NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF
CROP AND SOIL SCIENCES

FPY/SIWES PRACTICAL GUIDE MANUAL

SLM 405:
AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

COURSE DEVELOPER
WRITER: DR. GODWIN A. ALHASSAN
National Open University of Nigeria
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone, University Village
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway
Jabi, Abuja

Lagos Liaison Office

14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

e-mail: [email protected]
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April 2018

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CONTENT PAGE

Agricultural Meteorology - Elements and their Observations 4

Crop Phenology and Climate Effects on the Objects

of Agriculture 9

Simple Lay Out of Agro-Meteological Station 15

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 AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY - ELEMENTS AND
THEIR OBSERVATIONS

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Observations of the physical and biological elements in the
environment are essential in agricultural meteorology. Meteorological
considerations are indispensable in assessing the performance of plants
or animals because their growth is a result of the combined effect of
genetic characteristics and their response to environment (nature).
Without quantitative data, agro meteorological planning, forecasting,
research and services by agro meteorologists cannot properly assist
agricultural producers to survive and to meet the ever-increasing
demands for food and agricultural by-products. Such data are also
needed to assess the impacts of agricultural activities and processes on
the environment and climate.

The physical elements of climate are observed in order to assist in the

evaluation of actual and future land use potentials and of such
constraints in agriculture as are caused by the environment. To meet
these requirements, agricultural meteorology needs reliable,
quantitative data on the relevant climatic elements.

Indispensable climatic elements in agricultural meteorology include

those pertaining to geographical climatology and especially those
permitting interpretation of physical processes in the lower layers of
the atmosphere and the upper soil layers. These include Temperature,
Sunshine and Radiation, Wind, Clods, Humidity, Rainfall, Soil
temperature and soil moisture. Others include Dews, Fogs, Open
water evaporation and Plant transpiration.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
1) To identify the physical elements of climate.
2) To identify the importance of these weather elements in relation
to agriculture.
3) To recognize the calibrations of these elements.

3.0 PROCEDURE
a) Temperature, sunshine and radiation
Temperature is the condition of a body which determines its ability to
communicate heat to other bodies or to receive heat from them. For
meteorological purposes, temperature is referred to the Celsius scale
(degree centigrade). 0 degrees centigrade is the normal ice point; 100
degrees centigrade is the normal boiling point of water. The
relationship to the absolute thermodynamic Kelvin scale is given by: T
degrees Celsius + 273.15= degrees Kelvin.

In agriculture, the spectral distribution of solar radiation especially in

photosynthesis assessments is of great interest. Radiation fluxes to and
from the earth's surface are most important meteorological elements
for heat and energy balance assessments. Energy conversion from solar
radiation mainly takes place on the surface of the soil and of plants.
This phenomenon is of special interest in agricultural meteorology.
The duration of sunshine (units: hr per day) allows for estimates of the
energy available for physical and biological processes.

b) Rainfall, dews
The amount of precipitation, rain, snow, ice and dew which reaches the
ground in a stated period is expressed as the depth to which it would
cover a horizontal surface if there were no loss by evaporation, run-off
or infiltration, or if any part of the precipitation falling as snow or ice

4
were melted (liquid equivalent). As precipitation measurements should
as much as possible, be representative for a larger area, the choice of
site, the form and exposure of the gauge, the prevention against loss by
evaporation as well as the effects of wind and splashing are important
points which have to be observed.

The amount of precipitation is measured in millimeters, the readings

being made to the nearest 0.2 mm; 10 mm should read to 2% of the
total. Depth of snow is given in centimeters.
Ordinary rain gauges usually have the form of a collector above a funnel
leading into a receiver.

Measurement of dew
Dew, being essentially a nocturnal phenomenon, and relatively small in
amount, is nevertheless of much interest in arid zones. The amount of
dew deposited on a given surface in a stated period is usually expressed
in the same units as rainfall: mm depth of dew.
A direct method of measuring dew is to expose a weighted plate of
hygrosopic material (gypsum, blotting paper) at sunset and re-weight it
after sunrise. This method requires accurate weighing and protection at
sunrise to prevent evaporation. Qualitative assessment of dew is
obtained by exposing filter paper "sensors" with dew spots. When
wetted by dew, the spots will spread to an extent which depends on
both the duration and intensity of dewfall. Dew duration recorders
operate to a far extent in the same way as the above mentioned
wetness recorders.

c) Wind
In agricultural meteorology, the effects of the kinetic energy transfer of
wind to the plant/soil system as well the effects of its mass transfer on
the energy and water balance are of interest.

