Computer Networks (CN) Assignment - 8

1. Illustrate TCP/IP Model for Layer Communication

The TCP/IP Model is a 4-layer conceptual framework used to understand how data travels over
a network. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers of TCP/IP Model:

TCP/IP Layer Corresponding OSI Layer(s) Function

Application, Presentation, Provides services like email, file transfer, web

1. Application
Session access

Ensures reliable data transfer (TCP) or fast

2. Transport Transport
delivery (UDP)

3. Internet Network Handles logical addressing and routing using IP

4. Network Deals with physical transmission of data over

Data Link + Physical
Access media

Layer Communication Process:

When a sender sends data:

1. Application Layer: Prepares the data (e.g., HTTP, SMTP).

2. Transport Layer: Adds a TCP/UDP header to ensure delivery.

3. Internet Layer: Adds the IP address (source & destination).

4. Network Access Layer: Converts it into frames and bits for transmission.

At the receiver's end, each layer removes its corresponding header and passes the data up to
the next layer.

2. Explain FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

FHSS – Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum:

It is a wireless communication technique used to transmit signals by rapidly switching the

carrier among many frequency channels.

How FHSS Works:

  The transmitter and receiver hop between predefined frequencies in a synchronized
pattern.

 The message is divided and sent over multiple frequencies.

 Only the receiver knowing the hopping pattern can correctly reassemble the message.

Advantages:

 Security: Hard for attackers to intercept.

 Interference Resistance: Avoids congested frequencies.

 Robustness: Even if some frequencies are jammed, others still carry data.

Used In:

 Bluetooth

 Military communication

 Cordless phones

3. Discuss the Various Transmission Mediums

Transmission media are classified into two main categories:

A. Guided (Wired) Media:

These use a physical path for data transmission.

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

o Two copper wires twisted together.

o Used in telephone lines and LANs.

o Types: UTP (Unshielded), STP (Shielded)

2. Coaxial Cable:

o Central core conductor, insulation, metallic shield.

o Used in cable TV and early Ethernet.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

 o Uses light to transmit data.

o High speed, long distance, immune to electromagnetic interference.

o Expensive and difficult to install.

B. Unguided (Wireless) Media:

Data is transmitted through the air without physical connectors.

1. Radio Waves:

o Used in AM/FM radios, TV, mobile phones.

o Long-distance, omnidirectional.

2. Microwaves:

o Line-of-sight communication.

o Used in satellite and cellular networks.

3. Infrared:

o Used in remote controls.

o Short range, can't penetrate walls.

4. Explain IEEE 802.11 Standards in Detail

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN (WLAN)
communication. It defines how wireless devices communicate over short distances using radio
waves.

Common IEEE 802.11 Standards:

Frequency
Standard Max Speed Range Notes
Band

802.11 2.4 GHz 2 Mbps ~20 meters First version, now obsolete

802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbps ~35 meters Less interference, not widely adopted

~100 More range, interference from other

802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps
meters devices
 Frequency
Standard Max Speed Range Notes
Band

~100
802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps Backward compatible with 802.11b
meters

~250 Uses MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple

802.11n 2.4 & 5 GHz 600 Mbps
meters Output)

Up to 1.3 ~100 High speed, better for HD streaming

802.11ac 5 GHz
Gbps meters & gaming

802.11ax (Wi-Fi Up to 9.6 ~100+ Faster, efficient in crowded

2.4 & 5 GHz
6) Gbps meters environments

Key Features:

 Frequency Band: Operates in unlicensed bands (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz).

 Modulation Techniques: OFDM, DSSS, etc.

 Security Support: WEP, WPA, WPA2, WPA3.

5. What is Error Control? Explain any one error detection technique with example.

Error Control:

Error control refers to the process of detecting and correcting errors during data transmission
to ensure data integrity.

There are two main functions:

 Error Detection

 Error Correction

Error Detection Technique – Parity Check:

Parity bit is an extra bit added to data to make the number of 1s either even (even parity) or
odd (odd parity).

Example (Even Parity):

Data: 1010001
Number of 1s = 3 (odd)
To make it even, add parity bit 1
→ Transmitted data = 10100011

If the receiver counts an odd number of 1s, it knows an error occurred.

