Dr. S. M.

Dhavale
Assistant Professor,
Department of Science & Computer Science, MIT ACSC, Alandi(D), Maharashtra, India
 CS242 : Computer Networks - I

Course Objectives

• To prepare students with basic networking concepts: data communication,

protocols and standards, various topologies and applications of network.

 CS242 : Computer Networks - I

Course Outcomes

1. Have a good understanding of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

and in particular have a good knowledge of Layers.

2. Understand the working of various protocols.

3. Analyze the requirements for a given organizational structure and select the
most appropriate networking architecture and technologies
 COURSE CONTENTS

UNIT 1: Introduction to Networks and Network Models

UNIT 2: Lower Layers

UNIT 3: Network Layer

UNIT 4: Transport Layer

 Chapter 2: Lower Layers
1. Communication at the physical layer, data rate limits - Noiseless channel (Nyquist bit rate), noisy channel (Shannon capacity),

Performance - bandwidth, throughput, latency, bandwidth-delay product, jitter

2. Design issues of Data Link Layer, Services - Framing, flow control, error control, congestion control, Link layer addressing

3. Framing Methods - Character Count, Flag bytes with Byte Stuffing, Flags bits with Bit Stuffing, Physical Layer Coding

Violations

4. The Channel allocation problem, Static and dynamic allocation, Media Access Methods - Taxonomy of multiple-access

protocols

5. Switching and TCP/IP layers, Types - circuit switching, packet switching and message switching

6. Wired LANs - Standard Ethernet characteristics, Addressing, Access method, implementation, Fast and Gigabit Ethernet

7. Wireless LANs - Architectural comparison, Characteristics, Access control, IEEE 802.11 architecture, Physical layer, MAC

sublayer, Bluetooth architecture, Layers

Lower Layers
Analog and digital data
• Analog Data
• Human voice • Digital Data
• Audio • Integers
• Video
• Text
• Images
Analog and digital signal
• Analog Signal • Digital Signal
• Infinite levels • Finite levels
Periodic and non-periodic signals
• Periodic signals
• Non periodic signals
Terminologies
• Bit Rate – It is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per
second (bps).
• Bit Length - The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the
transmission medium.
Bit length = propagation speed x bit duration
• Baseband Transmission
Transmission Impairment
• Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The
imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at
the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end
of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
Attenuation
• Its means loss of energy i.e. Weaker signal
Distortion
• Means that the signal changes its form or shape
Noise
• There are different types of noise
• Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire creates an extra signal
• Induced - from motors and appliances, devices act are transmitter antenna
and medium as receiving antenna.
• Crosstalk - same as above but between two wires.
• Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines, lightning, etc.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
• To measure the quality of a system the SNR is often used. It indicates
the strength of the signal with respect to the noise power in the
system. SNR = average signal power / average noise
power
• As SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel
units, SNRdB, defined as
SNRdB = l0 log10 SNR
Data rate limits
• A very important consideration in data communications is how fast
we can send data, in bits per second. over a channel. Data rate
depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
• For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate
BitRate = 2 x bandwidth x log2 L
• In this formula,
• bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
• L is the number of signal levels used to represent data
• BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
• Claude Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity,
to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
Capacity = bandwidth × log2 (1 +SNR)
• In this formula,
• bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel
• SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio
• capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
 Performance of the network

• Bandwidth
• Bandwidth in Hertz
• Bandwidth in bits per second
• Throughput
• Latency ( Delay)
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay
• Jitter - different packets of data encounter different delays
Latency
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time +
processing delay
• Propagation time - measures the time required for a bit to travel from
the source to the destination
Propagation time = Distance/Propagation speed
• Transmission Time - time between the first bit leaving the sender and
the last bit arriving at the receiver
Transmission time = Message size/Bandwidth
• Queuing Time - the time needed for each intermediate device to hold
the message before it can be processed
• Processing Delay
 Bandwidth-Delay product

• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
 Bandwidth-Delay product

• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.