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By its physical nature two magnitudes are required when describing
wind: its velocity and the direction from which it blows.
- Windspeed is usually indicated in: m/sec, km/h, or knots (=
1 nautical mile/h), but occasionally the non-linear Beaufort scale is used,
which refers "forces" from 0 to 12 to the effects of wind on smoke,
trees or water surfaces.
- The direction from which the wind blows is either given in
accordance with the geographical directions (e.g. N,E,S,W) or in
degrees: 1 to 360 (90 degrees = East, 180 degrees - South, 27 degrees
= West, 360 degrees = North; 0 frequently stands for Calms).
The Wind Vane (Direction) is a common instrument used in most
weather stations

An assembly of a vane plate (which can have many shapes) and a needle
is mounted on a vertical axis, which allows it to revolve freely. As a
result of the mechanical action of the wind on the vane, the needle will
be turned in the direction from which the wind blows. As the direction
indicated by the vane, oscillates around the equilibrium point of the
airflow (which can change direction rapidly over time), big efforts have
been undertaken to minimize this drawback by different designs. The
axis of the wind vane can be connected to a mechanical or electrical
(contacts, potentiometer) device, which provide recording facilities
and/or remote reading of the wind direction.

ADVANTAGES
a) To assist the management of agricultural activities - determining
the time, extent and manner of cultivation and other agricultural
operations (sowing, harvesting, planting, application of biocides
and herbicides, ploughing, harrowing, rolling, irrigation,
suppression of evaporation, design, construction and repair of

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 buildings for storage, animal husbandry etc.) and different
methods of conservation, industrial use and transportation of
agricultural products.
b) To assess the performance of plants and animals in relation to
climatic elements.
c) To assess the impact of agricultural activities and processes on
the environment and climate.

DISADVANTAGES
a) Specialized and precision equipment are required for accuracy.
b) Trained specialists are conditions for the management of a good
weather station which is costly
c) Interpretation of results may not necessarily follow the course
of nature and so may be misleading

RECOMMENDATIONS
1) It is recommended that research institutes and study centres
(schools and colleges) should have functional weather stations to
serve their immediate community.
2) National annual weather forecasts should be taken seriously,
while efforts should be made to have clientele weather forecasts
and services.
3) Weather stations and their component parts should be
periodically maintained to ensure accuracy and precision.

4.0 CONCLUSION
Weather elements and their observations are essential to agriculture
and the environment. Our behaviour as humans is driven by the
changing weather elements especially our farming operations. The
physical elements of climate are observed in order to assist in the
evaluation of actual and future land use potentials and of such

7
constraints in agriculture as are caused by the environment. It is in light
of the above that each community and educational establishments
should have a functional weather station.

WORK ASSIGNMENT
1) If your thermometer reads 25oC, what is its equivalent in Kelvin?
2) What is the unit of measurement of sunshine?
3) What is the unit of measurement of rainfall?
4) List other sources of precipitation apart from rainfall.
5) Wind speed of zero signifies what.

REFERENCES
1) Murthy, V. ,Milford, J., Stigter, C.J. , Orlandini, S., Oliphant, A.,
Grant, R., Wieringa, J., Yadong, H., Kazandjiev, V., Lalic, B.,
Nathan, S. and Sabatini, F. (2018) Agricultural Meteorological
Elements and their Observations. Guide for Agricultural of
Meteorological Practices, WMO Edition, No.134
2) Darnhofer, T. (1985). Meteorological elements and their
observations. Working Paper No. 14. 1st edition. International
Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya.

8
 CROP PHENOLOGY AND CLIMATE EFFECTS ON THE
OBJECTS OF AGRICULTURE

INTRODUCTION
The key atmospheric variables that impact crops are solar radiation, air
temperature, humidity, and precipitation. The day-to-day variability of
these across the landscape can be described as weather. Weather
extremes at critical periods of a crop’s development can have dramatic
influences on productivity and yields. The long-term average
temperature and humidity and the total solar radiation and
precipitation over a crop’s growing season can be described as the
climate. It is the climate that, in the absence of any weather extremes,
determines the realized yields for a given region.

Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and
how these are influenced by seasonal and annual variations in climate,
as well as habitat factors (such as elevation).
Understanding crop phenology is fundamental to crop management,
where timing of management practices is increasingly based on stages
of crop development. This will facilitateplanning of operations, such as
irrigation, the application of fertilizers and pesticides.

The response of crops to the different weather variables is quite

complex and difficult to describe. Predicting the exact response of
crops to the weather is, as a result, an inexact science, and one that
contains great uncertainty. If one of the variables is limiting (for
example, temperatures that are too hot or too cold), then the effects
of solar radiation or precipitation do not greatly affect the crop. When
none of the variables is limiting, the crop will respond to the variable
that is farthest from the optimum for that variable.

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OBJECTIVES
1) To identify the effects of temperature changes on crop growth
and development
2) To identify moisture regimes for major crops
3) To identify the effects of winds on crops and the need for cover
crops development

PROCEDURE
1) Temperature
Other than planting, temperature is the main variable that determines
when a crop will grow. It also determines, along with precipitation and
solar radiation, how well a crop will grow and how fast it will develop.
There are four temperature thresholds, called the cardinal
temperatures, that define the growth of a crop: the absolute minimum,
the optimum minimum, the optimum maximum, and the absolute
maximum. The absolute minimum and maximum temperatures define
the coldest and hottest temperatures at which a crop will grow.
Temperatures between the optimum minimum and maximum define
the range of temperature where the crop performs the best. For
example, maize (Zea maysL.), for example, has an absolute minimum
temperature of 50 °F (10 °C), an optimum minimum of 64 °F (18 °C),
an optimum maximum of 91 °F (33 °C), and an absolute maximum of
117 °F (47 °C).

Heat stress affects plants because as temperature increases, respiratory

reaction rates speed up, using more of the photosynthetic compounds
manufactured in a day. Also, with elevated maximum temperature,
especially temperatures that exceed 100 °F (38 °C), plants require
more water to maintain optimum water content in their tissues.

10
If the soil cannot meet the additional water requirement, heat stress is
compounded by an added water stress.
2) Precipitation
The type, timing, and amount of precipitation (rain, dew) received
during the year play critical roles in crop productivity. Rain is generally
more efficient in recharging the soil pro-file and thus is more available
for crops. The efficiency of rain in recharging the soil depends on the
rate or intensity with which the rain falls. Rain showers or storms that
fall at rates greater than 0.5 inches an hour (12.7 cm/hr) are less
efficient than lighter showers because the water forms ponds on the
surface and runs off the fields into ditches and rivers, carrying along
precious topsoil.

The timing of rainfall while crops are growing is critical. During seed
germination and stand establishment, either too much or too little rain
can influence yields. Too much rain, especially with cool temperatures,
can result in seed diseases, causing poor stands, or can saturate the
soil, causing poor soil aeration and poor germination and stands. Dry
soils during germination and stand establishment can result in either
poor seed germination or weak and small plants that may not withstand
dry weather during the early growth of the crop, causing smaller plant
leaf area. For corn, the critical time during the early growth lasts for
approximately 30 days, from planting to tassel initiation, when the corn
leaves are being initiated and beginning to grow.

Because the soybean crop continues to flower and fill pods from the
start of flowering to almost the beginning of maturity, soybean requires
adequate rainfall throughout the period of flowering to maturity. Failure
to receive adequate rainfall during flowering and pod fill will result in
fewer flowers and pods on the plants.

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Wet soils during rainy season play an important role in determining
how many days are suitable for field work. When soil moisture is
normal or wetter than normal, even small rains will result in field work
delays on all but the sandiest soils. Over saturated soils delays planting
and seed emergence in addition to poor aeration. This underscores the
importance of weather elements in crop production, thus crop
phenology.

3) Solar Radiation
Plants use the solar energy from the sun to fix carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, in combination with water from the soil, into
carbohydrates that cause plants to grow, reproduce, and provide the
grain and vegetation used as food by humans and animals. The solar
energy available to plants is a function of sunshine intensity and
duration.

