Language Teaching Methods: An

Overview
What is the best teaching method for learning English?
According to academic research, linguists have demonstrated that there is not one
single best method for everyone in all contexts, and that no one teaching
method is inherently superior to the others.

Also, it is not always possible – or appropriate – to apply the same methodology to all
learners, who have different objectives, environments and learning needs.

Applying the most appropriate method for that learner’s specific

objectives, learning style and context.
An experienced professional language teacher always adopts the Principled
Eclecticism approach, deciding on the most suitable techniques and applying the
most appropriate methodology for that learner’s specific objectives, learning style
and context.

Methods of teaching English have developed rapidly, especially in the previous 40

years. As a language learner, training manager, or teacher, it is important to
understand the various methods and techniques so that you are able to navigate the
market, make educated choices, and boost your enjoyment of learning a language.

An Overview
Each teaching method is based on a particular vision of understanding the language
or the learning process, often using specific techniques and materials used in a set
sequence.

The main methodologies are listed below in the chronological order of their
development:
 Grammar Translation – the classical method
 Direct Method – discovering the importance of speaking
 Audio-lingualism – the first modern methodology
 Humanistic Approaches – a range of holistic methods applied to language
learning
 Communicative Language Teaching – the modern standard method
 Principled Eclecticism – fitting the method to the learner, not the
learner to the method
Embed this image | View large version

What are the Differences?

Each method has a different focus or priority, so let’s look at what this means in
practical terms in the classroom.

The more common methods have a link to a separate page with more details and an
explanation of how they work, including the most common method currently used –
Communicative Language Teaching:

Method Focus Characteristics

Translate from English

into your native
Grammar Translation Written literary texts language

Student learns by
Direct Method (also Everyday spoken associating meaning
called Natural Method) language directly in English

Listening and speaking

Sentence and sound drills and pattern
Audio-Lingual Method patterns practice only in English
 English grammar rules
Cognitive Code deduced and then
Approach Grammar rules understood in context

Humanistic Approaches – 4 popular examples:

Teacher is silent to allow

Student interaction student awareness of
– The Silent Way rather than teacher how English works

Relaxed atmosphere,
with music; encourages
Meaningful texts and subliminal learning of
– Suggestopedia vocabulary English

Understanding of English
– Community Language through active student
Learning Student interaction interaction

– Comprehension English speaking

Approach (Natural delayed until students
Approach, the are ready; meaning
Learnables, and Total Listening clarified through actions
Physical Response) comprehension and visuals

Understanding of English
Interaction, authentic through active student
Communicative communication and interaction; role play,
Language Teaching negotiating meaning games, information gaps

Content based on
Content-based, Task- What is being relevance to students’
based, and Participatory communicated, not lives: topics, tasks,
Approaches structure of English problem-solving

Learning Strategy Teach learning

Training, Cooperative strategies, cooperation;
Learning, and Multiple activities vary according
Intelligences How to learn to different intelligences

Based on Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (Oxford University Press)

Modern Teaching Methods

As mentioned above, the modern language teacher doesn’t follow one rigid method,
but applies the Principled Eclecticism approach – fitting the method to the learner,
not vice versa.
This means choosing the techniques and activities that are appropriate for each
particular task, context and learner, with a focus on motivation and helping
learners become independent and inspired to learn more.
The explanation of Principled Eclecticism also includes a useful ten-point guide for
teachers and language students on the best teaching and learning techniques.
By Alex Taylor
Direct and Grammar Translation Methods
Grammar Translation Method
Sometimes also known as the Classical Method, this is a traditional teaching
technique that was used to teach Latin and Greek and was particularly in vogue
during the 16th Century.

The focus at this time was on the translation of texts, grammar, and rote learning of
vocabulary. There was no emphasis on speaking and listening comprehension
because Latin and Greek were taught more as academic subjects rather than a
means of oral communication.

This teaching method is still common in many countries and institutions around the
world, and still appeals to those interested in languages from an intellectual or
linguistic perspective. However, it does little to improve your ability to use the
language for oral communication.

View large version with all methods

Direct Method
This approach, also known as the ‘oral‘ or ‘natural‘ method, originated around the
1900s as an alternative to the traditional grammatical translation method. At this
time teachers were starting to experiment with teaching and educational models as
previous techniques were failing to improve spoken communication.
The focus is on good pronunciation, with spontaneous use of the
language, no translation, and little grammar analysis.

The Direct Method is based on the direct involvement of the student when speaking,
and listening to, the foreign language in common everyday situations. Consequently,
there is lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and
little if any analysis of grammar rules and syntax.
The focus of the lessons is on good pronunciation, often introducing learners to
phonetic symbols before they see standard writing examples.

The Direct Method continues to provoke interest and enthusiasm today, but it is not
an easy methodology to use in a classroom situation. It requires small classes and
high student motivation, and in the artificial environment of a classroom it is difficult
to generate natural situations of understanding and guarantee sufficient practice for
everyone.

However, variants of this method have been developed where the teacher allows
limited explanations in the student’s native language and explains some grammar
rules to correct common errors a student may make when speaking.

One of the most famous supporters of this method was the German Maximilian
Berlitz, who founded the Berlitz chain of private language schools.

Some characteristics of this method are:

 Lessons are in the target language

 There is a focus on everyday vocabulary

 Visual aids are used to teach vocabulary

 Particular attention is placed on the accuracy of pronunciation and

grammar

 A systematic approach is developed for comprehension and oral

expression

Summary
When – 1900 to 1930s approximately, some limited use into the 1970s
Focus – Everyday spoken language
Characteristics – Student learns by associating meaning directly in English
Supporters – Maximilian Berlitz, Carl Albert Krause

By Alex Taylor
The Audio-lingual Teaching Method
With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of
their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the
Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology.

