (Pratyakṣa) only Multiple sources (Perception, Inference, etc.)

View on Soul No soul (Ātman) Soul exists

View on God No God (Iśvara) God exists

Ethics Pleasure is the goal Dharma (moral duty) is important

Afterlife No afterlife, no rebirth Rebirth and karma exist

Liberation (Mokṣa) Does not exist The ultimate goal