When the crop has a full canopy, leaf area index greater than 2.7 the
rate of carbon fixation by maize results in an accumulation of
approximately 0.14 bushels of grain per acre per megajoule-bu/A/MJ
(8.8 kg/ha/MJ). An average heavily overcast day between May and
August receives about 8.2 MJ of solar energy. Thus, if all the carbon
fixed by photosynthesis were to go into the grain, the yield gain on a
heavily overcast day would be 1.2 bu/A/day (75.5 kg/ha/day).

ADVANTAGES
1) Understanding crop phenology in relation to weather is
fundamental to crop management, where timing of management
practices is increasingly based on stages of crop development
and occurrences of the elements of weather.
2) It facilitates planning of operations, such as irrigation, the
application of fertilizers and pesticides.

12
 3) Harvesting of crops, especially grains are synchronized to
periods of highly reduced precipitation and humidity in order to
hasten drying and storage.

DISADVANTAGES
1) Weather forecasts are seldom accurate as the vulgaries of
nature are unpredictable
2) Most weather forecasts are for regions and hardly could be
applied to small geographical areas. A regional forecast cannot
suffice for all farming areas.
3) Expertise is required to read and interpret data at weather
stations

RECOMMENDATIONS
1) It is recommended that there should be proper study of the
climate and weather components of your region/location before
sitting your agricultural enterprise
2) Crop phenology studies of a region/location should be
conducted before the commencement of commercial farming
activities. These studies are necessary for appropriate crop type
selection and management.

CONCLUSION
The response of crops to the different weather variables is quite
complex and difficult to describe. Predicting the exact response of
crops to the weather is, as a result, an inexact science, and one that
contains great uncertainty. This notwithstanding, understanding crop
phenology is fundamental to crop management.

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PRACTICAL EXERCISES
a) What are the effects of water logging on farming operations and
activities?
b) What are the likely consequences of prolonged cloud cover
during the day time of our cropping season.

REFERENCES
1) Gregory S. McMaster (2004).Simulating crop phenology. 4th

International Crop Science Congress, Brisbane, Australia.

2) Steven E. Hollinger and James R. Angel (2012). Institute of

Natural Resources Sustainability,

Illinois State Water Survey, Illinois, USA.

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 SIMPLE LAY OUT OF AGRO-METEOLOGICAL
STATION

1.0INTRODUCTION
An agro-meteorological station ( weather station) is a facility, either on
land or sea, with instruments and equipment for measuring
atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts
and to study the weather and climate. Weather stations range from
simple analogue technology to digital technology

The measurements frequently taken include temperature, atmospheric

pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation
amounts. Weather stations sensors are used to take readings of the
various weather elements, so the data collected can be analyzed using
weather station software.

2.0OBJECTIVES
a) To identify areas suitable for sitting weather stations
b) To identify sensors for weather elements
c) To take readings of the sensors and interpret same.

3.0PROCEDURE
Installation Guide
In order to report accurate weather information you must take care in
deciding where to place your weather station. The process of deciding
how and where to install your weather station is called "Siting". Siting is
the single most important factor in ensuring accurate readings. In fact,
sitting influences the accuracy of weather readings much more than the
quality of the weather instruments themselves.

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Temperature
The most common error in installing a weather station is associated
with misplacing the thermometer sensor. Meteorologists define
temperature as the temperature in shade with plenty of ventilation.

When placing your weather station, make sure:

 The thermometer sensor never receives direct sunlight.
 The thermometer receives plenty of ventilation and is not
blocked from the wind.
 If the thermometer is placed on a roof-top, make sure it is at
least 5 feet above the roof-top.
 If the thermometer is placed above grass, again, it should be at
least 5 feet above the grass surface.
 The thermometer is at least 50 feet from the nearest paved
surface.

Suggestion - use a radiation shield for your thermometer. This way,

your weather station can be placed in direct sunlight, with the
thermometer located inside the radiation shield.

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Humidity
Humidity measurements should reflect the humidity of the general
atmosphere in your location. Plants and bodies of water influence
humidity measurements. Hence, make sure the humidity sensor is at
least 50 feet away from the nearest tree or body of water.