View large version with all methods

Explanation
Based on Skinner’s Behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using
a system of reinforcement. Correct behaviour receives positive feedback, while errors
receive negative feedback.

This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in
the target language.

Emphasis is on the acquisition of patterns in common everyday

dialogue.

The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not
on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in
common everyday dialogue.

These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the
foreign language are automatic.

Some characteristics of this method are:

 Drills are used to teach structural patterns

 Set phrases are memorised with a focus on intonation

 Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum

  Vocabulary is taught in context

 Audio-visual aids are used

 Focus is on pronunciation

 Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately

Modern Usage
The Audio-lingual Method is still in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons
rather than as the foundation of the course. These types of lessons can be popular as they are
relatively simple, from the teacher’s point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect.

Some of the most famous supporters of this method were Giorgio Shenker, who promoted
guided self learning with the Shenker method in Italy, and Robin Callan, who created the Callan
method.

Developments & Problems

This extensive memorization, repetition and over-learning of patterns was the key to the
method’s success, as students could often see immediate results, but it was also its weakness.

It was discovered that language was not acquired through a

process of habit formation.

The method’s insistence on repetition and memorization of standard phrases ignored the role of
context and knowledge in language learning. As the study of linguistics developed, it was
discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation, and that errors
were not necessarily bad.

It was also claimed that the methodology did not deliver an improvement in communicative ability
that lasted over the long term.

Summary
When – 1950 to 1970, some sporadic or selective use today
Focus – Sentence and sound patterns
Characteristics – Listening and speaking drills and pattern practice only in English
Supporters – B.F. Skinner, Leonard Bloomfield, Robin Callan

By Alex Taylor
Teaching approaches: what is
audiolingualism?
By Tim Bowen
An article discussing the concept of audiolingualism.

There seems to be a widely held perception amongst language teachers that

methods and approaches have finite historical boundaries - that the Grammar-
Translation approach is dead, for example. Similarly, audiolingualism was in vogue
in the 1960s but died out in the 70s after Chomsky’s famous attack on behaviourism
in language learning.

In this context, it is worth considering for a moment what goes on in the typical
language learning classroom. Do you ever ask your students to repeat phrases or
whole sentences, for example? Do you drill the pronunciation and intonation of
utterances? Do you ever use drills? What about choral drilling? Question and
answer? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then, consciously or
unconsciously, you are using techniques that are features of the audiolingual
approach.

This approach has its roots in the USA during World War II, when there was a
pressing need to train key personnel quickly and effectively in foreign language
skills. The results of the Army Specialized Training Program are generally regarded
to have been very successful, with the caveat that the learners were in small groups
and were highly motivated, which undoubtedly contributed to the success of the
approach.

The approach was theoretically underpinned by structural linguistics, a movement in

linguistics that focused on the phonemic, morphological and syntactic systems
underlying the grammar of a given language, rather than according to traditional
categories of Latin grammar. As such, it was held that learning a language involved
mastering the building blocks of the language and learning the rules by which these
basic elements are combined from the level of sound to the level of sentence. The
audiolingual approach was also based on the behaviourist theory of learning, which
held that language, like other aspects of human activity, is a form of behaviour.

In the behaviourist view, language is elicited by a stimulus and that stimulus then
triggers a response. The response in turn then produces some kind of reinforcement,
which, if positive, encourages the repetition of the response in the future or, if
negative, its suppression. When transposed to the classroom, this gives us the
classic pattern drill- Model: She went to the cinema yesterday. Stimulus; Theatre.
Response: She went to the theatre yesterday. Reinforcement: Good! In its purest
form audiolingualism aims to promote mechanical habit-formation through repetition
of basic patterns. Accurate manipulation of structure leads to eventual fluency.
Spoken language comes before written language. Dialogues and drill are central to
the approach. Accurate pronunciation and control of structure are paramount.

While some of this might seem amusingly rigid in these enlightened times, it is worth
reflecting on actual classroom practice and noticing when activities occur that can be
said to have their basis in the audiolingual approach. Most teachers will at some
point require learners to repeat examples of grammatical structures in context with a
number of aims in mind: stress, rhythm, intonation, "consolidating the structure",
enabling learners to use the structure accurately through repetition, etc. Question
and answer in open class or closed pairs to practise a particular form can also be
argued to have its basis in the audiolingual approach, as can, without doubt, any
kind of drill.

Although the audiolingual approach in its purest form has many weaknesses (notably
the difficulty of transferring learnt patterns to real communication), to dismiss the
audiolingual approach as an outmoded method of the 1960s is to ignore the reality of
current classroom practice which is based on more than 2000 years of collective
wisdom.
The Humanistic Approaches to Learning
An explosion of new and radical approaches to learning a language came to light in
the 1970s. These approaches are often grouped under the title of Humanistic
Approaches due to their method of concentration, touching on the innate ability and
capacity that all learners are presumed to possess.

View large version with all methods

Suggestopedia
This method is based on the idea that the mind has great potential and can retain
information by the power of suggestion. This teaching method uses relaxation as a
means of retaining new knowledge.

In their initial lessons learners receive large quantities of information in the new
language. The text is translated and then read aloud with classical music in the
background.

The scope is to supply an atmosphere of total relaxation where understanding is

purely accidental and subliminal. Using large quantities of linguistic material
introduces the idea that language understanding is easy and natural.

In the following lesson, learners use the material in a variety of communication

activities. The original learning techniques and theory developed by Georgi Lozanov
have since developed into the Accelerated Learning movement.

