MODULE – II

OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE

Theory of free vibrations:

Periodic Motion
When the motion of an object continually repeats itself it is called periodic
motion. The object can be repeatedly moving back and forth or it could be moving
in a circular orbit or rotation.
Since the law of inertia states that an object moves in a straight line unless
acted upon by a force, periodic motion requires some sort of force to create this
special type of motion.
Characteristics of periodic motion are

 the velocity of the object,

 the period of motion and

 the amplitude of the motion.

Periodic motion is seen in various waveforms and is used in clocks and other
devices.

Simple harmonic motion

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is the motion of a simple harmonic

oscillator. A body in simple harmonic motion experiences a single force which is
given by Hooke’s law, which states that the force is directly proportional to the
displacement x and points in the opposite direction.
The simple harmonic motion is periodic; the body oscillates about an
equilibrium position in a sinusoidal pattern. Each oscillation is identical, and thus
the period, frequency and amplitude of the motion are constant.
Examples: the simple harmonic motion is exhibited by a variety of physical
systems. Following are two examples.

1. Mass on a spring 2. Uniform circular motion

1
 Mass on a spring: A mass m attached to a spring P

with spring constant k exhibits simple harmonic

motion in space. R

Uniform circular motion: Simple harmonic motion in some cases can be

considered as the one dimensional projection of uniform circular motion. If an
object moves with an angular velocity Ω around a circle of radius r centered at the
origin of x-y plane, then its motion along each coordinate is simple harmonic
motion with amplitude r and angular frequency ω.

As mentioned above for a particle executing simple harmonic motion, the

force is directly proportional to the displacement x and acts in an opposite
direction. i.e.

F x

2
dp dv d x
From Newton' second law F  m m 2
dt dt dt

Combining the above two equations we can write

2 2 2
d x d x d x k
m 2
x m 2
 K x ,  2
 x
dt dt dt m

where K is force per unit displacement (spring constant).

K
Let  
2
then we can write,
m

2
d x
2
 2
x 0
dt

A solution of this equation is of the form, x  A co s t  B si n t which can be

verified immediately.

2
 x  A co s t  B si n t
dx
   A si n t  B  co s t
dt
2
d x
 2
  A 2
co s t  B  2
si n t
dt

 2
 A co s t  B si n t    2
x

2
d x
2
 2
x 0
dt

which verifies the solution.

k
 is called angular frequency.
m

B
Let us set A  a co s  and B  a si n  then tan   and
A

A
2
B a 2 2
cos
2
a 2
sin
2


thus a
2
 A
2
 B then
2

x  a co s  co s t  a si n  si n t
 a co s( t   )

dx
A, B, a and θ are arbitrary. x and recur when ωt increases by 2π. Consequently,
dt

the maximum displacement is a-which is the amplitude of oscillation.


2 m
The time period T is given by T   2 which is independent of a
 K

(isochronous motion).

dx
The velocity v   a  si n ( t   )
dt

3
 2
d x
and the acceleration a  2
 a  2
co s  t      2
x.
dt

Energy considerations in simple harmonic motion

In simple harmonic motion without dissipative forces, the total mechanical

energy is conserved (E=T+U is constant). We will study this in case of a simple
harmonic motion in which the displacement is

x x m
cos( t  ) .

The potential energy at any instant is given by

1 1
U  Kx
2
 Kx
2
m
cos ( t
2
 ) .
2 2

The potential energy therefore oscillates with time and has a maximum value of
1
Kx
2
m
. During motion, the potential energy oscillates between 0 and this value and
2

is graphically shown in the figure below.

1
The kinetic energy at any instant is mv
2
. Since
2

dx
v    x m
sin( t  ) , we get
dt

1 1 1
T  mv
2
 m x
2 2
m
sin
2
( t  )  Kx
2
m
sin
2
( t  )
2 2 2

4
 The kinetic energy also oscillates with time and has a maximum value of
1
Kx
2
m
. During the motion, the kinetic energy oscillates between 0 and this value.
2

The total mechanical energy is constant.