✅ Advantages:

 Simple and fast.

❌ Limitations:

 Can’t detect errors if two bits are flipped (even number of errors).

6. Differentiate between PPP and HDLC

Feature PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)

IETF (Internet Engineering Task ISO (International Standards

Standard By
Force) Organization)

Frame Type Supports multiple protocols (IP, IPv6,

Supports only one protocol per link
Support etc.)

Authentication Supports authentication (PAP, CHAP) No built-in authentication

Error Detection CRC-based error checking CRC-based error checking

Use Case Used in dial-up, DSL, PPPoE Used in leased lines, WAN links

Protocol Field Yes, allows protocol multiplexing No protocol field

Flexibility More flexible and modern Less flexible

7. What is Flow Control? Explain Working of Stop and Wait Protocol.

Flow Control:

Flow control is a technique used in data communication to control the rate of data
transmission between sender and receiver. It ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the
receiver with too much data at once.

Stop and Wait Protocol:

Working:

1. Sender sends one frame and waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.

2. Receiver receives the frame, sends back ACK.

3. Once sender receives ACK, it sends the next frame.

4. If ACK is not received within a time limit, the sender resends the frame.

Advantages:

 Simple to implement.

 Ensures reliable delivery.

Disadvantages:

 Inefficient for long-distance or high-speed networks (only one frame in transmission at a

time).

8. Explain How Hamming Code Can Be Used to Detect and Correct the Error with Example.

Hamming Code:

A forward error correction method that not only detects but also corrects single-bit errors.

Steps to Use Hamming Code:

Let’s take 4-bit data: 1011

1. Determine parity bit positions: Positions that are powers of 2 (1, 2, 4...)
 2. Insert parity bits in positions 1, 2, and 4.

Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Bit P1 P2 1 P4 0 1 1

3. Calculate parity bits:

 P1: checks 1, 3, 5, 7 → 1, 1, 0, 1 → parity = 1 (odd → even = 1)

 P2: checks 2, 3, 6, 7 → 1, 1, 1, 1 → parity = 0 (even)

 P4: checks 4–7 → 0, 1, 1 → parity = 0

So, encoded Hamming code: 1110011

Error Detection and Correction:

If a bit flips during transmission (e.g., position 5 changes from 0 to 1), the receiver recalculates
parity and finds the error position = 5, then corrects it.

9. Summarize Performance of Slotted ALOHA vs Pure ALOHA

Feature Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA

Time Division No time slots Time divided into equal slots

Transmission Anytime Only at the beginning of time slots

Efficiency ~18.4% ~36.8%

Collision Chances Higher Lower (due to synchronization)

Implementation Simple Slightly complex (requires timing)

Conclusion:
Slotted ALOHA has almost double the efficiency of Pure ALOHA due to time slot
synchronization, making it more suitable for high-load networks.

10. Discuss IEEE 802.3 Frame Format

IEEE 802.3 defines the standard for Ethernet (Wired LAN). The frame format is used to transmit
data over the network.

IEEE 802.3 Frame Format:

Field Size (Bytes) Description

Preamble 7 Synchronization pattern (10101010...)

Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) 1 Indicates start of frame (10101011)

Destination MAC Address 6 MAC address of receiver

Source MAC Address 6 MAC address of sender

Length/Type 2 Length of data field or type of protocol

Data and Padding 46–1500 Actual data being transmitted

CRC (FCS) 4 Error detection using Cyclic Redundancy Check

11. Explain in Detail CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

CSMA/CD is a network access method used in Ethernet networks to manage how devices share
the same communication channel. It helps prevent data collisions by sensing the channel before
transmission.

Working of CSMA/CD:

1. Carrier Sense: Before sending data, a device listens to the channel to check if it's busy or
idle.

o If the channel is idle, the device starts transmitting.

o If the channel is busy, the device waits.

2. Transmission: If the channel is idle, the device sends its data.

3. Collision Detection:

o While transmitting, the device listens for collisions (interference caused by two
devices transmitting at the same time).

o If a collision is detected (corrupted signal), the device stops transmission.

 4. Collision Resolution:

o The device waits for a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit
the data (using exponential backoff).

o This minimizes the chance of repeated collisions.

Efficiency:

 Collisions decrease the overall network efficiency.