Summary
When – 1970s to 1980s
Focus – Meaningful texts and vocabulary
Characteristics – Relaxed atmosphere, with music; encourage subliminal learning of
English
Supporters – Georgi Lozanov

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Allow students to produce when they are ‘ready’. Improvement
comes from supplying communicative input, not from forcing
production.
– Dr Stephen Krashen
This method draws on the basic principles of how young children learn their first
language. Developed by James Asher, this teaching method involves a wide range of
physical activities and a lot of listening and comprehension, as well as an emphasis
on learning as fun and stimulating.

Total Physical Response has limitations, especially when teaching abstract language
and tasks, but is widely considered to be effective for beginners and is still the
standard approach for young learners.

Summary
When – 1970s, widely used today for young leaners
Focus – Listening comprehension
Characteristics – English speaking delayed until students are ready; meaning
clarified through actions and visuals
Supporters – James Asher

The Silent Way

Another example of a method categorized under the Humanistic Approaches, with
this technique the teacher is supposed to be practically silent – hence the name of
the method – and avoids explaining everything to the students.

This method is based on a problem-solving approach to learning, whereby the

students’ learning becomes autonomous and co-operative.

The scope is to help students select the appropriate phrases and know how to
control them, with good intonation and rhythm. The teacher does not repeat the
material nor supplies the phrases that the student has to imitate, and there is no use
of the learner’s native language.

Patterns contain vocabulary, and coloured guides for pronunciation are used to assist
the teacher in guiding the students’ understanding while saying the least amount
possible.

Summary
When – 1970s
Focus – Student interaction rather than teacher interaction
Characteristics – Teacher is silent to allow student awareness of how English works
Supporters – Caleb Gattegno

Community Language Learning

Also sharing many of the same principles as the Silent Way, this technique was
relatively short-lived. Seeing the student as a ‘whole’ person, the method involved
students sitting in a circle and encouraging them to use their feelings, intellect,
relationships and reactions.

Summary
When – 1970s
Focus – Student interaction
Characteristics – Understanding of English through active student interaction
Supporters – Charles Arthur Curran
By Alex Taylor
Communicative Language Teaching
The Communicative Method is in reality an umbrella term – a broad approach rather
than a specific teaching methodology, and has now become the accepted ‘standard’
in English language teaching.

View large version with all methods

Communicative Language Teaching is a natural follow-on from the reaction during

the 70s against previous methods which over-focused on teaching grammatical
structures and template sentences, and which gave little or no importance to how
language is actually used practically.

Explanation
Emphasizes the ability to communicate the meaning of the
message, instead of concentrating on grammatical perfection.

The Communicative approach emphasizes the ability to communicate the message

in terms of its meaning, instead of concentrating exclusively on grammatical
perfection or phonetics. Therefore, the understanding of the second language is
evaluated in terms of how much the learners have developed their communicative
abilities and competencies.

In essence, it considers using the language to be just as important as

actually learning the language.

The Communicative Language Teaching method has various characteristics that

distinguish it from previous methods:

 Understanding occurs through active student interaction in the foreign

language
  Teaching occurs by using authentic English texts

 Students not only learn the second language but they also learn strategies
for understanding

 Importance is given to learners’ personal experiences and situations,

which are considered as an invaluable contribution to the content of the
lessons

 Using the new language in unrehearsed contexts creates learning

opportunities outside the classroom

Misconceptions
As the method is a broad approach to teaching English, rather than a rigid series of
activities, there are some popular misconceptions of what CLT involves.

Learning a language is interactive, co-operative, learner-centered and content-

based, but the approach does not mean that learning a second language involves
just ‘conversation‘.

Using the Method

The most common educational model applied in the context of the Communicative
Method is the Functional-Notional approach, which emphasizes the organisation of
the syllabus.

This breaks down the use of language into 5 functional categories that can be more
easily analyzed: personal (feelings, etc.), interpersonal (social and working
relationships), directive (influencing others), referential (reporting about things,
events, people or language itself), and imaginative (creativity and artistic
expression).

These 5 broad functions are then delivered by the teacher in the classroom using the
‘3 Ps’ teaching model, which stand for Presentation, Practice and Production.

Summary
When – 1980s to today
Focus – Interaction, authentic communication and negotiating meaning
Characteristics – Understanding of English through active student interaction; role
play, games, information gaps
Supporters – David Nunan, D.A. Wilkins

By Alex Taylor
The Natural Approach to Language
Learning
Stevie TanDate Published: 16 May 2016Date Modified: 17 Feb 2025

How did 7.8 billion people become so fluent in their first languages? How
did and when did they become so good, and at what point did they stop
stammering awkwardly and making rookie mistakes?
In this post we’ll look deeper into the processes and techniques of first language
acquisition. Using the lens of the Natural Approach Theory (a learning method
that focuses on communication and language exposure), we can discover how
native speakers learned their languages and how you can do the same.