1
E T U  Kx
2
m
.
2

1
At maximum displacement, U  Kx
2
m
, T=0 and at equilibrium position, U=0,
2

1 1
T  Kx
2
m
. At any other position, the sum is always equal to Kx
2
m
. It can be
2 2

shown that the average kinetic energy for motion during one period is exactly
equal to average potential energy and each of these average quantities is half the
1
total energy i.e. Kx
2
.
4

We can generalize the total energy

1 1 1
T U  mv
2
 Kx
2
 Kx
2
m
2 2 2
K
v  2
(x
2
m
x 2
)
m

dx K
v   (x
2
m
x 2
)
dt m

v   2
(x
2
m
x 2
)

v   (x
2
m
x 2
)

v is maximum when x=0, v is minimum when x=xm.

Electrical oscillations: Energy considerations

Let us consider an electric circuit shown in figure 1a with a charged

5
capacitor, a switch and an ideal inductor (no resistance). At the instant when the
circuit is closed, the capacitor starts to discharge through the inductor. At a little
later time, the capacitor has completely discharged and the potential difference
between its terminals (and those of the inductor also) has decreased to zero
(figure 1b). The current in the inductor has meanwhile established a magnetic field
in the space around it. This magnetic field now decreases, inducing an emf in the
inductor in the same direction as the current. The current therefore persists,
although with diminishing magnitude, until the magnetic field has disappeared and
the capacitor has been charged in the opposite sense to its initial polarity as in
figure 1c. The process now repeats itself in the reversed direction and in the
absence of energy losses the charges on the capacitor will surge back and forth
indefinitely. This process is called electrical oscillation.

q di  dq 
We can write, V ab
 L which gives us i  
C dt  dt 

2
di q d q 1
L  0 2
 q 0
dt C dt LC

This is the differential equation of simple harmonic motion. The solution is

q Q cos 2 ft

1 1
where f  and Q is the initial charge on the capacitor. The charge thus
2 LC

oscillates just analogous to the oscillation of a mass suspended from the spring.
The frequency f is called the natural frequency of the circuit.

6
 From the energy point of view, the oscillations of an electrical circuit
consist of a transfer of energy back and forth from the electric field of the
capacitor to the magnetic field of the inductor. In the process, the total energy
associated with the circuit remains constant. Again, this is analogous to the
transfer of energy in a mechanical system from kinetic to potential and vice versa.

1 1
The energy of the capacitor at any instant is Cv
2
, that of inductor is Li
2
. Thus
2 2

1 1 1 1
Cv
2
 Li
2
 CV
2
m
 LI
2
m
 constnat
2 2 2 2

where v and i are the instantaneous, Vm and Im are the maximum potential
difference and the current respectively.

Theory of Damped Vibrations:

In our discussion of oscillator, we have assumed that no frictional force act
on the motion of the oscillator. If this assumption holds strictly, a pendulum or a
mass on spring will oscillate indefinitely. In all oscillating system, the amplitude of
the oscillator gradually decreases to zero as a result of friction. The motion is now
said to be damped by friction and is sometimes called damped harmonic motion.
The friction arises mostly from air resistance or internal forces.

Equation of motion; Expression for amplitude

The damped oscillating system of mass ‘m’ is subjected to

(a) a restoring force which is proportional to displacement ‘x’, directed opposite.

This is written as – kx, where ‘k’ is force constant.

(b) a frictional force proportional to velocity, but directed opposite. This is written
as – r. dx/dt, where ‘r’ is frictional force per unit velocity.

We can now write the equation of motion for a damped oscillator,

7
 dx
F  ma   kx  r
dt

2
d x dx
Or m
2
 kx  r 0
dt dt

2
d x r dx k
2
  x 0 ---(1)
dt m dt m

This equation can be written as

2
d x dx 2
2
 2b  2
x 0 where r/m = 2b and k/m = ω
dt dt

Equation (1) is second order differential equation, we can now assume a solution
as

αt
x=Ae --- (2)

Where ‘A’ and ‘α’ are constants to be determined.

From equation (2) we get,

2
dx d x
A e t
and
2
A  2
e
t

dt dt

Then equation (1) becomes

t
A  2
e  2 bA  e    t 2
A e  0 t

αt
Dividing by A e , we obtain

2 2
α + 2b α + ω = 0

This is a quadratic equation and the roots are

2
ax +bx+c=0

α=-b b
2
 2
roots are

8
 b  b
2
 4 ac
x 
2a

Using this in equation (1), we get

  b  b
2
 2  t
x A e
 

  b  b
2
 2  t   b  b
2
 2  t
In general, x A 1
e
 
A 2
e
 
--- (3)

Equation (3) is the general solution for the motion of a damped harmonic
oscillator. (expression for decaying amplitude).