 CSMA/CD is effective in low-traffic networks but becomes inefficient as traffic increases.

12. Differentiate Between IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n

Feature IEEE 802.11a IEEE 802.11b IEEE 802.11g IEEE 802.11n

Frequency
5 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 & 5 GHz
Band

Data Rate Up to 54 Mbps Up to 11 Mbps Up to 54 Mbps Up to 600 Mbps

Range 35 meters 100 meters 100 meters 250 meters

MIMO (Multiple
Modulation OFDM DSSS OFDM Input, Multiple
Output)

Prone to Moderate Less interference

Less interference
Interference interference (2.4 interference (2.4 (dual band 2.4/5
(due to 5 GHz)
GHz) GHz) GHz)

Not backward Backward Backward Backward

Compatibility compatible with compatible with compatible with compatible with
802.11b/g 802.11a 802.11b 802.11a/b/g

Summary:

 802.11a: Works on 5 GHz for less interference but offers lower range and compatibility.

 802.11b: Works on 2.4 GHz, prone to interference, slower data rate.

 802.11g: Also operates on 2.4 GHz, provides better speeds than 802.11b, and is
backward compatible.
  802.11n: Uses MIMO technology, operates on dual bands (2.4/5 GHz), and offers much
higher data rates and improved range.

13. Identify and Define the Primary Network Layer Services Provided to Upper Layers in the
OSI Model

The Network Layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model is responsible for routing, forwarding, and
addressing data packets across networks. It provides several essential services to the upper
layers:

1. Routing:

o Determines the best path for data to travel from the source to the destination.

o Uses algorithms like RIP, OSPF, and BGP.

2. Logical Addressing:

o The Network Layer assigns IP addresses to devices to ensure unique

identification and routing across networks.

3. Packet Forwarding:

o The Network Layer forwards data packets based on logical addresses (IP
addresses).

o Routers operate at this layer, forwarding packets between networks.

4. Fragmentation and Reassembly:

o If a data packet is too large for the next network's maximum transmission unit
(MTU), the Network Layer divides it into smaller fragments.

o At the destination, the fragments are reassembled.

5. Error Handling and Diagnostics:

o Provides basic error checking for data transmission (e.g., ICMP for error reporting
in IP networks).

o Includes tools like ping and traceroute for diagnostic purposes.

14. Explain the Different Switching Techniques Used in Data Communication Networks
In data communication networks, switching refers to how data is routed through a network
from source to destination. There are three main types of switching techniques:

1. Circuit Switching:

 Definition: A dedicated communication path is established between the sender and

receiver for the duration of the communication session.

 Example: Traditional telephone networks (PSTN).

Advantages:

 Constant data transmission speed.

 Suitable for voice and real-time applications.

Disadvantages:

 Inefficient for bursty traffic (unused capacity during silent periods).

 Requires the entire path to be reserved, leading to wasted resources.

2. Packet Switching:

 Definition: Data is divided into small packets, each of which is sent independently
through the network. Each packet may take a different route to reach the destination,
where they are reassembled.

 Example: Internet (IP networks).

Advantages:

 Efficient use of network resources (no need for dedicated paths).

 Scalable for a large number of users.

Disadvantages:

 Variable transmission delay.

 Requires more complex protocols for packet reordering.

3. Message Switching:

 Definition: Entire messages are routed through the network from sender to receiver. The
message is stored at intermediate nodes before being forwarded.
  Example: Traditional telegraphy systems.

Advantages:

 No need for a dedicated path.

 Suitable for non-real-time applications (like email).

Disadvantages:

 High delays due to intermediate storage.

 Less efficient than packet switching for large-scale data communication.

15. Discuss the Various Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are essential in networking to determine the best path for data transmission
across different networks. They are categorized into interior gateway protocols (IGP) and
exterior gateway protocols (EGP). Below are the most common routing protocols:

1. RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

 Type: Distance-vector protocol.

 Function: RIP uses hop count as the metric to determine the best route. It has a
maximum hop count of 15.

 Protocol Version: RIP version 1 (RIPv1) and RIP version 2 (RIPv2).

 Limitations: Slow convergence, limited scalability, and high overhead.

2. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

 Type: Link-state protocol.

