Organization of a Computer System

Computer has visible structure known as architecture.The computer architecture is the science
of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create a computer that meant
functional performance and cost goal.Therefore, computer organization is grouping the
components together to achieve a common objective or goal.

A computer is a data processing machine consisting of interrelated components working

together as a single unit. The term "computer system" refers to the computer and all its
interconnected components.A computer system is categorized into two components:

• Hardware component
• Software component

Computer Hardware

The computer hardware is the physical part of the computer system, which we can touch, see,
and break. It includes electronic devices, which have the potential for performing the task of
solving a problem. The computer hardware is composed of three main components namely:

• Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Memory unit (Storage devices)
• Input/Output devices

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that performs Arithmetic and Logical
operations and controls the operations of the other elements of the system.The CPU follows the
instructions of the software to manipulate data into information, also called a microprocessor,
executes program instructions, and performs the computer's processing activity.It is a part of
computer hardware that executes program instructions and is the result of VLSI (Very-Large-
Scale Integration) technology.The CPU is a collection of electronic circuits made up of millions of
transistors placed onto integrated circuits (chips).

In general the CPU has two major functions

✓ Performing arithmetic and logical operations and

✓ Controlling every activity of the computer like
➢ Controlling internal and external devices
➢ Controlling memory usage for storing data and instructions
➢ Controlling sequence of operations
The CPU has three major components

✓ The Control Unit

✓ The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
✓ Registers

Control unit:

• The control unit is like the human brain and it controls all of the activities of the
computer.
• It directs the entire computer system to carry out every activity. That is, it regulates the
operations of the entire computer system, reads instructions from memory and
translates it into an activity, and regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation
may consume.
• All computer activities are carried out according to instructions that the control unit
receives.
• The control unit does not actually execute the instructions (just as the brain does not do
the walking or the talking); rather it instructs or directs other processing elements to do
so.
• The control unit tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a program's
instructions.
• It directs the movement of electronic signals between:
➢ Main memory and the arithmetic/logic unit.
➢ Main memory and the input and output devices.

Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

• Is the component of the CPU which contains the electronic circuitry that executes
arithmetic and logical operations, that underline all computing capabilities and controls
the speed of those operations.
✓ Arithmetic unit: perform actual computing and calculations on the fundamental
math operations; addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
✓ Logical unit: based on the instruction provided to it, perform logical comparison
between data items. The comparison determines whether one information is
greater than, less than, or equal to the other, e.g., A=B, A>B, A<B, A!=B, A<=B.

Registers

• Registers are special high-speed circuitry areas that temporarily hold data, keep track of
instructions, and hold the location & results of operations.
• Registers are thought of as the CPU's working memory.
 • Registers are contained in the processor and hold data to be processed immediately.
• Data and program instructions are loaded from main memory into the registers just
before processing.

Memory unit:

• Computer systems need to store data and instructions internally or externally to the
system. There are two categories of memory:
➢ Primary memory storage
➢ Secondary memory storage

Primary memory (Main Internal Memory)

• Main memory is part of the computer that holds data and instructions for processing. It
is an internal storage area which is physically located close to the CPU, to decrease
access time. The CPU interacts directly with memory referring to it for instructions, data
and intermediate results. However, since the CPU works at a much faster rate as
compared to the primary memory access time, data is first loaded.
• To hold data and instructions required for working from input devices and sending them
to output devices during processing.
• To store data temporarily while execution.
• To provide addressed space for programs in execution.
• To hold the computer operating system programs.
• To hold application programs while processing (spreadsheet, etc).

Memory size (storage capacity)

* Data represented in a computer is in off (zero) or on (one) to be stored in the memory

* The size of memory is measured by the number of storage locations it contains. Each location
is called a cell and has an address and capacity

* A bit is the amount of memory required to store a single digit, letter or character. A byte is
equal to eight bits and is the smallest unit of memory

Memory sizes are defined as follows:

✓ Kilobyte (KB or k-byte):

✓ Although accepted as approximately one thousand, it actually equals
2^10 or 1,024 bytes.
✓ Megabyte (MB or M-byte):
✓ Millions of bytes, accepted as approximately one million, but actually
equals 1,048,576 bytes (1,024 x 1,024 or 2^20).
 ✓ Gigabyte (GB or G-bytes):
✓ Billions of bytes, accepted as approximately one billion, but actually
equals 1,073,741,824 bytes (1,024 x 1,024 x 1,024, or 2^30).
✓ Terabyte (TB or T-byte):
✓ Trillions of bytes, accepted as approximately one trillion, but actually
equals 1,099,511,627,776 bytes (1,024 x 1,024 x 1,024 x 1,024 or 2^40).