Three cases of damping:

The expression for amplitude of a harmonic oscillator is given by

  b  b
2
 2  t   b  b
2
 2  t
x A 1
e
 
A 2
e
 
----- (1)

2
Where A1 and A2 are arbitrary constants and 2b = r/m and ω = k/m

Where m => mass of the oscillating body

r => frictional force per unit velocity, k => force constant

Depending upon the value of ‘b’ and ‘ω’ three distinct cases of damping are
possible.

2 2
Case (1): When b > ω , b
2
  is real and grater than ‘b’. Both exponential
2

terms in equation (1) are negative. Therefore the displacement ‘x’ has two terms
both decreasing exponentially to zero without performing oscillation. The rate of

decrease of displacement is governed by the term (–b + b

2
  )t, as the other
2

term reduces much rapidly. This type of motion is called overdamped or deadbeat.
This type of motion is shown by a pendulum moving in a thick oil or by dead beat
moving coil galvanometer.

9
 t

2 2
Case (2): When b = ω , if we substitute in equation (1),

 bt  bt
x A 1
e A 2
e does not satisfy equation of motion for the damped

harmonic oscillator.  let us assume b

2
  = h (a small quantity
2
0)

Then equation (1) becomes,

 b h t   b h  t
x A 1
e A 2
e

x e bt
A 1 e
ht
A 2
e
 ht


x e bt
 A 1 1  ht  .....   A 2
 1  ht  ..... 

x e bt
 A 1
A 2
  ht  A 1
A 2
  ..... 

x e bt
p  qt 

Where p = (A1 + A2) and q = (A1 - A2)h

-bt
As ‘t’ increases (p+qt) increases, but e decreases. Therefore, ‘x’ initially increases
and then decreases and approaches zero as ‘t’ increases. In this case, exponential
term is (-bt), while in case 1, it was more than (-bt). Therefore here the particle
tends to acquire equilibrium much faster than the previous case. This case is
called critically damped motion. This is exhibited by many pointer instruments like
voltmeter, ammeter etc., in which the pointer moves to correct position and comes
to rest immediately without any oscillation.

2 2
Case (3): When b < ω , then b
2
  becomes imaginary. Let us write
2
b
2
 =
2

i   b = i β, where β =   b . Then equation (1) becomes,

2 2 2 2

10
   b i   t   b i   t
x A 1
e A 2
e

x e bt
A 1 e
i t
A 2
e
 i t


x e bt
A 1  cos  t  i sin t   A 2
 cos  t  i sin t 

x e bt
 A 1
A 2
 cos  t  i A  A 1 2
 sin t 

x e bt
p cos  cos t  p sin  sin t 

Where p cos =  A 1  A 2  and p sin = i  A 1  A 2 

x  p e bt
 cos  t   

-bt
This equation represents the simple harmonic motion with amplitude pe and
2 2
time period T = 
  b 2 2

-bt
+xm Pe xm

-bt
XmPe cosβt

- xm Damped harmonic motion considering  =0

-bt
The amplitude of the motion continuously decreases due to the factor e

called damping factor. Because the value  cos   b

2 2
t   varies between +1
-bt -bt
and -1, the amplitude varies between e and - e . The decay of the amplitude
depends on damping coefficient ‘b’. The figure below represents this motion. The
examples of this type of motion are the motion of a pendulum in air, the motion of

11
the coil of a ballistic galvanometer and the electrical oscillations of an LCR circuit.

Logarithmic decrement:

Logarithmic decrement measures the rate at which the amplitude of

damped oscillation dies away. The amplitude of harmonic oscillator is given by,

x  p e  , where b is damping coefficient.

bt

Let x = x0 at t = 0 and at t = T, 2T, 3T, ….., x be represented as x1, x2, x3, ….,
respectively, where T is period of oscillation. Then,

-bT -2bT -3bT

x0 = p ; x1 = pe ; x2 = pe ; x3 = pe ; …..

x x1 x
Now, we get 0
  2
 .......  e bT
 e Where bT = λ
x1 x 2
x 3

‘λ’ is known as logarithmic decrement.

x  x  x 
Therefore, λ = ln 
x
0
  ln  1
  ln  2
  .......
 1  x 2  x 3 

Logarithmic decrement is the logarithm of ratio of successive amplitudes of

vibration.

