Fundamental Concepts

The maximum size of the Main Memory (MM) that can

be used in any computer is determined by its
addressing scheme.
The addressing capability of the system depends on
the No. of address lines it has
Ex: 210 = 1K memory locations
220 = 1M memory locations
230 = 1G memory locations
240 = 1T memory locations
 Maximum size of the Main Memory
 byte-addressable
 CPU-Main Memory Connection
Processor Memory
k-bit
address bus
MAR
n-bit
data bus Up to 2 k addressable
MDR locations

Word length = n bits

Control lines
( R / W, MFC, etc.)
Data transfer between CPU and MM takes place through the
use of two CPU registers, MAR (Memory Address Register)
and MDR (Memory Data Register)

If MAR is K bits long and MDR is n bits long, then the MM

unit may contain up to 2k addressable locations and each
location will be n bits wide, while the word length is equal to
n bits.
The time that elapses between the initiation of an
operation and the completion of that operation (for
example, the time between READ and MFC).

It is a useful measure of the speed of the memory unit.

The minimum time delay required between the initiations
of two successive memory operations (for example, the
time between two successive READ operations). The cycle
time is usually slightly longer than the access time.

It is an important measure of the memory system.

A memory unit in which any location can be accessed for a
READ or WRITE operation in some fixed amount of time
that is independent of the location’s address.Main
memory units are of this type.

This distinguishes RAM from serial or partly serial access

storage devices such as magnetic tapes and disks which
are used as the secondary storage device on which access
time depends on the address or position of the data
A small and fast memory that is inserted between the
larger, slower main memory and the CPU.
Holds the currently active segments of a program and its
data.

Cache hit rates of over 90% are possible leading to a cost-

effective increase in the performance of the system.
Semiconductor RAM memories
 Each memory cell can hold one bit of information.
 Memory cells are organized in the form of an array.
 One row is one memory word.
 All cells of a row are connected to a common line, known as the
“word line”.
 Word line is connected to the address decoder.
 Sense/write circuits are connected to the data input/output lines
of the memory chip.
 7 7 1 1 0 0
W0

•
•
•
FF FF
A0 W1

•
•
•
A1
Address Memory
• • • • • • cells
decoder • • • • • •
A2
• • • • • •
A3

W15
•
•
•

Sense / Write Sense / Write Sense / Write R /W

circuit circuit circuit
CS

Data input /output lines: b 7 b1 b0

 Two transistor inverters are cross connected to implement a basic flip-flop.
 The cell is connected to one word line and two bits lines by transistors T1 and T2
 When word line is at ground level, the transistors are turned off and the latch
retains its state
 Read operation: In order to read state of SRAM cell, the word line is activated to
close switches T1 and T2.
 Sense/Write circuits at the bottom monitor the state of b and b’
b b

T1 T 2
X Y

Word line
Bit lines
 Static RAMs (SRAMs):
▪ Consist of circuits that are capable of retaining their state as long as the power
is applied.
▪ Volatile memories, because their contents are lost when power is interrupted.
▪ Access times of static RAMs are in the range of few nanoseconds.
▪ However, the cost is usually high.

 Dynamic RAMs (DRAMs):

▪ Do not retain their state indefinitely.
▪ Contents must be periodically refreshed.
▪ Contents may be refreshed while accessing them for reading.
  Each row can store 512 bytes.
RAS 12 bits to select a row, and 9
bits to select a group in a row.
Row Total of 21 bits.
address Row 4096 (512  8)
latch decoder cell array • First apply the row address,
RAS signal latches the row
address. Then apply the
column address, CAS signal
A 20 - 9  A 8 - 0 Sense / Write CS latches the address.
circuits
R•/W Timing of the memory unit is
controlled by a specialized
unit which generates RAS and
Column
address Column CAS.
decoder
latch • This is asynchronous DRAM