What is the Natural Approach to Language

Learning?
The Natural Approach is method of second language learning that focuses on
communication skills and language exposure before rules and grammar, similar
to how you learn your first language.
Who Proposed the Natural Approach Method?
The Natural Approach language learning theory was developed by Drs. Stephen
Krashen of USC and Tracy Terrell of the University of California, San Diego.
Dr. Krashen is a linguist and researcher who focused his studies on the curious
process of language acquisition. Dr. Terrell, a fellow linguist, joined him in
developing the highly-scrutinized methodology known as the Natural Approach.
What Does “Natural” Mean?
The theory is based on the radical notion that we all learn a language in the
same way. And that way can be seen in how we acquire our first languages as
children.
If we want to know the secrets of picking up a new language, we should
observe how a child gets his first. And hey, we know it works because we have
7.8 billion humans on the planet who, on a daily basis, wield their first language
with astonishing fluency.
The term “natural” almost presupposes that there are unnatural methods of
learning a language. To doctors Krashen and Terrell, these are the structural
approaches to learning—the grammar method that deconstructs a language
into its component pieces, and the listen-and-repeat drills that happen in
classrooms.
In the Natural Approach, there’s almost a zen-like attitude towards acquiring
a language.
You’re not forced to utter words or phrases, much less pronounce them
correctly. There are no endless drills on correct usage, no mentions of grammar
rules or long lists of vocabulary to memorize. There’s no hurry or worry in your
learning.
By continuously exposing you to the language, to how it’s used in different
situations and by giving you meaningful and memorable inputs (like a child’s
experiences with his or her parents), a spontaneous emergence of
speech happens.
The Principles of the Natural Approach
The basic principles of the theory can be broken into four major stages of
language acquisition.
1. Pre-Production
The first stage in the Natural Approach is known as pre-production and is
essentially a silent phase, where nothing seems to be happening.
Children have this stage when they’re not really talking at all. It seems nothing is
going on. You’re essentially getting nada. No utterance, just a blank stare.
Actually, so many things are happening. They’re listening. Picking up on
meanings. Reading context clues. Interpreting and making guesses on what is
being said. Making mistakes and honing their guesses.
2. Early Production
The next stage, early production, is when babies start uttering their first words,
phrases and simple sentences.
The focus is still on comprehension. But this time, the crux of the issue is “Are
you being understood by the other person?” (Again, you don’t need perfect
grammar for this.)
Bothering with correct grammar comes late in the acquisition stage. In the
Natural Approach, the early stages are replete with grammatically incorrect
communication that aren’t really implicitly corrected.
When a child says, “I drinks,” mommy doesn’t give him a firm scolding. She finds
it cute and then hands him a drink. But that child is slowly getting fluent with his
first language. He’s communicating and using language to express what he
wants, and all that’s happening without any direct grammar lessons.
3. Speech Emergence
Over time, the child’s singular words and short phrases will transform into
lengthier ones. Thus enters the speech emergence stage.
The sentences, while longer, are still relatively basic and are likely to contain a
lot of mistakes in grammar, pronunciation or word usage. However, the
progress is undeniable as more content is added to the speech.
Moreover, it would seem that the child is inclined to actually work through and
craft sentences for the sake of communication. At this point, the child’s level of
understanding others’ speech is quite high.
4. Intermediate Fluency
Progress to fluency continues as more exposure to the language happens.
The (meaningful) linguistic experience stacks up so fast so that when that child
sits waiting for his first grammar class, he’s already chatting non-stop with his
seatmates, with perfectly decent grammar, even before the language teacher
arrives.
This is the final stage, known as intermediate fluency.
And when the lessons do come, the child is just getting to peek behind the
scenes to see the specific rules (grammar) guiding his own language usage.
All that’s explained to him is the rationale, the nuances of communication,
behind the groupings of words he’s been using naturally all along. It’s all a
review of what he already innately knows.
And that’s what Natural Approach is all about. It’s looking back to first language
acquisition and using the whole bag of tricks there in order to get the same kind
of success for second (and third, fourth, fifth, etc.) language acquisition.
Just because you’re learning another language doesn’t mean you have to
reinvent the wheel. The expectations and the learning curve might be different
for adults, but the underlying human, mental and psychological mechanisms
are the same.
The Characteristics of Natural Approach
Input
Input refers to what’s being relayed to the language learner—the “packages” of
language that are delivered to and received by the listener.
The Natural Approach puts high emphasis on not just the amount but also the
nature of the input received.
Input is also known as “exposure.” For proper, meaningful language acquisition
to occur, the input should also be meaningful and comprehensible.
Comprehension
In the Natural Approach, the initial focus really is on comprehension. The crux
of the issue is, “Do you understand what is being said?”
You don’t need to notice subject-verb agreement for this.
Understanding the meaning of something can be done in a variety of ways
besides technical grammar breakdowns. Comprehension must precede
production for true internal learning to be done.
Communication
When it comes to language acquisition, the Natural Approach places more
significance on communication than grammar.
In order for the child or learner to eventually produce their own sentences, it’s
more crucial that he or she is constantly exposed to meaningful communication
than grammar lessons.
The Theory of Learning
The Natural Approach is a method of language teaching, but there’s also a
theoretical model behind it that gives a bit more detail about what can happen
during the process of internalizing a language.
This model consists of five major hypotheses.
For the most part, they repeat a lot of what was already previously described,
but they provide a workable framework that can be picked apart for crafting
learning strategies (we’ll get into that after!).
Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
There are two distinct ways to learn a language.
One way is via acquisition and is akin to how children acquire their very first
language. The process is not conscious and happens without the learner
knowing. The gears are already turning as the learner processes the second
language and uses it almost strictly for communication.