5
5
Formulas to remember
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the
noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
Calculate values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless
channel.
The value of SNRdB is 0dB calculate SNR.
The value of SNRdB is 20dB calculate SNR.
What is the channel capacity of noiseless channel is
bandwidth is 3500 Hz and there are 2 signal levels.
What is the channel capacity of noiseless channel is
bandwidth is 1000 Hz and there are 8 signal levels.
We need to send data at 280 Kbps over a noiseless
channel with bandwidth of 20 KHz. How many signal
levels do we use.
A telephone line with bandwidth 3000 Hz is used for
data communication with SNR 3162. For this channel
calculate the capacity.
The signal to noise ratio is 36 dB and channel
bandwidth is 2MHz, calculate channel capacity.
Calculate maximum bit rate using Shannon’s Theorem
for a channel having bandwidth 31000 Hz and S/N ratio
20 dB.
Calculate maximum bit rate for a channel having
bandwidth 1800 Hz if
1) S/ N ratio is 0 dB
2) S/ N ratio is 20 dB.
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput
of this network?
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels
at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
What are the propagation time and the transmission time
for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels
at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
 Bandwidth-Delay product

• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
 Bandwidth-Delay product

• The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.
 Functions of Datalink layer

• Framing Framing
• Error Control
• Flow Control • Character count
• Flag byte with byte
• Access Control stuffing
• Starting and ending
flags with bit stuffing
• Physical layer coding
violations
 Framing
• Frames are the units of digital transmission, particularly in computer networks and
telecommunications.

• Frames are comparable to the packets of energy called photons in the case of light
energy. Frame is continuously used in Time Division Multiplexin

• Framing is a point-to-point connection between two computers or devices

consisting of a wire in which data is transmitted as a stream of bits.

• However, these bits must be framed into discernible blocks of information.

• Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
 Functions of Datalink layer

• Framing
• Error Control Error Control
• Flow Control • Cyclic redundancy
• Access Control check
• Hamming code
 Error Control
Data-link layer uses the techniques of error control simply to ensure and confirm that all the data
frames or packets, i.e. bit streams of data, are transmitted or transferred from sender to receiver with
certain accuracy.

Ways of doing Error Control

• Error Detection :

• Error detection, as the name suggests, simply means detection or identification of errors.

• These errors may occur due to noise or any other impairments during transmission from transmitter
to the receiver, in communication system.

• Error Correction :

• Error correction, as the name suggests, simply means correction or solving or fixing of errors.
 Flow Control
Flow control is a technique that allows two stations working at different
speeds to communicate with each other.

It is a set of measures taken to regulate the amount of data that a sender sends
so that a fast sender does not overwhelm a slow receiver.

In data link layer, flow control restricts the number of frames the sender can
send before it waits for an acknowledgment from the receiver.
Approaches of Flow Control
 Approaches of Flow Control
Feedback based Flow Control

In these protocols, the sender sends frames after it has received

acknowledgments from the user. This is used in the data link layer.

Rate based Flow Control

These protocols have built in mechanisms to restrict the rate of

transmission of data without requiring acknowledgment from the
receiver. This is used in the network layer and the transport layer.
Flow Control Techniques in Data Link Layer
 Stop and Wait Flow Control Techniques in Data Link Layer

 The sender sends a frame and waits for acknowledgment.

 Once the receiver receives the frame, it sends an acknowledgment frame back

to the sender.

 On receiving the acknowledgment frame, the sender understands that the

receiver is ready to accept the next frame. So it sender the next frame in

queue.
 Sliding Window Flow Control Techniques in Data Link Layer

This protocol improves the efficiency of stop and wait protocol by allowing
multiple frames to be transmitted before receiving an acknowledgment.

 The working principle of this protocol can be described as follows −

 Both the sender and the receiver has finite sized buffers called windows.

 The sender and the receiver agrees upon the number of frames to be sent
based upon the buffer size.
 Sliding Window Flow Control Techniques in Data Link Layer

 The sender sends multiple frames in a sequence, without waiting for

acknowledgment.

 When its sending window is filled, it waits for acknowledgment.

 On receiving acknowledgment, it advances the window and transmits the next

frames, according to the number of acknowledgments received.
 Functions of Datalink layer

• Framing
• Error Control Flow Control
• Flow Control • Stop and wait
• Access Control • Simplex for noisy
channel
• Sliding window
• Go back-N
 Congestion Control
 Congestion control is a crucial concept in computer networks.

 It refers to the methods used to prevent network overload and ensure smooth data
flow.

 When too much data is sent through the network at once, it can cause delays and
data loss.

 Congestion control techniques help manage the traffic, so all users can enjoy a
stable and efficient network connection.

 These techniques are essential for maintaining the performance and reliability of
modern networks.
 What is Congestion?
Congestion in a computer network happens when there is too much data being sent at
the same time, causing the network to slow down.