CAS D7 D0
 Suppose if we want to access the consecutive bytes in
the selected row.
 This can be done without having to reselect the row.
▪ Add a latch at the output of the sense circuits in each row.
▪ All the latches are loaded when the row is selected.
▪ Different column addresses can be applied to select and place different bytes on
the data lines.
 Consecutive sequence of column addresses can be
applied under the control signal CAS, without
reselecting the row.
▪ Allows a block of data to be transferred at a much faster rate than random
accesses.
▪ A small collection/group of bytes is usually referred to as a block.
 This transfer capability is referred to as the
fast page mode feature.
 •Operation is directly synchronized
Refresh
counter with processor clock signal.
•The outputs of the sense circuits are
connected to a latch.
Row •During a Read operation, the
Ro w
address decoder Cell array contents of the cells in a row are
latch
Row/Column loaded onto the latches.
address •During a refresh operation, the
Column Co lumn Read/Write contents of the cells are refreshed
address
counter decoder circuits & latches without changing the contents of
the latches.
•Data held in the latches correspond
Clock
to the selected columns are transferred
RAS to the output.
Mode register
CA S and Data input Data output •For a burst mode of operation,
register register
R /W timing control successive columns are selected using
CS column address counter and clock.
CAS signal need not be generated
externally. A new data is placed during
Data
raising edge of the clock
 Memory latency is the time it takes to
transfer a word of data to or from memory
 Memory bandwidth is the number of bits or
bytes that can be transferred in one second.
 DDRSDRAMs-Double-Data-Rate-SDRAM
 Here , accessing the cell array is done in the same way
- - But data is transferred on both edges of the clock
- - Bandwidth is effectively doubled for large burst transfers
- - Such devices are called as DDR- SDRAM

▪
- To access data at the high rate , the cell array is
organized in two banks , called as even and
odd banks .
 - each bank is accessed separately
- - Consecutive words of a given block are
stored in different banks
- - Such interleaving of words allow
simultaneous access to two words that are
transferred on successive edges of the clock
- - This interleaving approach improves the data
 21-bi t
a ddresses 19-bit internal chip address Implement a memory unit of 2M
A0
A1 words of 32 bits each.
Use 512x8 static memory chips.
A 19 Each column consists of 4 chips.
A 20
Each chip implements one byte
position.
A chip is selected by setting its
chip select control line to 1.
Selected chip places its data on the
2-bi t
decoder data output line, outputs of other
chips are in high impedance state.
21 bits to address a 32-bit word.
High order 2 bits are needed to
512K  8
memory chi p
D 31-24 D 23-16 D 15-8 D 7-0
select the row, by activating the
four Chip Select signals.
512K  8 memory chi p
19 bits are used to access specific
byte locations inside the selected
19-bi t 8-bi t data
a ddress i nput/output chip.

Chi p s elect
 Recall that in a dynamic memory chip, to reduce the
number of pins, multiplexed addresses are used.
 Address is divided into two parts:
▪ High-order address bits select a row in the array.
▪ They are provided first, and latched using RAS signal.
▪ Low-order address bits select a column in the row.
▪ They are provided later, and latched using CAS signal.
 However, a processor issues all address bits at the same
time.
 In order to achieve the multiplexing, memory
controller circuit is inserted between the processor
and memory.
 Row/Column
Address address

RAS
R/ W
C AS
Memory
Request controller R/ W
Processor Memory
CS
Clock
Clock

Data

22
Read-Only Memories (ROMs)
 SRAM and SDRAM chips are volatile:
▪ Lose the contents when the power is turned off.
 Many applications need memory devices to retain
contents after the power is turned off.
▪ For example, computer is turned on, the operating system must
be loaded from the disk into the memory.
▪ Store instructions which would load the OS from the disk.
▪ Need to store these instructions so that they will not be lost
after the power is turned off.
▪ We need to store the instructions into a non-volatile memory.
 Non-volatile memory is read in the same manner as
volatile memory.
▪ Separate writing process is needed to place information in this
memory.
▪ Normal operation involves only reading of data, this type
of memory is called Read-Only memory (ROM).
 Read-Only Memory:
▪ Data are written into a ROM when it is manufactured.
 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM):
▪ Allow the data to be loaded by a user.
▪ Process of inserting the data is irreversible.
▪ Storing information specific to a user in a ROM is expensive.

▪ Providing programming capability to a user may be better.

 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

(EPROM):
▪ Stored data to be erased and new data to be loaded.
▪ Flexibility, useful during the development phase of digital systems.
▪ Erasable, reprogrammable ROM.
▪ Erasure requires exposing the ROM to UV light.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory (EEPROM):
▪ To erase the contents of EPROMs, they have to be exposed to ultraviolet light.
▪ Physically removed from the circuit.
▪ EEPROMs the contents can be stored and erased electrically.