The second way is learning, the conscious method that involves the learner
actively studying and gaining formal instruction about the language and its
rules. Learning focuses more on the technicalities of the language.
Between the two, acquisition is more significant in enabling language fluency.
Monitor Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that the language learner’s knowledge gained from
conscious learning is largely used to monitor output rather than enabling
true communication. In other words, the “learned” system functions as a
language checker.
Meanwhile, the knowledge gained from acquisition does enable spontaneous
speech and language production. The “acquired” system is what grants learners
the ability to actually utilize the language.
Monitoring via the learned system requires the learner to essentially take a
mental pause before saying anything. The phrase-to-be is scanned for any errors
and may be corrected accordingly based on the learned rules and grammar.
Input Hypothesis
In order for proper language acquisition to occur (and be maintained), the
learner must be exposed to input that’s slightly above their current level of
understanding.
The basic formula for this kind of input is “i + 1” in which “i” represents the
learner’s language competence.
Essentially, the language exposure must be a step ahead in difficulty in order for
the learner to remain receptive and ready for improvement.
Natural Order Hypothesis
On the acquisition level, learning a language occurs in a natural and
predictable order.
The grammatical rules of a language are internalized in a set, predetermined
sequence, and this sequence isn’t affected by actual formal instruction.
The hypothesis also suggests that learners of the same language can expect the
same natural order. For example, most learners who learn English would learn
the progressive “—ing” and plural “—s” before the “—s” endings of third-person
singular verbs.
Affective Filter Hypothesis
Language acquisition doesn’t occur in a vacuum. In fact, the learner’s
emotions, or affect, and attitude can either improve or impede the process.
“Affective filters” can thus play a large role in the overall success of language
learning.
Negative emotions can put a noticeable hamper on language acquisition. When
a learner is feeling anxious, embarrassed or upset, his or her receptivity towards
language input can be decreased. This makes it harder to learn or process
language features that would otherwise be readily processed.
Conclusively, it’s important that a learner is relaxed and keen to improve.
Having a comfortable language-learning environment can thus be a great aid.
So in the next section, we’ll look at five powerful first language acquisition
strategies that you can perfectly apply to acquiring that second language and
answer the question: “How can I learn a language effectively?”
How to Learn a Language with the Natural
Approach
1. Don’t Learn the Language, Acquire It
The first thing to notice in The Natural Approach is that there’s an important
difference between “learning the language” and “acquiring the language.” And
like mentioned earlier, it all has to do with the activities involved in each.
“Learning” involves conscious instruction. When you memorize usage rules and
vocabulary, when you memorize the different conjugations of the verb, when
you’re concerned whether or not the tense used is correct—those are all
“learning” related activities.
“Learning a language” means you’re studying a language, its linguistic forms
(grammar, semantics, phonology) and how the different elements interact with
each other. Most “learning” activities happen inside a classroom, but you could
certainly manage to do these independently.
“Learning the language” will get you good grades, but it won’t necessarily
lead to fluency.
“Acquiring,” on the other hand, involves different activities that are, for the most
part, communicative and immersive in nature.
Meaning, these activities give you plenty of opportunities to listen, observe and
experience how language is used. And, even better, these activities give you
plenty of opportunities to use the language in order to communicate.
For example, you’re living with an Armenian family. You get to hear what the
mom screams when she wakes the kids up in the morning, or what she says
when she calls them to the table for dinner. You hear grandma talk to you in
Armenian because she often forgets that you’re not one of her granddaughters.
Every day you find yourself exposed to the language. You’ll slowly pick up the
language. You’ll be able to work out the context of things being said and work
out their meanings. Maybe the dirty words first. Then you’ll pick up their
expressions, then maybe the adjectives and verbs, and so on and so forth.
This is inevitable. The receptive nature of your brain will ensure that.
Exposure to language is big when you want to acquire it rather than “learn”
it. So as a language learner (or rather, “acquirer”), you have to put yourself in
the way of language that’s rife with action and understandable context.
Watch movies, listen to songs, enjoy some podcasts, read (children’s)
books and talk with native speakers.
You’re not required to understand everything. See, hear and get a feel for how
your target language is used by native speakers.
You can also change the language option of your gadgets and social media
accounts so that they display in the target language of your choice. You can also
make your home a hub of language learning by using Post-Its to label the
different objects that you use every day in the language of choice.
Outsource your label-making for the most important vocabulary words by using
a Vocabulary Stickers set, which gives you well over 100 words to put on items
you use and see every day around your home and office.
There’s so much you can do, short of going to a country where your target
language is spoken, to make picking up a language as immersive and as natural
as possible.
2. Break the Rules Early, Make Mistakes Often
Now, don’t take all that’s been said before this to mean that grammar doesn’t
matter at all or that you should never correct the initial mistakes you make.
But the point is, grammar doesn’t come early in the game. In fact, it really
gains purpose when you’ve had plenty of experience with the language.
In the early stages of picking up a language, you have to be open to making
plenty of mistakes and looking foolish. That means opening your mouth even
when you’re not sure if you got the pronunciation or accent right, or even when
you’re not confident of the words you wanted to say.
You’ll make mistakes. That’s for sure. And you’ll have to be indifferent to those
mistakes. The world doesn’t end when you commit a booboo, even when you
come out looking foolish.
A practical thing you can do is to get some conversation practice online with a
native speaker.
For example, on one of the most popular language exchange sites, you can
Skype somebody who’ll be very open to teaching you and listening to you
barbarize his native tongue. He or she will just be glad that you expressed an
interest in their native language.
You don’t have to speak in just the target language. Switch to English mid-
sentence if you have to. Be honest about your skill level early on and you’ll
reduce a lot of anxiety.