Rain Collector
You want the Rain Collector (or, Rain Gauge) to receive rainfall as if it
were in the middle of a large field. Nearby buildings create "shadows".
Imagine if there's a building nearby to the west, and it is raining with a
west wind. In such an event, your station's rain collector is bound to
miss a lot of falling rain because of the "shadow" cast by the building. As
a rule of thumb:
 The rain collector should be placed with at least 5 feet
horizontal clearance from the nearest obstruction.
 If a nearby obstruction is just over 5 feet away, that obstruction
should be no more than 10 feet tall.

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Wind Speed and Direction
Similar to a rain collector, the anemometer should reflect the wind
patterns as if the instrument was placed in a large field.
 The standard wind measurement should be taken at 10 meters
(33 feet) above the ground. A roof-top works the best. Try to
place the anemometer as high as is convenient.
 Try to make the anemometer the highest object around 7 feet
or more above the surrounding obstructions is best.

Types of weather element sensors and their setting

1) Thermometer - A thermometer measures temperature.
Some weather stations measure both the temperature indoors
and outdoors, record highs and lows, show trends to indicate

18
 temperature rising or falling, and even predict short-term future
temperature ranges.

Ordinary spirit-in-glass thermometer. This simple louvred

thermometer screen is available as a kit

2) Hygrometer - A hygrometer measures relative humidity.

Relative humidity is the quantity or percentage of water vapor
(water in gas form) in the air. Humidity influences environmental
factors and calculations like precipitation, fog, dew point and
heat index.

Humidity is measured most accurately with a wet- and dry- bulb

thermometer

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 3) Barometer - A barometer measures atmospheric pressure.
A barometer can help to forecast upcoming weather based on
the changes it measures in the atmospheric pressure. Some
weather stations feature a barometric pressure history chart or
pressure trend arrow so you can easily track changes, like a
pressure drop.

A simple, clearly-marked, barometer

4) Anemometer - An anemometer measures how fast the wind is

blowing, or wind speed. Some weather stations can display
wind speed in MPH, KPH or knots, and record current, peak and
average wind speed readings.

A simple home-made weather-vane The ventimeter

can measure wind speed and indicate wind direction

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5) Wind Vane - A wind vane, or weather vane, is an instrument
that determines which direction the wind is blowing.

6) Rain Gauge - A rain gauge measures rainfall or liquid

precipitation. Some weather stations include rainfall alerts to
notify you when a rain event has begun, or to alert you of
potential flood conditions. The opening of the collector should
have a receiving area of 200 to 500 cm2. (The most common
standards are: 200 cm2, 324 cm2 (diam: 8 inch) and 400 cm2.
However, in many countries 126 cm2 (diam: 5 inch), are still
used. The rim of the collector should have a sharp edge and
should fall away vertically inside and be steeply leveled outside. It
should be designed to prevent rain from splashing in and out.
The receiving water container should have a narrow neck and be
protected from radiation to prevent loss of water by
evaporation.

The rain measures, measuring glass or dip rod, have to be

graduated to correspond to the relative areas of cross section of
the gauge orifice. A measuring cylinder should be made of a clear
material (glass or moulded plastic), have a low coefficient of
expansion, and its diameter should not exceed 3 times of the
gauge diameter. Graduation should be in units of rainfall and at
least every 0.2 mm should be marked. Dip rods are mainly used
to measure rainfall in monthly or seasonal gauges. However,
these measurements should be checked using cylinders as well.

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A cheap plastic rain-gauge with funnel and measuring cylinder

CONCLUSION
The measurements and observations outlined in this chapter can form
the basis of many interesting constructional and experimental
instruments in the study of weather for agriculture. These simple
sensors form the background to the understanding and use of the
advanced versions.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES
1) Talk a walk to a weather station nearest to you and identify the
available weather sensors
2) Where is the direction of the wind now. State date and time
3) List the damages that might be caused by excessive wind speed
4) What preventive measures are necessary to avert the damages
listed in (3) above.

REFERENCES
1) Geoff Jenkins (1999). Simple weather measurements. Royal
Meteorological Society, Berkshire, England.
2) Acurite weather station.com

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