 Flash memory:
▪ Has similar approach to EEPROM.
▪ Read the contents of a single cell, but write the
contents of an entire block of cells.
 A big challenge in the design of a computer system
is to provide a sufficiently large memory, with a
reasonable speed at an affordable cost.
 Static RAM:
▪ Very fast, but expensive, because a basic SRAM cell has a complex circuit making it
impossible to pack a large number of cells onto a single chip.
 Dynamic RAM:
▪ Simpler basic cell circuit, hence are much less expensive, but significantly slower than
SRAMs.
 Magnetic disks:
▪ Storage provided by DRAMs is higher than SRAMs, but is still less than what is
necessary.
▪ Secondary storage such as magnetic disks provide a large amount
of storage, but is much slower than DRAMs.
 Processor •Fastest access is to the data held in
processor registers. Registers are at
Registers the top of the memory hierarchy.
Increasing Increasing Increasing •Relatively small amount of memory that
size speed cost per bit can be implemented on the processor
Primary L1
cache chip. This is processor cache.
•Two levels of cache. Level 1 (L1) cache
is on the processor chip. Level 2 (L2)
cache is in between main memory and
Secondary L2 processor.
cache
•Next level is main memory, implemented
as SIMMs. Much larger, but much slower
than cache memory.
Main •Next level is magnetic disks. Huge amount
memory of inexepensive storage.
•Speed of memory access is critical, the
idea is to bring instructions and data
Magnetic disk that will be used in the near future as
secondary close to the processor as possible.
memory
Cache Memories
 Processor is much faster than the main
memory.
 Speed of the main memory cannot be
increased beyond a certain point.
 Cache memory is an architectural
arrangement which makes the main memory
appear faster to the processor than it really is.
 Cache memory is based on the property of
computer programs known as “locality of
reference”.
 Analysis of programs indicates that many
instructions in localized areas of a program
are executed repeatedly during some period
of time, while the others are accessed
relatively less frequently.
 Temporal locality of reference:
▪ Recently executed instruction is likely to be executed again very soon.

 Spatial locality of reference:

▪ Instructions with addresses close to a recently accessed instruction are likely
to be executed soon.
 Main
Processor Cache memory

• Processor issues a Read request, a block of words is transferred from the

main memory to the cache, one word at a time.
• Subsequent references to the data in this block of words are found in the
cache.
• At any given time, only some blocks in the main memory are held in the
cache. Which blocks in the main memory are in the cache is determined by
a “mapping function”.
• When the cache is full, and a block of words needs to be transferred
from the main memory, some block of words in the cache must be
replaced. This is determined by a “replacement algorithm”.
• Existence of a cache is transparent to the processor. The processor issues
Read and
Write requests in the same manner.
• If the data is in the cache it is called a Read or Write hit.
• Read hit:
▪ The data is obtained from the cache.

• Write hit:
▪ Cache has a replica of the contents of the main memory.
▪ Contents of the cache and the main memory may be updated simultaneously.
This is the write-through protocol.
▪ Update the contents of the cache, and mark it as updated by setting a bit known
as the dirty bit or modified bit. The contents of the main memory are updated
when this block is replaced. This is write-back or copy-back protocol.
• If the data is not present in the cache, then a Read miss or Write miss
occurs.
• Read miss:
▪ Block of words containing this requested word is transferred from the
memory.
▪ After the block is transferred, the desired word is forwarded to the processor.
▪ The desired word may also be forwarded to the processor as soon as it is
transferred without waiting for the entire block to be transferred. This is called
load-through or early-restart.