Now the native speaker will be gracious and try to correct the mistakes. Take
them with equal grace. But remember that correcting grammar isn’t really the
top priority.
It’s actually getting a feel for committing those mistakes and coming out with
the realization that, “Hey, I’m actually fine! I made 600 mistakes today and
survived.”
I want you to be very good at this. I want you to know that it’s no big deal. So
claim your absolute divine right to make mistakes. Just like a child.
3. Get Exposure to Different Situations with Different Senses
Going to a country to acquire its national language only works when you’re
actually exposing yourself to the myriad of available experiences in the country
of choice.
A change in geography won’t do you any good if you only keep to yourself or
associate exclusively with fellow English speakers.
You don’t even have to up and leave just to get exposure and immersion.
Again, you don’t need a passport to have the needed immersion. Getting a
language learning partner is one method for doing this and was already pointed
out earlier.
Another method is actively seeking out the native speakers who are living in
your area. Chances are they already have a local association that hosts cultural
activities such as food raves and language meetups like these in New York.
Attend these and you’ll find tons of fellow language learners (or rather,
acquirers). Knowing that there are others who are on the same journey will be a
big boost.
Remember that when you’re going for exposure and immersion, you should
always try to get it in different situations and have the experiences fully
stimulate your senses.
Bathe yourself in the same experiences that native speakers have. Eat their
food, listen to their music. Read the headlines of their newspapers. Find out
what’s up with their local celebrities.
If you want to learn Chinese, spend a day in Chinatown. Dive into the rich
underbelly of Chinese culture and you’ll come out with priceless insights, not to
mention some really interesting home décor.
Get into some stores there and try to ask about the different stuff they sell.
Haggle prices. Watch out for hand gestures and you’ll have learned something
not found in grammar books.
Get some food packs and try to make out what’s written on the backs of
packages. You’ll learn plenty of contextually rich Chinese just by befriending the
characters on those food labels.
The stuff you’d ignore in your native language can be priceless study material in
your target language. For example, unless you’re a parent, you’re probably not
binge-watching children’s songs on YouTube. You probably don’t spend a lot of
time watching commercials on purpose.
But that’s exactly the kind of stuff you need to be absorbing in your target
languages.
Some virtual immersion platforms capitalize on this wealth of content.
FluentU, for example, has a dedicated section for kid-oriented videos. The
program also has many other types of videos for language learning and you can
get different kinds of sensory exposure.
Contextual learning makes it easier to remember new vocabulary, sentence
constructions and grammar concepts. Expose yourself to authentic language as
soon as you can in your learning, to always give your learning context.
4. Work with Materials That Suit Your Level
Nobody would hand a physics book to a toddler, right?
One of the tragedies that befall many who try to acquire a language is that they
use the wrong materials for their level. When someone gives up on a language,
you usually hear one of these excuses:
“The audio was too fast.”
“I couldn’t understand a word in the book.”
“The sentences are too long.”
“I didn’t have enough time to digest what my partner was saying.”
It doesn’t mean that the language is too hard or the person is too slow. They
didn’t stand a chance because the materials they got exposed to were too
advanced, stepping beyond the “i + 1” formula of the input hypothesis.
It became gibberish and had no place in the memory to be anchored in.
The tragedy is that this person would’ve been perfectly able to acquire the
language had they been using materials that were more approachable for them.
That’s why we start beginners with children’s books—where the target language
is in bold, capital, colorful letters, where the sentences are simple and where
pictures help the folks figure out the meaning.
For exposure to be meaningful, it should be in the general area of the
learner’s competency. For example, it should be easy enough so that a reader
already understands at least 50% of the words in the sentences. (The remaining
50% is the room where the learner grows.)
Imagine a mountain climber ascending a steep rock. He doesn’t reach for those
grips that are several meters above him. Nope, he reaches for one an arm’s
length above, while the other hand is keeping him safe and steady.
So instead of banging your head against materials that prove how much you
don’t know, go for materials that say, “Yeah, you already know this. But look,
there’s more!”
Instead of challenging yourself with materials that ultimately overwhelm you,
strategically choose materials that you know you can master given enough time
and effort.
5. Make the Road to Fluency Stress-free
There are people who require pressure to really shine.
These are your Tiger Woods, your Michael Jordans and your Steven Spielbergs.
If there’s no pressure to be found, they push themselves to extract that special
performance, that special shot that only they can deliver.
These people aren’t the norm. (That’s why they get paid indecent amounts of
money.)
For sure, some amount of stress or anxiety is constructive—especially in fields
like medicine, law and business. But in the phenomenon of language
acquisition, our friend Dr. Stephen Krashen asserts that anxiety should be zero,
or as low as possible.
Refer back to the affective filter hypothesis.
For a language to be successfully acquired, motivation must not only be high,
but anxiety must also be low.
Otherwise, all the language inputs we’ve talked about earlier will find no home
in the brain. When a person is highly anxious, the immersive experience loses
impact and no amount of stimulation will be comprehensible input.
The pressure of a language test might push you to learn a language by
memorizing plenty of vocabulary, drilling grammar rules and getting good
grades, but it can’t always lead you to acquire language. (We’ve already
distinguished “learning” and “acquisition” earlier, right?)
Language acquisition is about being so relaxed and so dialed into the
conversation that you forget you’re talking in a foreign language. You become
engrossed with the message or content, instead of the medium.
So shed off the pressure you put on yourself. Thoughts like, “I need to learn this
now” or “I’ve got two months to learn this list” won’t be helpful to your cause.
Expose yourself to the language instead.
Watch your Spanish telenovela, eat your Chinese noodles after looking at the
labels, enjoy that children’s book in French. Don’t even think about grades or
timelines or milestones. Just put yourself in an environment where you can
listen and read and observe how the target language is used.
If you do that, my guess is that your acquisition will move into high gear in the
coming months.