Relaxation time:

It is defined as the time taken for the total mechanical energy to decay to (1/e) of
its original value.

The mechanical energy of a damped harmonic oscillator is given by,

2 2 -2bt
E = ½ kx = ½ p k e

Let E = E0 at t = 0  E0 = ½ p2k

-2bt
Now E = E0 e

12
Let ‘’ be the relaxation time, i.e., at t = , E = E0/e, using this in above relation

-2b
E0/e = E0 e

-1 -2b
e =e => 2b = 1 or  = 1/2b

-t/
Finally we get E = E0 e

Quality factor:

It is defined as ‘2π’ times the ratio of the energy stored in the system to the energy
lost per period.

energy stored in the system

Q  2
energy lost per period

E
Q  2 Where P is power dissipated and T is the period
PT

Since P can be written as P = E/, we get

E 
Q  2  2   Where ‘ω=2π/T’ is the angular frequency.
E T
T


 Higher Q => higher  => low damping (since  = 1/2b)

In case of low damping ω = ω0 and in terms of ‘k’ and ‘m’

k 1
  0
Also  
m 2b

1 k
Then Q 
2b m

Low damping => high Q

Theory of Forced vibrations:

13
Forced vibrations are the vibrations in which a body vibrates with a frequently
other than its natural frequency under the influence of an external periodic force.

Ex: (1) Vibration of bridge under the influence of marching soldiers.

(2) Tuning fork exposed to periodic force of a sound wave.

Following are the forces acting on the particle.

i] A restoring of force proportional to displacement acting in opposite

direction, given by –kx, k being force constant.

ii] A frictional force proportional to velocity directed in opposite, given by - r

, r being frictional force per unit velocity.

iii] An external periodic force represented by Fcospt, where ‘F’ is the

maximum value of this force and ‘p/2π’ is its frequency

The forces acting are thus,

2
d x dx
m 2
+ kx + r = Fcospt
dt dt

2
d x dx
Or 2
+ + x= cospt
dt dt

2
d x dx 2
→ 2
+2b + ω x = f cos pt ------ (1)
dt dt

2
Where = 2b, = ω and

Equ (1) is the differential equation of the particle oscillating under an applied force.

In case of this motion, when the steady state is setup, the particle vibrates with
frequency of the applied force and not with its natural frequency.

We can assume a solution of the type,

x = A cos (pt – ) -------(2)

14
Differentiating (2) and we, have,

sin (pt – )

2
d x 2
and 2
= - AP cos (pt – )
dt

using these derivatives in equ (1) we obtain

2 2
-Ap cos (pt-) - 2b AP sin (pt- ) + ω A cos (pt-) = f cos [(pt – ) + ]

= f cos [(pt – )] cos  - f sin [(pt – )] sin 

Now, equating co-efficient

2 2
-Ap + ω A = f cos  and 2bAp = f sin 

2 2
Or A (ω – p ) = f cos  and 2bAP = f Sin  -------(3) & (4)

Squaring.

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A (ω – p ) = f cos  and 4 b A P = f sin 

Adding,

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A (ω – p ) + 4 b A P = f

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
→ A [ (ω – p ) + 4 b P ] = f

F
f m
And A  =
2
 p  4b
2
 p  4b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 p  p

F
A  --------(5)
2
  2

p 4b m
2 2
 m   1 
2

2
p 

A= -------(5A)

15
 2
  2

Where Z  4b m
2 2
m 2
  1  2
p 

is called the mechanical impedance of the system.

Dividing (4) by (3), we get

2 bAP 2 bP
Tan  = 
A ( p ( p
2 2 2 2
) )

 2 bP 
Or  = tan
-1
  ---------(6)
 (  p
2 2
)

Equation (5) gives the amplitude of forced vibrations and equations (6) gives its
phase.

The general solution:

We know that the equation of motion for a damped harmonic oscillator is

2
d x dx 2
2
+2b +ω x=0
dt dt

 bt
and its solution is x = Ae cos   p 2 2
t  

Now, we can write the complete solution of forced oscillator as

F
x= Ae
 bt
cos   p 2 2
t   + cos pt  
2
 p  4b
2 2 2 2
m  p

Inspecting (4), we can think of motion to be composed of two components.