• Write-miss:
▪ Write-through protocol is used, then the contents of the main memory are
updated directly.
▪ If write-back protocol is used, the block containing the
addressed word is first brought into the cache. The desired word
is overwritten with new information.
• A bit called as “valid bit” is provided for each block.
• If the block contains valid data, then the bit is set to 1, else it is 0.
• Valid bits are set to 0, when the power is just turned on.
• When a block is loaded into the cache for the first time, the valid bit is set to 1.
• Data transfers between main memory and disk occur directly bypassing the cache.
• When the data on a disk changes, the main memory block is also updated.
• However, if the data is also resident in the cache, then the valid bit is set to 0.
• What happens if the data in the disk and main memory changes and the write-back
protocol is being used?
• In this case, the data in the cache may also have changed and is indicated by the
dirty bit.
• The copies of the data in the cache, and the main memory are different. This is
called the cache coherence problem.
• One option is to force a write-back before the main memory is updated from the
disk.
 Mapping functions determine how memory
blocks are placed in the cache.
 A simple processor example:
▪ Cache consisting of 128 blocks of 16 words each.
▪ Total size of cache is 2048 (2K) words.
▪ Main memory is addressable by a 16-bit address.
▪ Main memory has 64K words.
▪ Main memory has 4K blocks of 16 words each.
 Three mapping functions:
▪ Direct mapping
▪ Associative mapping
▪ Set-associative mapping.
 Main
memory Block 0 •Block j of the main memory maps to j modulo 128 of
Block 1
the cache. 0 maps to 0, 129 maps to 1.
Cache
tag
•More than one memory block is mapped onto the same
Block 0 position in the cache.
tag •May lead to contention for cache blocks even if the
Block 1
cache is not full.
Block 127
•Resolve the contention by allowing new block to
Block 128 replace the old block, leading to a trivial replacement
tag
Block 127 Block 129
algorithm.
•Memory address is divided into three fields:
- Low order 4 bits determine one of the 16
words in a block.
- When a new block is brought into the cache,
Block 255 the the next 7 bits determine which cache
Tag Block Word
5 7 4 Block 256 block this new block is placed in.
- High order 5 bits determine which of the possible
Main memory address Block 257
32 blocks is currently present in the cache. These
are tag bits.
•Simple to implement but not very flexible.
Block 4095
 Main Block 0
memory
Block 1
•Main memory block can be placed into any cache
Cache
tag
position.
Block 0 •Memory address is divided into two fields:
tag - Low order 4 bits identify the word within a block.
Block 1
- High order 12 bits or tag bits identify a memory
Block 127
block when it is resident in the cache.
Block 128 •Flexible, and uses cache space efficiently.
tag
Block 129
•Replacement algorithms can be used to replace an
Block 127
existing block in the cache when the cache is full.
•Cost is higher than direct-mapped cache because of
the need to search all 128 patterns to determine
whether a given block is in the cache.
Block 255
Tag Word
12 4 Block 256

Main memory address Block 257

Block 4095
Blocks of cache are grouped into sets.
Mapping function allows a block of the main
memory to reside in any block of a specific set.
Divide the cache into 64 sets, with two blocks per set.
Memory block 0, 64, 128 etc. map to block 0, and they
can occupy either of the two positions.
Memory address is divided into three fields:
- 6 bit field determines the set number.
- High order 6 bit fields are compared to the tag
fields of the two blocks in a set.
Set-associative mapping combination of direct and
associative mapping.
Number of blocks per set is a design parameter.
- One extreme is to have all the blocks in one set,
requiring no set bits (fully associative mapping).
- Other extreme is to have one block per set, is
the same as direct mapping.
• For direct mapping where there is only one possible line for a block of memory,
no replacement algorithm is needed.
• For associative and set associative mapping, however, an algorithm is needed.
•For maximum speed, this algorithm is implemented in the hardware. Four of the
most common algorithms are:

1. Least Recently Used:- This replaces the candidate line in cache memory that
has been there the longest with no reference to it.
2. First In First Out:- This replaces the candidate line in the cache that has been
there the longest.
3. Least Frequently Used:- This replaces the candidate line in the cache that has
had the fewest references.
4. Random Replacement:- This algorithm randomly chooses a line to be
replaced from among the candidate lines. This yields only slightly inferior
performance than other algorithms.
Performance considerations
 A key design objective of a computer system is to achieve
the best possible performance at the lowest possible cost.
▪ Price/performance ratio is a common measure of success.
 Performance of a processor depends on:
▪ How fast machine instructions can be brought into the processor for
execution.
▪ How fast the instructions can be executed.
 Divides the memory system into a number of
memory modules. Each module has its own address buffer register
(ABR) and data buffer register (DBR).
 Arranges addressing so that successive words in
the address space are placed in different
modules.
 When requests for memory access involve
consecutive addresses, the access will be to
different modules.
 Since parallel access to these modules is
possible, the average rate of fetching words
from the Main Memory can be increased.
 k bits m bits
mbits k bits
Module Address in module MM address
Address in module Module MM address