 Function: OSPF uses the Dijkstra algorithm to find the shortest path. It is more scalable
and faster compared to RIP.

 Protocol Version: Supports both IPv4 and IPv6.

 Features: OSPF supports hierarchical routing, faster convergence, and a more efficient
use of network resources.

3. EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

 Type: Hybrid protocol (combines distance-vector and link-state features).

 Function: EIGRP uses bandwidth, delay, load, and reliability metrics for route selection.
  Features: Faster convergence, support for multiple network types, and minimal
overhead compared to RIP.

4. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

 Type: Path-vector protocol, used for inter-domain routing (EGP).

 Function: BGP is the protocol used for routing between autonomous systems (AS). It is
the protocol of choice for the internet's backbone.

 Features: BGP supports policy-based routing, scalability, and can handle large networks.

5. IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)

 Type: Link-state protocol.

 Function: IS-IS is primarily used in large enterprise networks and service providers.

 Features: Similar to OSPF, but operates differently in how it exchanges information

between routers.

16. Explain IPv4 Addressing Scheme Which Include Hierarchical Addressing, Subnetting, and
Allocation of Address Blocks

IPv4 Addressing Scheme:

IPv4 addresses are 32-bit addresses, written in dotted decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.1.1). The
address is divided into two parts:

 Network Part: Identifies the network where the host is located.

 Host Part: Identifies the host within the network.

1. Hierarchical Addressing:

IPv4 addresses are organized into a hierarchical structure with the following divisions:

 Network Address: The first part of the address that identifies the network. This is used
to route packets to the correct network.

 Subnet Address: A further division of the network address, used for partitioning
networks into smaller subnetworks (subnets).

 Host Address: The last part of the address, identifying the specific host or device within
the network.

2. Subnetting:
  Subnetting is the process of dividing a network into smaller subnetworks (subnets).

 It involves borrowing bits from the host portion of the IP address to create more subnet
addresses.

 Subnet Mask: A 32-bit mask used to determine which part of the IP address is the
network portion and which part is the host portion (e.g., 255.255.255.0).

Example of Subnetting:

 Given IP address: 192.168.1.0/24

o Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

o Number of Subnets: You can borrow bits from the host portion to create subnets.

o If you borrow 2 bits, you get 4 subnets (with 2^2 = 4 subnets).

o New subnet mask: /26 (255.255.255.192)

3. Allocation of Address Blocks:

IPv4 address space is divided into several address classes:

 Class A (1.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.0): Designed for large networks (16 million hosts).

 Class B (128.0.0.0 to 191.0.0.0): Designed for medium-sized networks (65,000 hosts).

 Class C (192.0.0.0 to 223.0.0.0): Designed for small networks (254 hosts).

 Class D (224.0.0.0 to 239.0.0.0): Used for multicast addresses.

 Class E (240.0.0.0 to 255.0.0.0): Reserved for future use.

Private IP Address Ranges:

 Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

 Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

 Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

17. List and Explain Transport Layer Services

The Transport Layer (Layer 4) in the OSI model is responsible for end-to-end communication
between devices. It provides the following key services:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly:

  Segmentation: The transport layer breaks larger messages from the application layer
into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network.

 Reassembly: At the destination, the transport layer reassembles these segments into the
original message for the application.

2. End-to-End Communication:

 The transport layer ensures reliable communication between source and destination
devices over a network. This includes data flow control, error correction, and
sequencing.

3. Connection Establishment and Termination:

 Connection-Oriented Communication (TCP): Before data transfer, a connection is

established between the sender and receiver (using a handshake). Once the transfer is
complete, the connection is terminated.

 Connectionless Communication (UDP): Data is sent without establishing a connection or

confirming delivery, which is faster but less reliable.

4. Flow Control:

 The transport layer uses flow control mechanisms to manage the rate at which data is
sent. This ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver.

 TCP uses mechanisms like the sliding window to control data flow.

5. Error Detection and Correction:

 The transport layer adds error checking and correction, ensuring reliable data delivery.

 TCP ensures data integrity through checksums, and errors result in retransmission.

6. Multiplexing:

 Multiplexing allows multiple applications or processes to use the same network

connection.

 Each segment is identified by a port number, allowing multiple applications to

communicate over the same transport layer connection.