Main Memory is divided into two:

✓ Read Only Memory (ROM)

✓ Random Access Memory (RAM)

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a kind of read-only memory used to store initial start-up instructions and routines in
BIOS (basic input/output system), which can only be read by the CPU each time it is switched
on. The contents of ROM are not lost even in case of sudden power failure, thus making it non-
volatile. One important reason a computer needs ROM is that it must know what to do when
the power is first turned on. ROM is random access in nature, meaning the CPU can randomly
access any location within ROM. Improvements in technology for constructing flexible ROM
have led to various types, namely PROM (programmable read-only memory), EPROM
(electrically programmable read-only memory), and EEPROM (electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory).]

Random Access Meomory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of memory that can be instantly changed and is also
known as read-write memory. RAM can be defined as a block of sequential memory locations,
each with a unique address that determines the location and contains the data element. A
memory address is a number that indicates a location on the memory chips, similar to how a
post office box number indicates a slot for mail. Memory addresses start at zero and go up to
one less than the number of bytes of memory in the computer. This type of memory is called
random-access memory because it can access each byte of data directly. Although read-only
memory (ROM) is also "random access," the names for the two types of memory can be
misleading. It is best to remember that data in ROM is permanent, while data in RAM changes

The electronic circuits used to construct RAM can be classified as dynamic RAM (DRAM),
synchronized dynamic RAM (SDRAM), or static RAM (SRAM). DRAM, SDRAM, and SRAM all
involve different ways of using transistors and capacitors to store data.
Note: Computers processing speed can be increased by the following factors:

Cache memory

• Cache memory is a special form of memory that holds frequently accessed data or
program instructions to improve the computer system's performance.
• A special form of high-speed memory that eliminates the need to move data to and from
main memory repeatedly.
• A cache consists of ultra-fast static random-access memory (SRAM) chips, which rapidly
move data to CPU.
• Cache memory acts as a temporary holding processing cell.
• It is a bridge between a slow device and a fast device.
• As data requests pass between the CPU and main memory, they travel through cache
memory and are copied there. Subsequent requests for the same data are recognized
and captured by the cache memory cell. The cache cell then fulfills the data request to
the CPU.

b. Coprocessors

• When a certain task is performed again and again, special purpose chips can be designed
to handle it quickly and efficiently.
• These chips, called coprocessor chips, are mounted on the processor board and function
simultaneously with the primary processor chip.
• By taking frequently processing work away from the main processor, they free the
central processing unit to focus on general processing needs.

For example, math coprocessor chips are used frequently by scientists and engineers who need
to do a large amount of intensive calculations.

• Increased chip density and integration

• Chip density is the number of circuits on a single chip.
• Reducing the distance traveled, even a little, makes a tremendous difference in the
computer's speed.
• This fundamental principle underlies the continual emphasis on miniaturization of
circuits and having greater chip density
Other Major System Unit Components:

1. The Motherboard: The motherboard, also called the system board, is the main circuit
board in the system unit. The motherboard acts as a container for the different
components in the system unit:
• Microprocessor
• Any coprocessor chips
• RAM chips
• ROM chips
• Other memory types
• Expansion slots where additional circuit boards (called expansion boards) may be
plugged in.
2. Computer Bus:

The system bus is a metallic conductor through which information travels within a PC. It
links the computer's main components, CPU, memory, control logic and I/O devices. In
other words, it is simply a pathway through which data travels from one place to
another inside the system unit. A bus that connects CPU, memory, and I/O components
is known as system bus. System bus has three main variations:

• Data bus
• Address bus
• Control bus

The data bus is used to transfer data from memory to CPU or vice versa. In other words, it is
responsible for transferring data between the processor and the slower main memory. The
greater the number of wires, the greater the number of bits that can be sent and received at
the same time. The size of a data bus is typically 8, 16, 32, or 64 bits.

The Address bus is a set of wires carrying the addressing information used to describe the
memory location to which the data is being sent or from which the data is being retrieved. It is
used to supply the address of a particular location for the CPU, while the reading or writing
operation is done by the CPU. For the CPU to read or write data, it must be able to specify the
precise location of the data in system memory. Such locations are identified through the use of
an address bus.