ABR DBR ABR DBR ABR DBR ABR DBR ABR DBR ABR DBR

Module Module Module Module Module Module

k
0 i n- 1 0 i 2 - 1

 Consecutive words are placed in a •Consecutive words are located in

module.
 High-order k bits of a memory address consecutive modules.
determine the module. •Consecutive addresses can be located in
 Low-order m bits of a memory address consecutive modules.
determine the word within a module.
 When a block of words is transferred •While transferring a block of data,
from main memory to cache, only one several memory modules can be kept busy
module is busy at a time. at the same time.
 In high performance processors 2 levels of
caches are normally used.
 Avg access time in a system with 2 levels of
caches is
T ave = h1c1+(1-h1)h2c2+(1-h1)(1-h2)M
H1 is the hit rate in level one cache
H2 is the hit rate in level two cache
 Write buffer
 Write-through:
• Each write operation involves writing to the main memory.
• If the processor has to wait for the write operation to be complete, it slows
down the processor.
• Processor does not depend on the results of the write operation.
• Write buffer can be included for temporary storage of write requests.
• Processor places each write request into the buffer and continues execution.
• If a subsequent Read request references data which is still in the write
buffer, then this data is referenced in the write buffer.
 Write-back:
• Block is written back to the main memory when it is replaced.
• If the processor waits for this write to complete, before reading the new
block, it is slowed down.
• Fast write buffer can hold the block to be written, and the new
block can be read first.
 Prefetching
• New data are brought into the processor when they are first
needed.
• Processor has to wait before the data transfer is complete.
• Prefetch the data into the cache before they are actually
needed, or a before a Read miss occurs.
• Prefetching can be accomplished through software by
including a special instruction in the machine language of
the processor.
▪ Inclusion of prefetch instructions increases the length of the
programs.
• Prefetching can also be accomplished using hardware:
▪ Circuitry that attempts to discover patterns in
memory references and then prefetches according
to this pattern.
Virtual Memory
 Recall that an important challenge in the design
of a computer system is to provide a large, fast
memory system at an affordable cost.
 Architectural solutions to increase the effective
speed and size of the memory system.
 Cache memories were developed to increase the
effective speed of the memory system.
 Virtual memory is an architectural solution to
increase the effective size of the memory
system.

51
 Recall that the addressable memory space depends
on the number of address bits in a computer.
▪ For example, if a computer issues 32-bit addresses, the addressable memory space is 4G
bytes.
 Physical main memory in a computer is generally not
as large as the entire possible addressable space.
▪ Physical memory typically ranges from a few hundred megabytes to 1G bytes.
 Large programs that cannot fit completely into the
main memory have their parts stored on secondary
storage devices such as magnetic disks.
▪ Pieces of programs must be transferred to the main memory from secondary storage before
they can be executed.

52
 When a new piece of a program is to be
transferred to the main memory, and the
main memory is full, then some other piece in
the main memory must be replaced.
▪ Recall this is very similar to what we studied in case of cache memories.
 Operating system automatically transfers
data between the main memory and
secondary storage.
▪ Application programmer need not be concerned with this transfer.
▪ Also, application programmer does not need to be aware of the limitations
imposed by the available physical memory.

53
 Techniques that automatically move program and
data between main memory and secondary storage
when they are required for execution are called
virtual-memory techniques.
 Programs and processors reference an instruction or
data independent of the size of the main memory.
 Processor issues binary addresses for instructions and
data called logical or virtual addresses.
 Virtual addresses are translated into physical
addresses by a combination of hardware and software
subsystems.
▪ If virtual address refers to a part of the program that is currently in the main memory, it is
accessed immediately.
▪ If the address refers to a part of the program that is not currently in the main memory, it is
first transferred to the main memory before it can be used.

54
 •Memory management unit (MMU)
Processor
translates
virtual addresses into physical addresses.
Virtual address •If the desired data or instructions are in
the
Data MMU main memory they are fetched as
described
Physical address previously.
•If the desired data or instructions are not
Cache in
the main memory, they must be
Data Physical address transferred
from secondary storage to the main
Main memory memory.
•MMU causes the operating system to
DMA transfer bring
the data from the secondary storage into
Disk storage the
55 main memory.
 Assume that program and data are composed of
fixed-length units called pages.
 A page consists of a block of words that occupy
contiguous locations in the main memory.
 Page is a basic unit of information that is
transferred between secondary storage and
main memory.
 Size of a page commonly ranges from 2K to 16K
bytes.
▪ Pages should not be too small, because the access time of a secondary storage
device is much larger than the main memory.
▪ Pages should not be too large, else a large portion of the page may not be used,
and it will occupy valuable space in the main memory.

56
 Concepts of virtual memory are similar to the
concepts of cache memory.
 Cache memory:
▪ Introduced to bridge the speed gap between the processor and the main
memory.
▪ Implemented in hardware.

 Virtual memory:
▪ Introduced to bridge the space gap between the main memory and secondary
storage.
▪ Implemented in part by software.

57
 Each virtual or logical address generated by a
processor is interpreted as a virtual page number
(high-order bits) plus an offset (low-order bits) that
specifies the location of a particular byte within that
page.
 Information about the main memory location of each
page is kept in the page table.
▪ Main memory address where the page is stored.
▪ Current status of the page.
 Area of the main memory that can hold a page is
called as page frame.
 Starting address of the page table is kept in a page
table base register.