And that’s really all there is to it!

I’ve just given you five powerful ways to achieve language acquisition, all
backed by the scientifically proven Natural Approach. They’ve also been proven
by 7.8 billion people.
So what are you waiting for? Go ahead and be a carefree child again.
After all, learning a language should be fun!
Good luck!
Teaching approaches: checking-
homework Challenge
By Jane Sjoberg
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Some ideas of how to make the whole-class correction of homework less of a chore
and more of an active challenge.

The problem: checking HW exercises without being boring. Suggestions on ways to

check exercises in class that don't turn the mood somber? I feel that checks are a
necessity, but have yet to find an effective way to do this.
These are just a few ideas of how to make the whole-class correction of homework
less of a chore and more of an active challenge. The suggestions given are
specifically geared to be used when correcting exercises set from a workbook or
worksheet as homework but some ideas may also be used when giving feedback for
tasks set in class.

1. Give students a chance to compare their answers in pairs. Students can then
correct/ change/ complete their own answers before a whole class check. This
puts students at the centre of the correction process from the start and asks
them to reflect upon their own and each other’s answers with a greater degree
of learner autonomy.

2. Take names out of a hat at random to nominate the students who are to
supply answers (make sure this is done in a ‘fun’ way, explaining to students
that they have an opportunity to PASS if their name is called).
3. Use a ball or a scrunched up ball of newspaper weighted with a thick rubber
band (lightweight balls that don’t bounce are best – bouncy balls have a
tendency to get lost in the darkest corners of the classroom) to throw at
random around the class to see who gets to give their answer to questions.
Whoever gets the ball throws it to the next student. Again, give students an
opportunity to pass if necessary.

4. Alternate between asking for answers to be volunteered and calling on

specific students to answer questions. Where the teacher is unfamiliar with
the various ability groups in a class, nominating students can be a nightmare,
especially if weaker or less confident learners are inadvertently asked to
provide their answer to more complex questions. However, nominating is a
way of ensuring the participation of those who are less likely to volunteer.
Alternating between volunteers and nominated students solves this problem in
part, but nominees should always be given the chance to pass if they prefer.

5. To ensure that all students participate in the correction process, pre-prepare a

grid that includes the question numbers for the various exercises that are to
be corrected. Leave a space next to each question number. At the beginning
of the lesson, get students to put their name down to answer the various
questions. Tell students that, even if they did not do the homework they can
still try to answer a question of their choice but do not force students to put
their names down. When all the students who wish to participate have put
their names down for at least one question, take the list in and use it to call on
the students to answer the questions in turn. This ensures that the students
called upon will be answering questions they themselves feel confident about
(or else questions for which they would prefer individual feedback). If this
process is repeated over several lessons, it also gives the teacher a chance
to see whether there are students who repeatedly prefer not to be involved in
the homework correction process. These students and their individual
problems regarding homework can then be dealt with on a one-to-one basis.

6. For fill-in-the-gaps exercises or simple one- or two-word answers present

feedback in power point or on an OHP. Go through answers one by one
giving time for students to check their own work. At the end of each exercise,
stop and give students a chance to query, provide alternatives, or request
further information regarding specific answers.

7. Ask the class to do a quick survey in groups ranking exercises from the most
to least difficult, the most to least interesting, the most to least useful etc.. Use
student feedback to decide which exercise to correct together first and then
give exercises ranked by the majority as the least interesting/difficult on
OHP/power point as above to speed up the correction process. This ensures
that students will be more alert during the correction of what they perceived to
be the most problematic areas of their homework. Homework ranking tasks
also provide important feedback to the teacher who may use the data
provided to check on the cause of problems areas at a later date. Students
 may perceive certain exercises as difficult for different reasons – length,
typology, unclear instructions, vocabulary density of exercise, grammatical
problems, uninteresting topic etc.. A further analysis of these issues may help
the teacher to decide which exercises to set or dedicate more time to in the
future. Remember to check your students’ ranking of difficult exercises after
correction – what students may have originally perceived as problematic may
not actually correspond to their own performance. This again may be
something that can be discussed and analyzed further at a later date.

8. For teachers in a hurry to get correcting out of the way – simply vary the order
in which exercises are corrected. This ensures that students are alert and are
following the correction process.

9. Get students to check through answers in pairs by photocopying the key

(readymade or produced by the teacher) or displaying answers on an OHP.
Set aside time at the end of the lesson for individual students to discuss
problem areas or organize a tutorial session where students can come and
discuss problems individually with the teacher while the group works on
another task/project work.

10. Change the time of the lesson in which homework is corrected. Most students
expect homework corrections to come right at the beginning of a lesson and,
let’s face it, it’s not the best or most enjoyable way to start off! Try checking
homework as a way of ‘calming down’ after a boisterous group-work session
or leave it till the end of the lesson. Incidentally, this also works with setting
homework. Try varying the point of the lesson at which homework is set to
ensure that all the students are paying attention!

11. Take in students’ workbooks occasionally or provide photocopies of exercises

that can be handed in. Though this does add to the teacher’s workload, it is
worth taking a look at how students deal with more mechanical exercises that
differ from extended written work which necessarily requires individual
marking and feedback. Taking a look at a workbook can provide an idea of
problem areas for individual students, again with a view to diagnosing
problem areas in structures/ vocabulary or assessing difficulties that may be
based on other factors such as lack of interest in the topic, unclear
instructions etc.. It may also allow the teacher to gain insight into how much
(or how little) homework an individual student is regularly putting in. Following
the teacher’s appraisal of the students’ workbooks individual tutorials may be
arranged to discuss issues as appropriate.

12. Provide mini keys of individual exercises to distribute to pairs. Students then
take it in turns to ‘play the teacher’ and check each other’s answers. Where
more than two exercises need checking pairs can exchange keys and repeat
the process as many times as necessary. The teacher can circulate and deal
with queries as pairs are checking. However, remember to provide an
 opportunity for the discussion of problem areas at the end of the pair-work
session or at the end of the lesson.

13. Most workbook exercises that need to be checked are not specifically
designed to practise pronunciation. Where pronunciation exercises are set
make sure that adequate time is given to teacher modelling and student
production of target items. In the majority of cases, i.e. where structures,
vocabulary and functions are being practised, vary the correction procedure
by taking time out along the way to focus on pronunciation/ intonation issues.
Even the most boring feedback sessions can be livened up by a rousing
choral repetition session!

14. Spot check on lexis by occasionally eliciting synonyms/ antonyms/ similar

expressions/ analogous idioms of items taken from the exercises being
corrected. This also provides an added opportunity for those who did not do
the homework to participate in the correction process and allows those who
did not necessarily provide a correct answer in an exercise to regain their
confidence in being able to answer extra questions. This technique is also
useful for involving more competent or confident students. Spot check
questions should therefore be carefully gauged to include the whole ability
range. Extra questions can also include pronunciation issues by eliciting word
stress, number of syllables, homophones etc. The teacher is obviously free to
ask spot check questions at any point during the correction process. However,
it may be worth just taking a quick look at the exercises that are to be
corrected beforehand so that appropriate extra questions may be devised in
advance.