Just like traffic congestion on a busy road, network congestion leads to delays and
sometimes data loss.

When the network can’t handle all the incoming data, it gets “clogged,” making it
difficult for information to travel smoothly from one place to another.
 Effects of Congestion in Computer Network
• Improved Network Stability: Congestion control helps keep the network stable by
preventing it from getting overloaded. It manages the flow of data so the network doesn’t
crash or fail due to too much traffic.

• Reduced Latency and Packet Loss: Without congestion control, data transmission can
slow down, causing delays and data loss.

• Enhanced Throughput: By avoiding congestion, the network can use its resources more
effectively. This means more data can be sent in a shorter time.

• Fairness in Resource Allocation: Congestion control ensures that network resources are
shared fairly among users. No single user or application can take up all the bandwidth,
allowing everyone to have a fair share.
 Effects of Congestion in Computer Network
• Better User Experience:

When data flows smoothly and quickly, users have a better experience. Websites,
online services, and applications work more reliably and without annoying delays.

• Mitigation of Network Congestion Collapse:

Without congestion control, a sudden spike in data traffic can overwhelm the
network, causing severe congestion and making it almost unusable.

Congestion control helps prevent this by managing traffic efficiently and avoiding
such critical breakdowns.
Congestion Control
Functions of Datalink layer
• Framing
• Error Control Access Control
• Flow Control • Random access
• Access Control • Controlled Access
• Channelization
 Services provided by datalink layer

1 Unacknowledged connectionless service

2 Acknowledged connectionless service

Acknowledged connection-oriented service

3
 LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING

A link-layer address is called a link address, called a physical address, and

sometimes a MAC address.

Since a link is controlled at the data-link layer, the addresses need to belong to
the data-link layer
 LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING

 When a datagram passes from the network layer to the data-link layer,the
datagram will be encapsulated in a frame and two data-link addresses are
added to the frame header.

 These two addresses are changed every time the frame moves from one link to
another.
 Framing Methods
 Framing is function of Data Link Layer that is used to separate message from
source or sender to destination or receiver or simply from all other messages
to all other destinations just by adding sender address and destination address.

 The destination or receiver address is simply used to represent where message

or packet is to go and sender or source address is simply used to help recipient
to acknowledge receipt.
 Framing Methods
 Frames are generally data unit of data link layer that is transmitted or
transferred among various network points.

 It includes complete and full addressing, protocols that are essential, and
information under control.

 Physical layers only just accept and transfer stream of bits without any regard
to meaning or structure.

 Therefore it is up to data link layer to simply develop and recognize frame

boundaries.
 Framing Methods
 Character Count

 Flag Bytes with Byte Stuffing

 Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing

 Physical Layer Coding Violations

 Character Count
 This method is rarely used and is generally required to count total number of
characters that are present in frame.

 This is be done by using field in header.

 Character count method ensures data link layer at the receiver or destination
about total number of characters that follow, and about where the frame
ends.
 Character Count
 The disadvantage also of using this method i.e., if anyhow character count is
disturbed or distorted by an error occurring during transmission, then
destination or receiver might lose synchronization.

 The destination or receiver might also be not able to locate or identify

beginning of next frame.
 Framing – Character Count
• This method uses a field in the header to specify the
number of characters in the frame
Framing – Character Count

• This method uses a field in the header to specify the

number of characters in the frame
 Flag Bytes with Byte Stuffing
 Flag bytes are used with byte stuffing to separate frames in data
transmission.

 Byte stuffing is a technique that uses an escape character to mark bytes that
are similar to the flag byte
 Flag Bytes with Byte Stuffing
 In this method a flag byte, is used as both the starting and ending of a frame.
See in the figure below.

 Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame and the start of the
next frame.

 If the receiver ever loses synchronization it can just search for two flag bytes
to find the end of the current frame and the start of the next frame.
 Flag byte with byte stuffing

• This method the problem of synchronization is solved

by adding flag byte at the start and end of each
frame.
 Flag byte with byte stuffing

• This method the problem of synchronization is solved

by adding flag byte at the start and end of each
frame.
 Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing
 In bit stuffing, flag bits are special 8-bit patterns that mark the beginning and end of a
frame.
 They are used to separate frames and synchronize channels
Working :
 A flag bit is usually the pattern "01111110".
 If a message contains the same flag sequence, an extra bit is added to differentiate the
message content.
 For example, if a message contains a 0 followed by five consecutive 1s, an extra 0 is added
after the five 1s
 The receiver removes the extra 0s to de-stuff the message
•Bit stuffing helps the receiver detect the boundaries between frames

Why Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing

 Bit stuffing helps the receiver detect the boundaries between frames

 It also helps synchronize multiple channels, which maximizes bandwidth use

 Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing
• Bit stuffing is a process of inserting non-information bits into the data to be transferred.