The first term represents a damped vibration decaying at a rate determined by ‘b’,
which is same as that of the system when no force is acting.

The second term represents a simple harmonic vibration ie, 2  differing in

p

phase  from the force. Initially these two vibrations may be expected to produce

16
 ~ 
p 1
beats whose frequency is the difference of two frequencies, i.e., . The
2 2

lesser the natural damping of the system, the more marked and prolonged are the
beats. One can actually recognize these beats. However, in time free vibration is
damped out and only the forced vibration is left so that the steady state
corresponds to forced vibration with amplitude.

f  2 bP 
A  and Phase angle = tan
-1
 
 (  p
2 2
2
)
 p  4b
2 2 2 2
 p

Depending on the relative values of ‘p’ and ‘w’, the following three cases are
possible.

Case 1: when driving frequency is low i.e p < < ω. then

f f F /m F
A   = constant = =

2
p 2

2
 4b 2
p
2  2
k /m k

 2 bP 
And  = tan   = tan-1 (0) = 0
-1

 (  p
2 2
)

i] Amplitude is independent of frequency of force.

ii] Amplitude depends on the magnitude of applied force and the force constant k

iii] The force and displacements are in phase.

Case 2: when p = ω, i.e, the frequency of the force is equal to the frequency of the
body.

Now the amplitude of vibration is given by

F
f m F
A =   ( F = f/m, 2b = & p = ω)
2 bp r r
2 
2m

 bp 
   tan      2
-1 
Also, = tan 1

 0 
17
i] The amplitude of vibration depends on damping force and for small damping
forces, the amplitude of vibration is quite large.

ii] The displacement lags behind the force by phase of π/2.

Case 3: When p > > ω , the frequency of force is of greater than the natural
frequency ‘ω’ of the body.

f f F
A   2
 2
p
2
 4b 2
p
2
p mp

-1  2 bp    2b 
And = tan    tan  1
   tan    0   
1

 p
2 2
  p 

i] the amplitude goes of decreasing

ii] phase difference approaches π.

Resonance:

The phenomenon of making a body vibrate with its natural frequency under
the influence of another vibrating body with the same frequency is called
resonance.

Examples of Resonance:

1. If we bring a vibrating turning fork near another stationary tuning fork of the
same natural frequency as that as the vibrating tuning fork, we find that the
stationary fork starts vibrating.

2. Soldiers crossing a suspension bridge are advised not to cross in steps. The
steps can make the bridge to oscillate in resonance & eventually may lead to
collapse.

3. All mechanical structures- such as buildings, bridges and airplanes- have one or
more natural resonant frequencies. It can be dangerous to subject the structure to
one of these frequencies.

18
4. A classic example of resonance occurred in the Tacoma narrows Bridge in
Washington state in 1940. The wind blowing through Tacoma Narrows broke up
into vertices. This provided puffs of wind that shook the bridge at a frequency that
matched one of its natural frequencies. The result was a gentle vertical rolling
motion. About 5 months after the bridge opened, the gentle rolling oscillations
became violent torsional oscillations, which soon caused the collapse of the
bridge.

Expression for maximum amplitude or condition for amplitude resonance:

The amplitude of forced oscillation is given by

f
A 
2
 p  4b
2 2 2 2
 p -------- (1)

Equation (1) shows that the amplitude varies with the frequency of the
force ‘P’. For a particular ‘p’, the amplitude becomes maximum. This phenomenon
is known as amplitude resonance. The amplitude is maximum when the
2
denominator  p  4b is minimum.
2 2 2 2
 p

d 2
The condition for minimum value is  p  4b p  0
2 2 2 2

dp

2  p   2 p   4 b 2 p 0
2 2 2

 4   p 2 2
p  8b 2
p 0 ( by 4p)

 p   2b
2 2 2

p  
2
 2b 2
 --- (2)

Equ (2) gives the condition for maximum amplitude of forced vibration.