58
 Virtual page number generated by the
processor is added to the contents of the
page table base register.
▪ This provides the address of the corresponding entry in the page table.

 The contents of this location in the page table

give the starting address of the page if the
page is currently in the main memory.

59
 PTBR holds Virtual address from processor
Page table base register
the address of
the page table. Page table address Virtual page number Offset
Virtual address is
interpreted as page
+ number and offset.
PAGE TABLE
PTBR + virtual
page number provide
the entry of the page This entry has the starting location
in the page table. of the page.

Page table holds information

about each page. This includes
the starting address of the page Control Page frame
bits in memory
in the main memory. Page frame Offset

Physical address in main memory

60
 Page table entry for a page also includes some
control bits which describe the status of the
page while it is in the main memory.
 One bit indicates the validity of the page.
▪ Indicates whether the page is actually loaded into the main memory.
▪ Allows the operating system to invalidate the page without actually removing it.
 One bit indicates whether the page has been
modified during its residency in the main
memory.
▪ This bit determines whether the page should be written back to the disk when it is
removed from the main memory.
▪ Similar to the dirty or modified bit in case of cache memory.

61
 Other control bits for various other types of
restrictions that may be imposed.
▪ For example, a program may only have read permission for a page, but not
write or modify permissions.

62
 Where should the page table be located?
 Recall that the page table is used by the MMU for
every read and write access to the memory.
▪ Ideal location for the page table is within the MMU.
 Page table is quite large.
 MMU is implemented as part of the processor chip.
 Impossible to include a complete page table on the
chip.
 Page table is kept in the main memory.
 A copy of a small portion of the page table can be
accommodated within the MMU.
▪ Portion consists of page table entries that correspond to the most recently
accessed pages.

63
 A small cache called as Translation Lookaside
Buffer (TLB) is included in the MMU.
▪ TLB holds page table entries of the most recently accessed pages.
 Recall that cache memory holds most recently
accessed blocks from the main memory.
▪ Operation of the TLB and page table in the main memory is similar to the
operation of the cache and main memory.
 Page table entry for a page includes:
▪ Address of the page frame where the page resides in the main memory.
▪ Some control bits.
 In addition to the above for each page, TLB must
hold the virtual page number for each page.

64
 Virtual address from processor
Associative-mapped TLB
Virtual page number Offset High-order bits of the virtual address
generated by the processor select the
virtual page.
TLB
These bits are compared to the virtual
Virtual page
number
Control
bits
Page frame
in memory page numbers in the TLB.
If there is a match, a hit occurs and
the corresponding address of the page
frame is read.
No
If there is no match, a miss occurs
=?
and the page table within the main
Yes
memory must be consulted.
Miss
Set-associative mapped TLBs are
Hit
found in commercial processors.

Page frame Offset

65 Physical address in main memory

 How to keep the entries of the TLB coherent
with the contents of the page table in the main
memory?
 Operating system may change the contents of
the page table in the main memory.
▪ Simultaneously it must also invalidate the corresponding entries in the TLB.
 A control bit is provided in the TLB to invalidate
an entry.
 If an entry is invalidated, then the TLB gets the
information for that entry from the page table.
▪ Follows the same process that it would follow if the entry is not found
in the TLB or if a “miss” occurs.

66
 What happens if a program generates an
access to a page that is not in the main
memory?
 In this case, a page fault is said to occur.
▪ Whole page must be brought into the main memory from the disk, before the
execution can proceed.
 Upon detecting a page fault by the MMU,
following actions occur:
▪ MMU asks the operating system to intervene by raising an exception.
▪ Processing of the active task which caused the page fault is interrupted.
▪ Control is transferred to the operating system.
▪ Operating system copies the requested page from secondary storage to the
main memory.
▪ Once the page is copied, control is returned to the task which was
interrupted.

67
 Servicing of a page fault requires transferring
the requested page from secondary storage
to the main memory.
 This transfer may incur a long delay.
 While the page is being transferred the
operating system may:
▪ Suspend the execution of the task that caused the page fault.
▪ Begin execution of another task whose pages are in the main memory.

 Enables efficient use of the processor.

68
 How to ensure that the interrupted task can
continue correctly when it resumes
execution?
 There are two possibilities:
▪ Execution of the interrupted task must continue from the point where it was
interrupted.
▪ The instruction must be restarted.

 Which specific option is followed depends on

the design of the processor.