7. Quality of Service (QoS):

 The transport layer can provide different levels of service to different types of traffic
(e.g., voice, video, data), ensuring that time-sensitive data is prioritized.

Common Transport Layer Protocols:

  TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A connection-oriented protocol that provides
reliable, error-checked delivery of data.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A connectionless protocol that provides faster but less
reliable communication, suitable for applications like video streaming.

18. Discuss Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) in Detail

Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) is used for delivering audio and video over networks, such
as the internet, in real-time applications like VoIP (Voice over IP), video conferencing, and
streaming media. RTP provides end-to-end delivery services for real-time data, ensuring the
timely delivery of multimedia content.

Key Features of RTP:

1. Timestamping:

o RTP adds timestamps to the packets to synchronize the playback of media at the
receiver’s end. This helps maintain the order and timing of the multimedia
stream.

2. Sequence Numbers:

o Each RTP packet contains a sequence number, allowing the receiver to detect lost
packets and reorder them if necessary.

3. Payload Type Identification:

o RTP identifies the format of the transmitted data using a payload type field,
which informs the receiver how to interpret the data (e.g., audio, video).

4. Quality of Service (QoS):

o RTP works in conjunction with the underlying network protocols to ensure

proper QoS for real-time data by managing the priority of media streams.

5. Delivery Monitoring:

o It includes mechanisms for monitoring and improving delivery, such as RTP

Control Protocol (RTCP), which helps in monitoring the quality of service and
provides feedback to the sender.

RTP Header:
The RTP header includes essential information for the transmission of real-time data:

 Version: Protocol version.

 Payload Type: Identifies the format of the payload.

 Sequence Number: Used to detect packet loss and for packet reordering.

 Timestamp: Used for synchronization of media.

 SSRC (Synchronization Source Identifier): Identifies the source of the media stream.

 CSRC (Contributing Source Identifier): Identifies the source of media contribution.

RTP vs. RTCP:

 RTP handles the actual media stream.

 RTCP (RTP Control Protocol) works alongside RTP to provide feedback on the quality of
the transmission, such as packet loss, jitter, and delay.

19. Differentiate Between TCP Services and UDP Services

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are the two main
transport layer protocols. They have different characteristics and are used for different types of
communication.

Feature TCP UDP

Connection Connection-oriented (requires connection Connectionless (no

Orientation setup) connection setup needed)

Unreliable (no guarantee of

Reliability Reliable (guarantees delivery of data)
data delivery)

Includes error checking only

Error Detection Includes error checking and correction
(no correction)

Flow Control Yes, uses sliding window mechanism No flow control mechanism

Congestion Yes, TCP congestion control mechanisms No congestion control

Control (e.g., slow start, congestion avoidance) mechanisms

Transmission Slower due to connection establishment and Faster (no connection setup,
Speed reliability mechanisms fewer overheads)
Feature TCP UDP

Streaming, online gaming,

Use Cases Web browsing, file transfers, email
DNS queries

Header Size Larger (20 bytes) Smaller (8 bytes)

Summary:

 TCP: Ensures reliable, in-order delivery of data with flow control, error checking, and
congestion control. It is used when reliability is critical (e.g., web browsing, file transfer).

 UDP: Faster but less reliable. Suitable for applications where speed is important and
occasional data loss is acceptable (e.g., video streaming, real-time communications).

20. Explain TCP Congestion Controlling Mechanism

TCP Congestion Control is a mechanism used to prevent network congestion and ensure that
TCP connections adjust their data sending rate according to the available network capacity. It is
essential for maintaining network performance and avoiding packet loss.

TCP Congestion Control Phases:

1. Slow Start:

o The sender starts with a small congestion window (typically one Maximum
Segment Size or MSS).

o As data is successfully acknowledged, the window size increases exponentially

(doubling with each round-trip time), allowing more data to be sent.

2. Congestion Avoidance:

o Once the congestion window size reaches a threshold (called the ssthresh, or
slow-start threshold), the growth rate of the window slows down.

o Instead of exponential growth, the window increases linearly (one MSS per
round-trip time).

3. Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery:

o If three duplicate ACKs are received (indicating packet loss), TCP triggers fast
retransmit to resend the lost segment.
 o After retransmitting, the congestion window is reduced (usually halved) and
enters fast recovery, where the sender resumes transmission without waiting for
timeouts.