15. Using photocopies or an OHP transparency, create a multiple choice answer

key for a few exercises where three possible answers to each question are
provided, only one of which is correct. Students then compare their own
answers with the alternatives given. They then choose the answer that they
consider correct (which may or may not correspond with their own original
answer). This activity gives students a chance to rethink their own answers
before the teacher finally provides the key. It also gives less confident
students and those who may not have completed the task an opportunity to
take part in the correction process.

16. Play the ‘Who wants to be a millionaire?’ game when correcting. In this case,
students are placed in two teams. Students from each team are called upon
alternately to provide answers to each question. Each team has a set number
of ‘ask a friend’, ‘fifty-fifty’ and ‘pass’ cards which they can use at their
discretion. (Numbers can be decided on the basis of how many students there
are in each team. For a class of 12 students with teams of 6 players each,
one card of each type should be ample. The ‘cards’ do not have to be made
as such. They may be simply registered on the board for each team and
rubbed off as they are used). For ‘ask-a-friend’ a student may ask another
member of his/her team to provide the answer. For ‘fifty-fifty’ the teacher gives
 two alternative answers and the student must choose which he/she considers
correct. (This may need some prior preparation, depending on the teacher’s
ability to come up with sneaky alternatives!) If the student passes, the answer
is given by the teacher and no points are scored. One word of warning – as
this game has a strong competitive element, please make sure that an equal
number of questions is given to each team and that a variety of exercises is
ensured. It is a good idea to split individual exercises into two halves and give
teams an equal number of questions each. If an exercise has an odd number
of answers, the teacher can simply provide the answer to the first question as
an example.

17. Finally, be upbeat about homework correction. Camp up the performance if

necessary with a round of applause for correct answers. Sound effects for
applause can be recorded or included in power point presentations or the
students themselves can be encouraged to clap when correct answers are
given. With younger students, take care that clapping does not turn to booing
wrong answers, however. If this is a risk, you might consider a collective
round of applause at the end of each exercise corrected. Also remember that
homework feedback which involves student participation may be an intense
source of satisfaction when students are able to provide the right answer but it
can also be a source of embarrassment for those who are unable to do so.
Make sure lots of praise and encouragement is given for answers that are
even partly correct and, where possible, give positive feedback for areas that
are not necessarily the focus of the exercise (such as good pronunciation in
the case of grammatical errors or wrong answers in comprehension
exercises).

Remember: students quickly tune in to the mood of their teacher. If the teacher
presents homework correction as a valid and interesting part of the learning process
it will be infectious and homework corrections need never be boring again!
Teaching approaches: computer assisted
language learning
By Tim Bowen
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An article discussing the development of computer assisted language learning.

In terms of the wider picture of language teaching and learning, it is sometimes easy
to forget that computers have been available as a resource in language teaching for
little more than twenty years. During this relatively short time, there has been a
dramatic change in the number of options open to language teachers and learners.
Initially, computers were mainly used as sophisticated typewriters, allowing learners
to write and to correct and amend easily and effectively. Some basic interactive
software was available in the early years, but this was generally restricted to the type
of exercise found in grammar practice books with the added feature of a sound to
indicate a correct or incorrect answer.

The real advance in the use of computers in language teaching came with the
transition from floppy-disc to compact discs (CDs) as the basic form of software, the
proliferation of e-mail as a means of communication and, most importantly, with the
arrival of the Internet as a widely available resource. Today there is a vast array of
language teaching material available on CD ROM or DVD, ranging from self-study
materials to supplement published course-books, to ESP-based courses and culture-
based materials. Many learners of English have access to e-mail and the Internet at
home as well as at school and this presents teachers with a range of useful options
in terms of setting writing tasks, communicating with learners by e-mail, giving
learners research tasks and setting up project work based on researching the
Internet. Where previously such tasks would have involved a great deal of letter
writing on the part of both teacher and learners, on the one hand, and a potentially
time-consuming visit to the local library on the other, they can now be accomplished
quickly and easily without the learner ever having to leave his or her PC.

Although many learners seem to be much more familiar with the use of computers
than a lot of teachers appear to be, there is still plenty of scope for some input in
class related to computers. Basic terminology is a good starting point and a useful
exercise may be the pronunciation of e-mail and internet addresses, such as
[email protected] or www.onestopenglish.com. Similarly, there may be some
value in teaching the meta-language of word processing (e.g. copy, cut, paste,
insert), writing e-mails (e.g. reply, forward, delete) and surfing the Internet (e.g.
search, link, key-word and so on). Many UK language schools are now responding to
the specific needs of learners and offering computer-based options leading to word-
processing qualifications such as the UK-based CLAIT, validated by the RSA, and
the American MOUS qualification, validated by Microsoft. In both cases certificates
are offered for different levels of competence from basic user to proficient user and
both practice activities and examinations are offered “on-line”.

In terms of practical classroom activities to exploit the Internet, if teachers have

access to several Internet-linked computers for use with their classes, there are
numerous possibilities. Learners can fill-in on-line questionnaires, research specific
topics, prepare presentations using on-line information, graphs and diagrams, find
the answers to questions set by the teacher, do interactive grammar, vocabulary and
even pronunciation exercises, read and summarize the latest news, and contribute to
on-line discussions and debates. With technology advancing at breakneck speed, it
sometimes seems difficult for teachers to keep up but remaining informed is crucial.
Our learners may already be several steps ahead in this area and to retain credibility
we need to be familiar with the latest developments in computer technology and to
be able to integrate computers confidently into our everyday classroom practice.