• It breaks the data sequence and helps in synchronization.

• In the OSI model, the data link layer divides the data received from the physical layer into data
frames.

• A data frame is classified into two categories:

• fixed-length or variable-length data frame.

• In variable-length frames, the size of the data frames may vary.

• In such cases, it’s very difficult to detect the end and beginning of a frame.

• Hence bit stuffing is used to mark the end and beginning of the frames during variable-length
data frame transfer.
Start and end Flag with bit stuffing

• This method one extra 0 is added whenever five

consecutive 1s are encountered in the data.
Flag Bits with Bit Stuffing
 Physical Layer Coding Violations
 Data link layer translates the physical layers raw bit stream into discrete
messages called frames.

 Now the question is how can a frame be transmitted, so the receiver can
recognize the start and end frame?
 Physical Layer Coding Violations
 Encoding violation is method that is used only for network in which encoding
on physical medium includes some sort of redundancy

 use of more than one graphical or visual structure to simply encode or

represent one variable of data.
Physical Layer Coding Violations
 Physical Layer Coding Violations
 This framing method is used only in those networks in which encoding on the
physical medium contain some redundancy.
 Some LANs encode each bit of data by using two physical bits that Manchester
coding uses.
 Here, Bit 1 is encoded into a high-low (10) pair and Bit 0 is encoded into a low-high
(01) pair.
 The scheme means that every data bit has a transition in the middle, making it easy
for the receiver to locate the bit boundaries.
 The combinations high-high and low-low are not used for data but are used for
delimiting frames in some protocols.
Physical layer coding violations

• This method of framing is only applicable to networks in

which the encoding on the physical medium contains
some redundancy.
• i.e. 1 bit of data is represented by using 2 physical bits.
• 1 bit is a high-low pair
• 0 bit is a low-high pair
• The transition in the middle of each bit makes it easy for
the receiver to locate the bit boundaries.
• The combinations high-high and low-low are not used for
data but are used for delimiting frames.
Using bit stuffing, what will be the transmitted frame for the bit
pattern — 1011111011111111001.
Apply bit stuffing on the pattern 01001111110111110.
Apply bit stuffing on the pattern
1000111111100111110100011111111111000011111
Apply byte stuffing for ESC A B Flag C D ESC ESC ESC E Flag F
Channel Allocation Methods
 Channel Allocation Methods
 Channel allocation is a process in which a single channel is divided and
allotted to multiple users in order to carry user specific tasks.

 There are user’s quantity may vary every time the process takes place.

 If there are N number of users and channel is divided into N equal-sized sub
channels, Each user is assigned one portion.

 If the number of users are small and don’t vary at times, then Frequency
Division Multiplexing can be used as it is a simple and efficient channel
bandwidth allocating technique.
 Channel Allocation Methods
Channel allocation methods can be divided by two schemes:

1. Static Channel Allocation

2. Dynamic Channel Allocation

 Static Allocation Methods
• It is the classical or traditional approach of allocating a single channel among
multiple competing users using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

• if there are N users, the frequency channel is divided into N equal sized portions
(bandwidth), each user being assigned one portion.

• since each user has a private frequency band, there is no interference between
users.

• However, it is not suitable in case of a large number of users with variable

bandwidth requirements.

• It is not efficient to divide into fixed number of chunks.

 Static Allocation Methods
• T=1/(U*C-L)

• T(FDM) = N*T(1/U(C/N)-L/N)

Where

• T= Mean time delay

• C=Capacity of channel

• L= Arrival rate of frames

• N= Number of sub channels

• T(FDM) = Frequency Division Multiplexing Time

 Dynamic Allocation Methods
• In dynamic channel allocation scheme, frequency bands are not permanently assigned to
the users.

• Instead channels are allotted to users dynamically as needed, from a central pool.

• The allocation is done considering a number of parameters so that transmission

interference is minimized.

• This allocation scheme optimises bandwidth usage and results is faster transmissions.