4. Timeout and Re-start Slow Start:

o If a timeout occurs (indicating severe congestion), the congestion window is reset

to 1 MSS, and slow start is reinitiated.

o The slow start threshold is adjusted accordingly (usually halved).

Key Concepts in TCP Congestion Control:

 Congestion Window (cwnd): Controls the amount of data the sender can transmit
before waiting for an acknowledgment.

 Slow-start Threshold (ssthresh): Determines the point at which TCP switches from slow
start to congestion avoidance mode.

21. Discuss MIME and POP3

MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)

MIME is an extension of the original SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) that enables the
sending of multimedia content such as audio, video, images, and other non-text content over
email. MIME allows email to handle not just text but a variety of content types and formats.

Key Features of MIME:

 Content-Type Header: Specifies the type of data being sent (e.g., text, image, audio).

 Multipart Messages: Allows a single message to contain multiple types of content, such
as a combination of text and images.

 Encoding: MIME uses encoding techniques (such as Base64) to convert binary data into
a text format, allowing it to be sent over email.

MIME Types:

 text/plain: Plain text content.

 text/html: HTML content.

 image/jpeg: JPEG images.

 audio/mpeg: MP3 audio.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)

POP3 is a mail retrieval protocol used by email clients to retrieve email from a remote server.
POP3 is typically used when users want to download emails from a server to their local
machine, accessing them offline.

Key Features of POP3:

 Download and Delete: By default, POP3 downloads emails from the server and deletes
them from the server after download. This means that emails are stored on the client’s
machine, not the server.

 Offline Access: Once emails are downloaded, they can be accessed without an internet
connection.

 Simple Protocol: POP3 is relatively simple and does not provide advanced features like
synchronization across multiple devices.

Differences Between POP3 and IMAP:

 POP3 downloads emails and deletes them from the server, while IMAP leaves emails on
the server and allows for synchronization across multiple devices.

 IMAP is better for accessing emails from different locations or devices, while POP3 is
suited for offline access.

22. Explain FTP Protocol

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used for transferring files from one
host to another over a TCP/IP-based network such as the internet. FTP allows users to upload
and download files between computers, making it essential for sharing large files across the
network.

Key Features of FTP:

1. Client-Server Model:

o FTP operates on a client-server model, where the client sends requests to the
server to upload or download files.

o The client and server communicate over a control connection (for commands)
and a data connection (for transferring the files).

2. Connection Types:
 o FTP uses two separate channels:

 Control Connection: This is established using TCP port 21. It handles the
commands (such as login, change directory) and responses.

 Data Connection: This is used to transfer the actual data (files). The port
can vary (typically 20 for active mode or dynamically assigned in passive
mode).

3. Modes of Operation:

o Active Mode: The server opens the data connection back to the client from its
port 20.

o Passive Mode: The client opens both the control and data connections, and the
server listens on a port provided by the client.

4. Authentication:

o FTP often requires a username and password to access the server. Anonymous
FTP can be used for public file sharing, where no credentials are needed.

5. Commands and Responses:

o FTP defines a series of commands (e.g., LIST, GET, PUT) and responses (status
codes like 200 OK, 550 Permission denied) for file operations.

Common FTP Commands:

 USER: Send username to the server.

 PASS: Send password to the server.

 LIST: List the contents of a directory.

 RETR: Retrieve (download) a file from the server.

 STOR: Store (upload) a file to the server.

 QUIT: Close the FTP session.

Security Concerns:

 FTP sends data, including credentials, in clear text, which can be intercepted by
attackers. To mitigate this, FTPS (FTP Secure) and SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol) were
developed, which provide encryption for both control and data channels.
23. Explain SMTP and POP3

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

SMTP is a protocol used for sending email messages between email servers. It works by
transferring email from a sender's email client to an outgoing mail server and between mail
servers to deliver the message.

Key Features of SMTP:

1. Client-Server Model:

o SMTP follows the client-server model, where the sender's email client acts as the
client, and the mail server acts as the server.

o The email client sends an email via the SMTP server to the destination's mail
server.

2. Transport Protocol:

o SMTP operates over TCP port 25, which is dedicated to mail transmission.

o It is used for sending mail, not for retrieving or reading it.