i) The amplitude is maximum when the frequency of impressed force becomes

  2b
2 2

is the resonant frequency
2

19
 
ii) Natural frequency of the system is
2

 b
2 2

iii) Damped frequency of the system is
2

Now using condition (2) in equ (1), we get

f
A max
 1
2
    2b  4 b   2 b
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 

f
A max
 1

4 b
4
 4b   8b 2 2 4
 2

f
A max
 1

4 b
2
  4b
2 4
 2

f
A max
 1

4 b  b
2 2 2 2
 

f
A max

 b
2 2
2b 

f
A max

  2b  b
2 2 2
2b 

f 2 2 2
A max
 (2b =ω -p )
    p  b 
2 2 2 2
2b

f
Amax =
2b p
2
b 2


For low damping, b is small

20
 f f
:- Amax = =
2b p
2
2bp

Showing that, Amax → , as b 0

Problems of Module II

1. A 3.94 kg block extends a spring 15.7 cm from its un stretched position. The
block is removed and a 0.520 kg object is suspended from the same spring and
is set into oscillations. Find the period of oscillation.

Solution: M=3.94 kg, x=15.7 cm

m=0.520 kg what is period?

Mg 3 .9 4  9 .8
Mg  kx  k  
x 0 .1 5 7

-1
= 245.9 N m

Now the spring is set into oscillations with mass m=0.520 kg

m 0 .5 2 0
The period T  2  2  0 .2 9 8 s
k 2 4 5 .9

2. A particle executes SHM of amplitude 5 cm. When the particle is 3 cm from

-2
the mean position its acceleration is found to be 48 cm s . Calculate (a) its
velocity at the same instant, (b) its time period and (c) its maximum velocity.

-2
Solution: xm=5 cm; x=3 cm; a=48 cm s

21
 k
(a) Velocity at position x is v  2
(x m  x we need to find k/m
2

k a 48 -2
ma  k x gives    16 s
m x 3

v   16( 25  9)  1 6 1 6  1 6 cm s-1

m 1
(b) Time period T  2  2  1 .5 7 s
k 16

k
(c) Maximum velocity occurs at x=0 v m ax  2
xm  16  25  2 0 cm s-1
m

3. A 5.22 kg object is attached to the bottom of a spring and set vibrating. The
-1
maximum speed of the object is 15.3 cm s , and the period is 645 ms. Find (a)
the force constant, (b) the amplitude of the motion and (c) the frequency of
oscillation.

-1
Solution: m=5.22 kg, vmax=15.3 cm s , T=0.645 s

1 1
(c) f    1 .5 5 Hz
T 0 .6 4 5

4 m 4  5 .2 2
2 2
m -1
(a) T  2 k  2
 2
 4 9 5 .3 N m
k T 0 .6 4 5

k v m ax
v m ax  2
xm x  m
m k
(b) m

0 .1 5 3
  1 .5 7 cm
9 4 .8 9

4. A certain spring hangs vertically. When a body of mass M=1.65 kg is

suspended from it, its length increases by 7.33 cm. The spring is then mounted
horizontally, and a block of mass m=2.43 kg is attached to the spring. The block
is free to slide along a frictionless horizontal surface. Calculate (a) the force
constant of the spring, (b) how much horizontal force is required to stretch the

22
spring by a distance of 11.6 cm? and (c) when the block is displaced a distance
of 11.6 cm and released, with what period it will oscillate?

Solution: M=1.65 kg, x=0.0733 m

M=2.43 kg, x=0.116 m

Mg
kx Mgk 
x
(a) At equilibrium,
1 .6 5  9 .8
 N m
-1

0 .0 7 3 3

(b) Using Hooke’s law

F  k x  2 2 1  0 .1 1 6  2 5 .6 N

(c) Period

m 2 .4 3
T  2  2  0 .6 5 8 9 s
k 221

= 659 m s

5. The vibration frequencies of atoms in a solid are of the order of 10 THz at

normal temperatures. Imagine the atoms to be connected to one another by
springs. Suppose that a single silver atom vibrates with this frequency and all
other atoms are at rest. Compute the effective force constant. One mole of silver
23
has a mass of 108 g and contains 6.02×10 atoms.

-3
Solution: Mass of NA silver atoms=108×10 kg

Mass of one atom of silver is

3
1 0 8 1 0
m  kg
6 .0 2  1 0
23

The angular frequency

  2 f  2 1 0  6 .2 8 1 3 1 0
12 13
r ad s
-1

23
 k
  2
g i v es k =  m
2

m
3
1 0 8 1 0
i . e., k = ( 6 .2 8 1 3  1 0 
13 2
)
6 .0 2  1 0
23

 7 0 8 .2 N m
-1

6. An automobile can be considered to be mounted on four springs as far as

vertical oscillations are concerned. The springs of a certain car of mass 1460 kg
are adjusted so that the vibrations have frequency of 2.95 Hz. (a) Find the force
constant of each spring (assumed identical) and (b) what will be the vibration
frequency if five persons, averaging 73.2 kg each ride the car?