69
 When a new page is to be brought into the main
memory from secondary storage, the main memory
may be full.
▪ Some page from the main memory must be replaced with this new page.
 How to choose which page to replace?
▪ This is similar to the replacement that occurs when the cache is full.
▪ The principle of locality of reference (?) can also be applied here.
▪ A replacement strategy similar to LRU can be applied.
 Since the size of the main memory is relatively larger
compared to cache, a relatively large amount of
programs and data can be held in the main memory.
▪ Minimizes the frequency of transfers between secondary storage and main memory.

70
 A page may be modified during its residency in
the main memory.
 When should the page be written back to the
secondary storage?
 Recall that we encountered a similar problem in
the context of cache and main memory:
▪ Write-through protocol(?)
▪ Write-back protocol(?)
 Write-through protocol cannot be used, since it
will incur a long delay each time a small amount
of data is written to the disk.
71
Memory Management
 Operating system is concerned with transferring programs
and data between secondary storage and main memory.
 Operating system needs memory routines in addition to the
other routines.
 Operating system routines are assembled into a virtual
address space called system space.
 System space is separate from the space in which user
application programs reside.
▪ This is user space.
 Virtual address space is divided into one
system space + several user spaces.
 Recall that the Memory Management Unit (MMU) translates
logical or virtual addresses into physical addresses.
 MMU uses the contents of the page table base register to
determine the address of the page table to be used in the
translation.
▪ Changing the contents of the page table base register can enable us to
use a different page table, and switch from one space to another.
 At any given time, the page table base register can point to
one page table.
▪ Thus, only one page table can be used in the translation process at a
given time.
▪ Pages belonging to only one space are accessible at any
given time.
 When multiple, independent user programs coexist in the
main memory, how to ensure that one program does not
modify/destroy the contents of the other?
 Processor usually has two states of operation:
▪ Supervisor state.
▪ User state.
 Supervisor state:
▪ Operating system routines are executed.
 User state:
▪ User programs are executed.
▪ Certain privileged instructions cannot be executed in user state.
▪ These privileged instructions include the ones which change page
table base register.
▪ Prevents one user from accessing the space of other users.
Secondary Storage
Disk

Disk drive

Disk controller
 Sector 0, track 1
Sector 3, track n
Sector 0, track 0

Figure 5.30. Organization of one surface of a disk.

 Sector header
 Following the data, there is an error-
correction code (ECC).
 Formatting process
 Difference between inner tracks and outer
tracks
 Access time – seek time / rotational delay
(latency time)
 Data buffer/cache
Processor Main memory

System bus

Disk controller

Disk drive Disk drive

Figure 5.31. Disks connected to the system bus.

 Seek
 Read
 Write
 Error checking
 Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
 Using multiple disks makes it cheaper for
huge storage, and also possible to improve
the reliability of the overall system.
 RAID0 – data striping
 RAID1 – identical copies of data on two disks
 RAID2, 3, 4 – increased reliability
 RAID5 – parity-based error-recovery
 (a) Cross-section

Pit Land

Reflection Reflection

No reflection

Source Detector Source Detector Source Detector

(b) Transition from pit to land

0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

(c) Stored binary pattern

Figure 5.32. Optical disk.

 CD-ROM
 CD-Recordable (CD-R)
 CD-ReWritable (CD-RW)
 DVD
 DVD-RAM
 File File
mark File
mark
• •
• • 7 or 9
• • bits
• •

File gap Record Record Record Record

gap gap

Figure 5.33. Organization of data on magnetic tape.

 There is no specific input or output instructions
 The CPU can manipulate I/O data residing in interface registers with the same instructions that are used
to manipulate memory words.
 Each interface is organized as set of registers(read & write in normal address space).
 Memory mapped I/O can use memory type instructions to access I/O data.
 It allows the computer to use the same instructions for either i/o transfer or for memory transfers.
 The advantage is that the load and store instructions used for reading and writing from memory can be
used to input and output data from I/O registers.

