Complete

Guide on

SQL
What is a Database?

A database is an organized collection of interrelated data stored

systematically for easy access and management.

What is a DBMS?

A Database Management System (DBMS) is software designed

to create, manage, and organize databases efficiently.

What is an RDBMS?

A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is a type

of DBMS where data is stored in tables, also called relations

These tables consist of rows (records) and columns (attributes)

Examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, etc.

What is SQL?

SQL, or Structured Query Language, is used to interact with

RDBMS for storing, retrieving, and manipulating data. It is not a

database itself but a language for interacting with databases.

SQL supports CRUD operations:

CREATE: Used to create databases, tables, and insert data

READ: Retrieve data from a database

UPDATE: Modify existing records

DELETE: Remove data, tables, or databases.

Note: SQL keywords are case-insensitive, e.g., select is equivalent to SELECT.

What is SQL?

SQL is a language for interacting with relational databases, while

MySQL is a relational database system that uses SQL.

SQL Data Types
Data types in SQL define the type of data a column or variable
can store. Refer to the official MySQL documentation for a
comprehensive list: MySQL Data Types.

Here are some commonly used data types:

Data Type DESCRIPTION USAGE
CHAR Fixed-length string (0-255 characters) CHAR(30)

VARCHAR Variable-length string (0-255 characters) VARCHAR(100)

BLOB B inary Large Object (up to 65,535 bytes) BLOB(2000)

INT Integer (-2, 147, 483, 648 to 2, 147, 483, 647 ) INT

TINYINT Small integer (-128 to 127 ) TINYINT

BIGINT Large integer (-9 quintillion to 9 quintillion). BIGINT

BIT Stores x-bit values (1 to 64) BIT(4)

FLOAT Floating-point number with precision up to 23 digits FLOAT

DOUBLE Floating-point number with precision from 24 to 53 digits DOUBLE

BOOLEAN B oolean values (TRUE or FALSE ) BOOLEAN

DATE Stores date values (YYYY-MM-DD) DATE

TIME Stores time values (HH:MM:SS) TIME

YEAR Stores year values in 4 digits (1901 to 2155) YEAR

Note: Use CHAR for fixed-length strings and VARCHAR for variable-length strings
for better memory efficiency. Data types can also include UNSIGNED when only
positive values are required, e.g., UNSIGNED INT.
Types of SQL Commands:
Data Query Language (DQL):

Used to retrieve data from databases.
Example Command: SELECT

Data Definition Language (DDL):


Used to define and manage database objects such
as tables and indexes
Example Commands: CREATE, DROP, ALTER, RENAME, TRUNCATE

Data Manipulation Language (DML):


Used to manipulate existing data in a database.
Example Commands: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

Data Control Language (DCL):


Used to manage user access and permissions.
Example Commands: GRANT, REVOKE

Transaction Control Language (TCL):


Used to manage transactions and ensure data consistency.
Example Commands: COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT
Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL commands manage the structure of databases and

their objects.

Key Commands:

CREATE TABLE: Used to create a new table.

CREATE TABLE staff (

emp_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

name VARCHAR(50),

salary DECIMAL(10, 2)

);

ALTER TABLE: Modifies an existing table's structure.


ALTER TABLE staff ADD COLUMN email VARCHAR(100);

DROP TABLE: Deletes a table along with its data.


DROP TABLE staff;

CREATE INDEX: Improves query performance by creating an index.


CREATE INDEX idx_name ON staff (name);

DROP INDEX: Removes an existing index.


DROP INDEX idx_name;

CREATE CONSTRAINT: Ensures data integrity.


ALTER TABLE orders

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_customer

FOREIGN KEY (customer_id) REFERENCES customers(id);

DROP CONSTRAINT: Removes an existing constraint.


ALTER TABLE orders DROP CONSTRAINT fk_customer;

TRUNCATE TABLE: Removes all rows but retains the table structure.


TRUNCATE TABLE orders;

Data Query Language (DQL)

DQL commands focus on retrieving data from databases.

Key Features:

SELECT: Retrieves specific columns from a table.


SELECT emp_name, department FROM employees;

WHERE Clause: Filters data based on a condition.


SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = 'HR';

Operators

=: Equal

>: Greater tha

<: Less tha

>=: Greater than or equa

<=: Less than or equa

<> or !=: Not equal

Logical Operators:

AND: Combines multiple conditions.


SELECT * FROM employees WHERE age > 30 AND department = 'Finance';

OR: Filters records if any condition is true.