• Dynamic channel allocation is further divided into:

• Centralised Allocation

• Distributed Allocation
 Centralized Allocation

• Centralized allocation is a process where a central authority or agency

distributes resources to lower levels. It can be used to manage resources for
a business organization, or to allocate resources for an emergency response
 Dynamic Allocation

• Dynamic allocation is a method of assigning resources at runtime, while

distributed allocation is a method of assigning resources across multiple
devices
 Random Access Protocol
• Random Access Protocols is a Multiple access protocol, where nobody is inferior and nobody
is superior in network.
• If a communication is established two users, then communication channel between them (the
sender & the receiver or vice-versa) is not always a dedicated link.
• channels are not only providing service to that 2 users, but to others as well. This means
multiple users communicating through the same channel.
• Multiple access protocols are required to decrease and avoid collision and crosstalk.
• How is that possible? The reason behind this is the multiple access protocols or Random
access protocols.
• The random access protocols consist of the following characteristics:
1.There is no time restriction for sending the data (you can talk or communicate to anyone
without a time restriction). All stations are equal in the network.
2.There is a fixed sequence of stations which are transmitting the data.
To avoid access conflict, each station follows a procedure as below

• When can the station access the medium?

• What can the station do, if the medium is busy?

• How can the station determine the success and failure of transmission?

• What can the station do if there is an access conflict?

 Random-access protocol is divided into four categories

1.ALOHA ( Additive Links On-line Hawaii Area.)

2.CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

3.CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)

4.CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

 ALOHA Other Meaning
• Aloha is a Hawaiian word that has multiple meanings and is used
in English to express greetings and farewells:

• Greeting or farewell: Aloha is commonly used to say "hello" or

"goodbye".

• Love, peace, and compassion: Aloha can also mean love, peace,
and compassion.

• Pity and grief: Aloha can also mean pity and grief.

• Way of life: Aloha is more than just a greeting, it's a way of life.
 ALOHA Random Access Protocol
• ALOHA is a random access protocol and it is designed for accessing
shared medium.

• In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time, hence lead
to collision and data being garbled.

• There are 2 types of ALOHA

• Pure ALOHA

• Slotted ALOHA
 Pure ALOHA
• Pure ALOHA allows the stations to transmit whenever they have data to be sent.

• When station send the data it waits for an acknowledgement.

• If acknowledgement doesn't come in allotted time then station waits for random
amount of time, which is called as back off time.

• Since different stations wait for different amount of time, the probability of further
collision decreases.

• Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be
collision and both the frames will be garbled.

• The throughput of pure ALOHA can be maximized using uniform frame size.
 Slotted ALOHA
• It was developed to just to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA, as
the chances of collision in pure ALOHA are high.
• The time of shared channel is divided in to discrete time intervals
called slots.
• Sending of data is allowed only at the beginning of the slots.
• If a station misses out the allowed time, it must wait for the next slot.
This reduces the probability of collision.
 CSMA Protocol
• Carrier Sense Protocol
• To minimize the chance of collision and enhance the performance of
channel, CSMA protocol is used.
• CSMA works on the principle ‘Sense before transmit’.
• Carrier busy : transmission is
taking place
• Carrier Idle : No transmission is
taking place
• The possibility of collision still exist
Because of propagation delay time,
A station sense the medium and find it idle, because first bit sent by
another station is not yet received.
 CSMA/CD
• If two stations sense the channel to be idle and begin transmitting
simultaneously, the both will detect the collision immediately.

• Rather than finishing the transmission of frames which are already

garbled, stations will stop transmission abruptly as soon as collision is
detected.

• Quickly terminating the damaged frames, saves time and bandwidth.

• Therefore this protocol is known as CSMA/CD (Collision detection),

which is widely used in LANs or Ethernet.
 CSMA/CA
• Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CA), is a network
multiple access method in carrier sensing, here, nodes attempt to avoid
Collision by beginning transmission only after the channel is sensed to be
‘Idle’.

• It is particularly important for wireless network, because CSMA/CD

method is not applicable for wireless medium.

• It is better to avoid collision, rather than detecting the collision, because it

is not possible to detect the collision in wireless medium.

• CSMA/CA is unreliable due to hidden terminal/node problem and exposed

terminal problem.