CPU Address
I/O address
Data

Memory read Memory address

Memory write

a) CPU Signals b) Address space division

 Memory Mapped Input/Output Input/Output Mapped Input/Output
1. Each port is treated as a memory Each port is treated as an independent
location. unit.
2. CPU’s memory address space is Separate address spaces for memory and
divided between memory and input/output ports.
input/output ports.
3. Single instruction can transfer Two instruction are necessary to transfer
data between memory and port. data between memory and port.
4. Data transfer is by means of Each port can be accessed by means of IN
instruction like MOVE. or OUT instructions.
 Program controlled I/O is one in which the processor repeatedly checks a status flag to achieve the
required synchronization between processor & I/O device.
 The processor polls the device.
 It is useful in small low speed systems where hardware cost must be minimized.
 It requires that all input/output operators be executed under the direct control o f the CPU.
 The transfer is between CPU registers(accumulator) and a buffer register connected to the
input/output device.
 The i/o device does not have direct access to main memory.
 A data transfer from an input/output device to main memory requires the execution of
several instructions by the CPU, including an input instruction to transfer a word from the
input/output device to the CPU and a store instruction to transfer a word from CPU to main
memory.
 One or more additional instructions may be needed for address communication and data
word counting.
Name Mnemonic
Branch BR
Jump JMP
Skip SKP
Call CALL
Return RET
Compare CMP
Test(by ADDing) TST
 A Suspension of a process such as the execution of a computer program, caused
by an event external to that process, and performed in such a way that the
process can be resumed. A way to improve processor utilization.

Need For Interrupts?

 The OS is a reactive program
1. When you give some input
2. It will perform computations
3. Produces output BUT
4. Meanwhile you can interact with the system by interrupting the running
process or
5. You can stop and start another process.
 This reactive ness is due to interrupts
 Modern Operating Systems Are Interrupt driven
 I/O device request an interrupt by activating a bus line called interrupt-request.
 A single interrupt request line may be used to serve n devices.
 All devices are connected to interrupt request line via switches to ground.
 To request an interrupt, a device closes its associated switch.
 If all interrupt-request signals INTR1 to INTRn are inactive, that is, if all
switches are open, the voltage on the interrupt request line will equal to
Vdd.
 This is an inactivate state of the line.
 When a device requests an interrupt by closing its switch, the voltage on
the line drops to 0, causing the interrupt- request signal INTR received by
the processor to go to 1.
 If closing of one (or) more switches that cause the line value to drop to 0,
the value of logical OR of the request from individual devices, that is
INTR=INTR1+INTR2+INTR3..............
 Use the complement form of INTR to name of the interrupt signal on the
common line because this signal is active in the low voltage state
 A processor has the facility to enable and disable interrupts
as desired.
 When a device request the interrupt during the processor
service for another interrupt, the result cause the processor
enter into the infinite loop.
 This can be handled by the following 2 ways:
▪ The processor ignore the interrupt request line(INTR) until the
Interrupt Service Routine(ISR) is completed.
▪ This can be done by using interrupt-Disable as first instruction and
interrupt-Enable as the last instruction.
 The second option is processor automatically disable interrupts before
starting the execution of the ISR.
 The status register PS stored in the stack with PC value.
 The processor set this register bit 1 when the interrupt accept and when
a return instruction is executed, the contents of the PS are cleared (0)and
stored in the stack again.
 When the number of devices initiating interrupts.
 For example, device X may request an interrupt while an
interrupt caused by device Y is being serviced.
 Hence all the device using the common interrupt line.
 Additional information require to identify the device that
activated the request.
 When the two devices activated the line at the same time,
we must break up the tie and chose one the device request
among two. Some scheme should be used by the processor.
1. Polling scheme
The device that raises the interrupt will set one of the bit (IRQ) in status
register to the processor will poll the devices to find which raised an interrupt
first.
Disadvantage:
Time spend in interrogating the IRQ bits of the devices that may not be
requesting any service.
2. Vectored interrupts
To reduce the time involved in the polling scheme, a device requesting an
interrupt may identify itself directly to the processor. • A device can send a
special code to the processor over the bus. The code is used to identify the
device. • If the interrupt produces a CALL to a predetermined memory location,
which is the starting address of ISR, then that address is called vectored address
and such interrupts are called vectored interrupts.
3. Interrupt priority
When a interrupt arrives from one (or) more devices simultaneously, the processor
has to decide which request should be serviced first. • The processor takes this decision
with the help of interrupt priorities. • The processor accepts interrupt request having
highest priority. • Each request assign a different priority level. • The request received from
the interrupt request line are sent to a priority arbitration circuit in the processor. • The
request is accepted only if it has a higher priority level than that currently assigned to the
processor.
4. Controlling device request
The processor allow only the input / output devices requested(interrupt), that are
being used by a given program. • Other devices should not be allowed to generate interrupt
requests even though they are ready to transfer the data. • Hence, we need a mechanism in
the interface circuits of individual devices to control whether the device is allowed to
generate an interrupt request. •
Two mechanism for control request:
1. One is at the device end- interrupt enable bit in the control register(IRQ).
2. Processor end- enable bit in the program status register(PS) or priority structure
determine whether a given interrupt request will be accepted.