SELECT * FROM employees WHERE city = 'New York' OR city = 'Los Angeles';

NOT: Filters records when a condition is false.


SELECT * FROM employees WHERE NOT department = 'HR';

LIKE: Searches for patterns in strings.


SELECT * FROM employees WHERE name LIKE 'A%';

IN: Filters records by matching a list of values.


SELECT * FROM products WHERE category_id IN (101, 102, 103);

BETWEEN: Filters data within a range.


SELECT * FROM sales WHERE sale_date BETWEEN '2024-01-01' AND '2024-06-30';

ORDER BY: Sorts query results.


SELECT name, salary FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC;



GROUP BY: Groups rows and uses aggregate functions.


SELECT department, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department;

Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DML commands are used to insert, update, or delete data.

INSERT: Adds new records.


INSERT INTO employees (name, age, department) VALUES ('Alice', 30, 'HR');

UPDATE: Modifies existing records.


UPDATE employees SET age = 31 WHERE name = 'Alice';

DELETE: Removes records.


DELETE FROM employees WHERE name = 'Alice';

Data Control Language (DCL)

DCL manages database permissions.

GRANT: Provides access to users.


GRANT SELECT ON employees TO user1;

REVOKE: Removes user permissions.


REVOKE SELECT ON employees FROM user1;

Transaction Control Language (TCL)

TCL commands handle transaction management.

COMMIT: Saves all changes permanently.


UPDATE inventory SET quantity = quantity - 10 WHERE product_id = 202;

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK: Reverts changes.


UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 500 WHERE account_id = 304;

ROLLBACK;

SAVEPOINT: Creates a transaction checkpoint.


SAVEPOINT before_update;

UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 1000 WHERE account_id = 304;

ROLLBACK TO before_update;

COMMIT;
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and examples.



Joins in DBMS In a Database Management System (DBMS), a join

operation combines rows from two or more tables based on a
related column. Joins allow data retrieval from multiple tables by
establishing relationships between them using common keys or
columns.

Types of Joins:
Inner Joi
Outer Joi
Cross Joi
Self Join

Inner Join:

An inner join retrieves rows from two or more tables where the specified join
condition is satisfied. Only rows with matching values in all participating
tables

are included in the result, filtering out non-matching rows.

Syntax:

SELECT columns

FROM table1

INNER JOIN table2

ON

table1.column = table2.column;

Here:

Columns specifies the columns to retrieve

Table1 and table2 are the names of the tables being joined
Column is the common field used to match rows between tables
The ON clause defines the join condition.
Example: Tables

Customers Table: Orders Table:

CustomerID CustomerName OrderID CustomerID Product

1 Eva 201 1 Smartphone

2 Liam 202 2 Tablet

3 Noah 203 3 Laptop

Query:

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.Product

FROM Customers

INNER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID

Result:

Customername Product

Eva Smartphone

Liam Tablet

Noah Laptop

Outer Join:

Outer joins retrieve rows from two or more tables while also including

unmatched rows. This ensures that even rows without a match are included,

with NULL values for columns of the unmatched table.

Types of Outer Joins:

a) Left Outer Join (Left Join):

Includes all rows from the left table and matching rows from the right table.

Rows from the left table without matches will have NULL values in the right

table columns.

Query:

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.Product

FROM Customers

LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID;

Result:

Customername Product

Eva Smartphone

Liam Tablet

Noah Laptop

Mia Null

b) Right Outer Join (Right Join):

Includes all rows from the right table and matching rows from the left table.

Rows from the right table without matches will have NULL values in the left

table columns.

Query:

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.Product

FROM Customers

RIGHT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID;

Result:

Customername Product

Eva Smartphone

Liam Laptop

Noah Tablet

Null Accessories

c) Full Outer Join (Full Join):

Includes all rows from both tables, with NULL values in columns

of unmatched rows.

Query:

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.Product

FROM Customers

FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID;

Result:

Customername Product

Eva Smartphone

Liam Tablet

Noah Laptop

Mia Null

Null Accessories

Cross Join:

A cross join generates a Cartesian product of rows from two tables, creating

all possible combinations of rows. This join does not require a specific

condition.

Syntax:

SELECT columns

FROM table1

CROSS JOIN table2;

Example: Tables

Students Table: Courses Table:

StudentID StudentName StudentID StudentName

1 Sophia 101 Biology

2 Jackson 102 Chemistry

Query:

SELECT Students.StudentName, Courses.CourseName

FROM Students

CROSS JOIN Courses;

Result:

Customername Product

Sophia Chemistry

Sophia Biology

Jackson Chemistry

Jackson Biology

Self Join:

A self join is a join operation where a table is joined with itself. This is often

used to find relationships or patterns within the same table.