The Control bus: carries signal that tell the computer to "read" or "write" data to or from a
given memory address, input device or output device. In other words, it synchronizes and co-
ordinates the operation of a CPU with other devices in the computer. Controls the access to
data and address bus and also used to transfer commands and timing signals.
Secondary memories

• Secondary memories are a kind of memory which are external to the main circuit board
and connected through a cable.
• They have higher capacity than primary memory.
• Unlike RAM, secondary memory retains data permanently even after the power is
turned off.
• Unlike ROM, it is possible to write to secondary storage at any time.
• Secondary storage can be categorized as:
✓ Magnetic storage
✓ Optical storage

Magnetic storage devices

• These are storage devices which are made up of iron oxide particle mixed with a binding
agent. They use a magnetic technology to read and write data from and to the surface of
storage area. The most common types of secondary storage are:
✓ Magnetic tape
✓ Magnetic disc

Magnetic tape - is a kind of storage device which resembles with a video tape (VHS). Magnetic
tape is approximately one-half inch wide is made of magnetized plastic film. Data are stored on
a magnetic tape by running it back and forth over the electromagnetic read/write head (similar
to tape deck or VCRs), which magnetizes small spots on the tape. It stores data sequentially. And
also the data accessing mechanism is sequential. So to get to the data you are looking for, a
computer must read every record preceding it. For this reason it has slower access time. It is
usually used as a backup to keep data in different organization.

Magnetic disk:These devices store data as charges on a magnetically sensitive medium such as
a disk coated with a fine layer of metallic particles. Magnetic disks allow the storage and access
of information randomly and overcome the slow access time commonly found in tape files. The
most common magnetic disks include floppy, flash, and hard disks.

Floppy Disk: storage medium made of flexible plastic covered with magnetic material. It uses a
floppy drive to write or read data from the surface of the floppy disk and is used to store
programs and data for extended periods outside the computer system. It has low access time
and low storage capacity.

The Hard Disk: It is mass storage media found mostly inside the system unit. It uses a spinning
magnetic platter(s) to store bits.
Hard disks can store enormous amounts of data, but it has lower access time than RAM.
Accessing data from a hard disk is faster than accessing data from a floppy disk. They also do
not lose their content when the power is turned off.

Peripheral devices:- any piece of equipment in a computer system that is not actually inside the
computer itself. Other extra parts called peripheral components or devices include mouse,
printers, modems, scanners, digital cameras and cards (sound, color, and video) etc. Together
they are often referred to as a personal computer or PC.

Optical disk/storage

Optical storage devices use the principle of light (laser technology) to store information. The
data is actually recorded by burning a tiny hole which is called pitch to store 0's and 1's. Optical
disks are storage mediums from which data is read and written by lasers. The two common
types are CD, DVD.

Compact Disc (CD):A data storage device using optical material instead of magnetic material.
Common variations include:

• CD-R (CD-Recordable): Can record data once but read it many times.
• CD-RW (CD-Rewritable): Allows data to be written and rewritten multiple times.
• CD-ROM (CD-Read-Only Memory): Data can only be read, not written.

Digital Versatile Disc (DVD): An optical disc technology similar in appearance to a CD-ROM but
capable of storing larger amounts of data. It is often used for storing movies and other
multimedia content and requires an appropriate DVD drive to read or write data.

INPUT OUTPUE DEVICES

• Input / Output devices are the part of the hardware though that allows users to
communicate with the machine.

INPUT Devices

• Input device is electronic mechanical devices that are used to feed information to the
computer. These devices enable a computer to receive data and commands, and provide
instruction into the computer system.

Examples of common input devices include:

✓ Keyboard
✓ Pointing devices
✓ Mouse, trackballs, joysticks, and touchpads
✓ Light pens
✓ Microphones

Keyboard

• The most common input device which is used to enter data and instructions to the
computer is called keyboard.
• Function keys (F1 to F12)
• Typing keys include letters and numbers
• Control keys (Ctrl, Alt, Shift etc.)
• Special purpose keys (arrow keys, page up, page down, home, end, insert, delete etc.)
• Numeric keypad (0 to 9)

Pointing Devices

• These are the input devices used to select objects on the screen. The principal pointing
tools used with microcomputers are the mouse, the trackball, the joystick and the touch
pad.