Solution: The total mass=1460 kg. This load is equally divided among the four
1460
springs. Therefore, load on each spring is m   365 kg
4

k
  2
g i v es k = m 
2
 ( 2 ) 2
mf
2

k  ( 2 )  3 6 5  2 .9 5  1 2 5 3 9 9 .7
2 2
N m
-1

Now, when five persons are riding the car, the load on the springs increase.

The total load is =1460+73.2×5=1829 kg

Now the effective load on each spring is

1826
m  4 5 6 .5 k g .
4

Now,

k 1 2 5 3 9 9 .7
 = = 1 6 .5 7 r ad s
-1

m 4 6 5 .5

 1 6 .5 7
f    2 .6 3 Hz
2 2

24
7. In a thought experiment a tunnel is drilled through the Earth from pole to pole.
A body of mass 10 kg is dropped at one pole. The body executes SHM. Find (a)
its period, (b) force acting on the body, and (c) the velocity of the body when it
crosses the center of the Earth.

Given: Radius of the Earth RE=6000 km

Solution: We have

k g 9 .8
mg  kx   
6 0 0 0 1 0
3
m x
k
 1 .6 3 3 1 0  6
s
-2

m
m
 6 .1 2 2 1 0 5
s
2

(a) Period,

m
T  2  2 6 .1 2 2  1 0
5
 4916 s
k

= 1 h 21 m 57 s

(b) Force,

F  m g  1 0  9 .8  9 8 N

(c) Maximum velocity occurs when the particle crosses the center of the Earth.

k
v at th e cen ter
 xm
2
x 2

v  1 .6 3 3  1 0
6
 ( 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 )  0 
2 2

 7 6 6 7 m s
-1

8. The amplitude of an oscillator of frequency 200 cycles per second falls to 1/10

25
of its initial value after 2000 cycles. Calculate (a) its relaxation time, (b) quality
factor, (c) time during which the energy falls to 1/10 of its initial value, and (d)
the damping constant.

Solution: The instantaneous amplitude of a damped oscillator is x  Pe bt

(d) Let x=x0 at t=0 s be the initial amplitude.

Since the frequency is 200 cycles/second, 2000 cycles correspond to 10 s.

Therefore, after 10 s, the amplitude is x0/10.

x0  b 1 0
x 0
e  10  e 10 b

10
ln 10  10b
ln 10
b   0 .2 3 s
-1

10

1 1
(a) Relaxation time,     2 .1 7 2 s
2b 2  0 .2 3

(b) Quality factor, Q  2 f   2  2 0 0  2 .1 7 4  2 7 3 0

t t
 E0 
E E 0
e  g i v es E 0
e 
10
t
t
(c)  e  1 0  l n 1 0 


t= l n 1 0 = 2 .1 7 4  2 .3 = 5 s

9. The Q factor of a spring loaded with 0.3 kg is 60. It vibrates with a frequency of
2 Hz. Calculate the force constant and the mechanical resistance.

1 k
Solution: Frequency of an un damped oscillator is f  .
2 m

1 k
f
2
 g i v es k = 4  f m
2 2

Therefore, ( 2 )
2
m

k  4    4  0 .3  4 7 .3 7
2
N m
-1

26
The quality factor,

 
Q    
2b rm
m 2 f m 2   2  0 .3
r   
Q Q 60

 0 .0 6 2 8 2 kg m
-1

10. An oscillator starts with an initial amplitude of 5 cm, with period, T=0.897 s.
-1
The damping forces in the system with coefficient b=0.075 s continuosly
reduce the amplitude. Calculate the logarithmic decrement and amplitudes after
first and second periods of motion.

-1
Given: b=0.075 s , T=0.897 s

Solution: logarithmic decrement

  bT  0 . 075  0 . 899  0 . 07627

Ratio of successive amplitudes

x 0
e bT
 1 . 0695
x1

x x
x1  0
 0
 4 . 674 cm
bT 1 . 0695
x1 x1
x 2
   4 . 371 cm
bT 1 . 0695

---------------- The End ---------------

27