Syntax:

SELECT columns

FROM table1 AS alias1

JOIN table1 AS alias2 ON alias1.column = alias2.column;

Here:

alias1 and alias2 are aliases for the table being joined with itself

The ON clause specifies the join condition.

Example: Tables

Orders Table:

EmployeeID EmployeeName ManagerID

1 Olivia 3

2 Ethan 3

3 Emma Null

4 Lucas 3

Query:

SELECT e1.EmployeeName AS Employee, e2.EmployeeName

AS Manager

FROM Employees AS e1

JOIN Employees AS e2 ON e1.ManagerID = e2.EmployeeID;

Result:

Employee Manager

Olivia Emma

Ethan Emma

Lucas Olivia

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SET OPERATIONS

Set operations in SQL are used to combine or manipulate the

result sets of multiple SELECT queries. They allow you to

perform operations similar to those in set theory, such as union,

intersection, and difference, on the data retrieved from different

tables or queries. Set operations provide powerful tools for

managing and manipulating data, enabling you to analyze and

combine information in various ways.

There are four primary set operations in SQL:

UNIO

INTERSEC

EXCEPT (or MINUS

UNION ALL

UNION:

The UNION operator combines the result sets of two or more SELECT queries

into a single result set. It removes duplicates by default, meaning that if there

are identical rows in the result sets, only one instance of each row will appear

in the final result.

Example: Assume we have two tables: Students and Mentors.

Students Table: Mentors Table:

StudentID StudentName MentorID MentorName

1 Arya 101 Sneha

2 Raj 102 Arjun

UNION Query:

SELECT StudentName FROM Students

UNION

SELECT MentorName FROM Mentors;

Result:

Arya

Raj

Sneha

Arjun

INTERSECT:

The INTERSECT operator returns the common rows that exist in the result

sets of two or more SELECT queries. It only returns distinct rows that appear

in all result sets.

Example: Using the same tables as above.

INTERSECT Query:

SELECT StudentName FROM Students

INTERSECT

SELECT MentorName FROM Mentors;

Result:

Name

(Empty)

In this example, there are no common names between students and

mentors, so the result is an empty set

EXCEPT (or MINUS):

The EXCEPT operator (also known as MINUS in some databases) returns the

distinct rows that are present in the result set of the first SELECT query but

not in the result set of the second SELECT query.

Example: Using the same tables as above.

EXCEPT Query:

SELECT StudentName FROM Students

EXCEPT

SELECT MentorName FROM Mentors;

Result:

Name

Arya

Raj

In this example, the names "Arya" and "Raj" are students but not mentors,

so they appear in the result set.

UNION ALL:

The UNION ALL operator performs the same function as the UNION operator

but does not remove duplicates from the result set. It simply concatenates all

rows from the different result sets.

Example: Using the same tables as above.

UNION ALL Query:

SELECT StudentName FROM Students

UNION ALL

SELECT MentorName FROM Mentors;

Result:

Name

Arya

Raj

Sneha

Arjun
 SUBQUERIES

Subqueries, also known as nested queries or inner queries, allow

you to use the result of one query (the inner query) as the input

for another query (the outer query). Subqueries are often used

to retrieve data that will be used for filtering, comparison, or

calculation within the context of a larger query. They are a way

to break down complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps.

Syntax:

SELECT columns

FROM table

WHERE column OPERATOR (SELECT column FROM table WHERE condition);

In this syntax

columns refers to the specific columns you want to retrieve from the outer query

table is the name of the table you're querying

column is the column you're applying the operator to in the outer query

OPERATOR is a comparison operator such as =, >, <, IN, NOT IN, etc

(SELECT column FROM table WHERE condition) is the subquery that provides the

input for the comparison.

Example: Consider two tables: Products and Orders.

Products Table: Orders Table:

ProductID ProductName Price OrderID ProductID Quantity

1 Tablet 1200 102 1 3

2 Phone 800 102 2 2

3 Charger 20

Subquery Example:

Retrieve the product names and quantities for orders with a total cost greater

than the average price of all products.

SELECT ProductName, Quantity

FROM Products

WHERE Price * Quantity > (SELECT AVG(Price) FROM Products);

Result:

ProductName Quantity

Tablet 3
Thank