Mouse

Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a
display screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a tough flat surface so that the
movement of the device is translated onto a screen pointer.

Types of mouse

✓ Mechanical: has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all directions
and mechanical sensors to detect the direction to which the ball is rolling, and move
the screen pointer accordingly.
✓ Opto-mechanical: same as mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect
motion of the ball.
✓ Optical: uses a laser to detect the mouse's movement.

Joystick

A joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle, like a gearshift lever,
mounted on a base with one or two buttons. Joysticks are principally used in video games, in
some computer-aided design systems, and in computerized robot systems. Special joysticks
do exist for people who are unable to use a mouse or trackball.
 Touch pad

Touch pads let you control the cursor/pointer with your finger. Touch pads are flat,
rectangular devices that use a very weak electrical field to sense your touch. As you move
your fingertip, the cursor follows the movement. Touch pads most found on many portable
computer keyboards and on a system with a built-in screen sensor.

Scanners

Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A scanner 'scans'
the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time and transfers it to the computer as
a series of bits or a bitmap. Optical data reader

This includes a different variation of input devices read and input data using light. One
example is Bar code scanners, which used read computer readable code (bar code).

Microphone

These use to capture and enter voice or sounds in to computer system for processing.
Converts a person's (speech) input into digital form. Often used in multimedia systems.

Output Devices

Devices are used to convert a machine-readable code in to human readable by processing

(converting) it to graphical, alphanumeric, or audiovisual form. In general, they are a kind of
peripheral device that enables a computer to communicate (send out) information to the
user. Common types of output devices are:

✓ Monitor (visual display unit)

✓ Printer
✓ Speaker etc.

Monitor

• A monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is called Outputting
information. When the computer needs more information it will display a message on
the screen, usually through a dialog box.
• Monitors come in many types and sizes from the simple monochrome (one color) screen
to full color screens.
• Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube and most notebooks use
aliquid crystal display (LCD) monitor. Color graphics and animation are controlled by
graphics card.
 Printer

• Printers are devices used for producing permanent output on paper. Such output is
sometimes referred to as hard copy. Printers can be classified according to their printing
speed, the quality of output produced, & the printing method. Accordingly, they are
classified as:
• Impact
• Non-Impact
✓ Impact printers: Use a pin or a hammer that strikes a paper and an inked ribbon to form a
character. Work like a typewriter. There are three types of impact printers:
1. dot-matrix printer
2. line printer and
3. character printers
• Dot matrix printer: printer contains a print head of small pins that strike an inked
ribbon, forming characters or images. In this printer, the characters and images are
formed by wire ends pushed against a ribbon and paper. A careful examination of the
characters shows that each is actually a collection of small dots. These printers are low
cost, and simple. Speed is rated in terms of lines printed per minute.
• Character printers: Print one character at a time. They can print 30 to 200 characters
per second.
• Line printers: can print a whole line of characters at once rather than a single character
at a time. Print a full line (up to 144 characters) at one time on a continuous form paper
that can be up to 14 inches wide. Most widely used on large computers

✓ Non-impact printers are faster printers than impact printers. Non-impact printers form
characters and images without direct physical contact between the printing machine and
the paper. They use spray or toner powder rather than a ribbon. There are these types of
non-impact printers:
• Ink-jet printer
• Thermal printer and
• Laser printer
• Ink jet printers: use a spray on to a paper to form characters and graphics. Ink-jets can
print in color; they are cheaper printers, but they are slower and print in a somewhat
lower resolution than laser printers.
• Thermal printer: use heat on a chemically treated paper to form characters. The best
example for this is a fax machine.
 • Laser printers: A laser printer creates images with dots. However, these images are
created on a drum treated with magnetically charged ink-like toner (powder), and then
transferred from drum to paper. Works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce
resolutions at near-typeset quality; they are fast, they can print in many fonts, color
printing is available in more expensive models.

Speaker

This are devices specially used by the computer for providing audio output.

Modem

A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone lines or cable. The
term stands for modulate and demodulate, which changes the signal from digital, which
computers use, to analog, which telephones use, and then back again. Modems are measured
by the speed that the information is transferred. The measuring tool is called the baud rate.
Originally, modems worked at speeds below 2400 baud, but today analog speeds of 56,000 are
common. Cable, wireless, or digital subscriber lines (DSL) modems can transfer information
much faster with rates of 300,000 baud and up.