• Solution : RTS/CTS exchange (Request To Send / Clear To Send)

Controlled Access Protocols
 Controlled access protocols

• The stations consult one another to find which station has the right to
send
• A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations
• There are three popular controlled-access methods

Reservation Polling Token Passing

 Controlled Access Protocol
Reservation:
• A station has to make a reservation before sending data.
• In each interval of time a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent
in that interval.
• Every reservation frame is having minislots, where no of minislots are
equal to no of stations in system.
• If there are N stations in system then there are N minislots in reservation
frame.
• Each minislot belongs to a single station.
• When station needs to send the data frame, it makes reservation in its own
minislot.
• The stations that have made reservation can send their data frames after
the reservation frame.
 Polling
• The polling protocol requires one of the nodes to be designated as a master
node. (Primary station)
• The master node polls each of node in round robin manner.
• For e.g. Master node first sends a message to node 1, giving opportunity to
master node 1 for transmission of some maximum no of frames.
• After node 1 transmits some frames, master node gives opportunity to node
2 to transmit some maximum no of frames.
• The master node can check, when a node has finished sending its frames
by observing the lack of signal on the channel.
• This procedure continues in this manner, where master node polls each
station/node in cyclic manner.
Advantages
• The polling protocol eliminates the collision in channel.
• This protocol allows to achieve higher efficiency.

Drawbacks
• This protocol introduces a polling delay, i.e. time required by node to
notify that, it is ready to transmit.
• If the master node fails, the entire channel becomes inoperative.
Controlled access protocols

Reservation

Polling

Token Passing
 Token Passing
• A station is authorized to send the data, when it receives a special frame
called token.
• In this method there is no master node.
• A small, special purpose frame known as a token is exchanged among the
nodes in some fixed order.
• When a node receives the token, it holds token, if it has some frames to
transmit, otherwise it immediately forwards the token to the next node.
• If a node have a frames to transmit, when it receives the token, it sends
up maximum no of frames and then forwards the token to the next node.
• It is decentralized protocol and
highly efficient but it has some
disadvantages.
• The failure of one node can crash
the entire channel.
• If node accidently neglects the
release of token, then some
recovery process must be
established to get it back in to
circulation.
CHANNELIZATION
 CHANNELIZATION
• A multiple access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is
shared in time, frequency or through code, between different stations

Three Channelization protocol

• Frequency Division Multiple Access

• Time Division Multiple Access

• Code Division Multiple Access

 Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
• Available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.
• Each station is allocated with a band to send its data.
• Each band is reserved for specific station all the time.
• Each station uses a bandpass filter to confine transmitter frequencies.
• In order to avoid station interferences, allocated bands are separated
from one another by small guard bands.
• FDMA specifies a predetermined frequency band for entire period of
communication.
• Stream data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can be
easily used with FDMA.
 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA)
• Time division multiple access is a channel access method for shared
medium networks.

• It allows several users to share the same frequency.

• Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data.

• Each station transmits its data in is assigned time slot.

• The main problem with TDMA is lies in achieving synchronization

between the different stations.
• Each station needs to know the beginning of its slot and the location of
its slot.
• This is difficult because of propagation delays introduced in the
system if the stations are spread over large area.
• To compensate this we insert guard times.
• The process uses a physical multiplexer that interleaves data units
from each channel.
• TDMA is an access method in the data link layer.
• The data link layer in each station tells its physical layer to use the
allocated time slot. There is no physical multiplexer at the physical
layer.
 CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

• Code-division multiple access (CDMA) was conceived several decades ago.

• Recent advances in electronic technology have finally made its implementation possible.

• CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.

• It differs from TDMA because all stations can send data simultaneously; there is no timesharing.

• CDMA simply means communication with different codes.

• CDMA is based on coding theory. Each station is assigned a code, which is a sequence of numbers called

chips, as shown in the following figure. The codes are for the previous example.
• Let us assume we have four stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 connected to the same
channel. The data from station 1 are d1 , from station 2 are d2, and so on. The
code assigned to the first station is c1, to the second is c2, and so on. We
assume that the assigned codes have two properties
• If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
• If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number of stations).
• Station 1 multiplies its data by its code to get d1.c1, Station 2 multiplies its data
by its code to get d2.c2 and so on.
• The data that go on the channel are the sum of all these term. Any station that
wants to receive data from one of the other three, multiplies the data on the
channel by the code of the sender.
• For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to each other. Station 2 wants
to get, what station 1 is sending. It multiplies the data on the channel by c1, the
code of station 1.
• data =(d1.c1+d2.c2+d3.c3+d4.c4).c1
• = c1. d1. c1+ c1. d2. c2+ c1. d3. c3+ c1. d4. c4= 4d1

• station 2 divides the result by 4 to get the data from station1.

THANK YOU