3. How SMTP Works:

o When an email is sent, the client communicates with the SMTP server to transfer
the email to the recipient's mail server.

o The email is then stored in the recipient's mail server until the recipient retrieves
it using a different protocol, such as POP3 or IMAP.

4. Message Delivery:

o SMTP ensures that the email is sent to the correct server and provides feedback
in the form of status codes (e.g., 250 OK, 550 Error).

SMTP Commands:

 HELO: The client introduces itself to the server.

 MAIL FROM: Specifies the sender’s email address.

 RCPT TO: Specifies the recipient’s email address.

 DATA: Begins the transfer of the actual email content.

 QUIT: Closes the connection.

Limitations of SMTP:

 SMTP is not designed for receiving email. It’s only used for sending emails.

 It has no built-in support for managing or storing email messages.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)

POP3 is a protocol used by email clients to retrieve emails from a mail server. Unlike SMTP,
which handles sending mail, POP3 focuses on downloading messages from a server to a local
device, allowing offline access.

Key Features of POP3:

1. Email Retrieval:

o POP3 allows users to download their emails from the server and store them
locally on their computer. This makes it useful for people who need access to
their emails while offline.

2. Connectionless Protocol:

o POP3 operates in a connectionless manner. Once the client retrieves emails, they
are removed from the server (depending on the configuration). This means that
once emails are downloaded, they are not available on the server anymore
unless explicitly configured to keep copies on the server.

3. POP3 Commands:

o USER: Provides the username.

o PASS: Provides the password.

o STAT: Displays the status of the mailbox (number of messages).

o LIST: Lists all emails in the mailbox.

o RETR: Retrieves the content of an email.

o DELE: Marks a message for deletion.

o QUIT: Logs out of the session.

4. Limitations of POP3:

o It is mainly designed for one-way communication, where emails are downloaded

and deleted from the server.
 o No synchronization: Since POP3 downloads messages and removes them from
the server by default, accessing the same mailbox from multiple devices is
difficult.

24. Explain How DNS Works in Detail

DNS (Domain Name System) is a distributed database system that translates human-readable
domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses (e.g., 192.0.2.1) that computers can
understand and use to locate each other on the internet.

Key Functions of DNS:

1. Name Resolution:

o DNS is responsible for resolving domain names to IP addresses, allowing users to

access websites using easy-to-remember names instead of numeric IP addresses.

2. Hierarchical Structure:

o DNS operates in a hierarchical structure. The domain name is broken down into
multiple levels:

 Top-Level Domain (TLD): This is the highest level of the domain, like .com,
.org, .net.

 Second-Level Domain: This is the name chosen by the owner (e.g.,

example in example.com).

 Subdomains: These can be used for specific divisions or services (e.g.,

www.example.com or mail.example.com).

3. DNS Query Process:

o When a user types a domain name into a web browser, the browser performs a
DNS query to resolve the domain name to an IP address. This process follows
these steps:

1. Recursive Resolver: The query starts at the local DNS resolver, which is
usually provided by the ISP. If the resolver doesn't have the record in its
cache, it queries the root DNS server.

2. Root DNS Server: The root server directs the query to the TLD (Top-Level
Domain) server, based on the domain suffix (like .com).
 3. TLD DNS Server: The TLD server directs the query to the authoritative
DNS server for the specific domain.

4. Authoritative DNS Server: The authoritative server returns the IP address

associated with the domain.

5. Final Resolution: The local resolver returns the IP address to the browser,
which can then use it to establish a connection to the target web server.

4. DNS Records:

o DNS servers store different types of records, such as:

 A Record: Maps a domain to an IPv4 address.

 AAAA Record: Maps a domain to an IPv6 address.

 MX Record: Defines the mail server for a domain.

 CNAME Record: Alias for a domain, redirecting to another domain.

 NS Record: Specifies the authoritative name servers for the domain.

DNS Caching:

 DNS queries are often cached by clients, resolvers, and authoritative servers to reduce
the query time and avoid unnecessary repeated lookups.

DNS Security:

 DNSSEC (DNS Security Extensions) is used to add security to DNS by providing

cryptographic signatures to ensure the authenticity of the DNS records.