Chapter 2-3 :

Transfer Function and Block

Diagram

Textbook Ogata, K., "Modern Control Engineering", Fourth edition, Pearson

Prentice Hall, 2009. ISBN-10: 0136156738. pp 104-112

Department of Computer Engineering

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 Signal Flow Graphs
 The block diagram is useful for graphically representing control system
dynamics and is used extensively in the analysis and design of control
systems.
 An alternate approach for graphically representing control system dynamics is
the signal flow graph approach.
 A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear
algebraic equations.
 When applying the signal flow graph method to analyses of control systems, we
must first transform linear differential equations into algebraic equations in s.
 A signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by
directed branches.
 Each node represents a system variable, and each branch connected between
two nodes acts as a signal multiplier.
 The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow placed on the branch, and
the multiplication factor is indicated along the branch. In the following example,
E = R.I.

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 Signal Flow Graphs
Definitions
Before we discuss signal flow graphs, we must define certain terms :
 Node : A node is a point representing a variable or signal. (nodes x1, x2, x3,
x4, x5, x6).
 Transmittance : The transmittance is a real gain or complex gain between two
nodes. Such gains can be expressed in terms of the transfer function between
two nodes.(gains a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h, i ).
 Branch : A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes. The gain of a
branch is a transmittance.

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 Signal Flow Graphs
 Input node or source : An input node or source is a node that has only
outgoing branches (node x1). This corresponds to an independent variable.

 Output node or sink : An output node or sink is a node that has only incoming
branches (node x6). This corresponds to a dependent variable.

 Mixed node : A mixed node is a node that has both incoming and outgoing
branches (nodes x2, x3, x4, x5).

 Path : A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch

arrows. If no node is crossed more than once, the path is open. If the path ends
at the same node from which it began and does not cross any other node more
than once, it is closed. If a path crosses some node more than once but ends at
a different node from which it began, it is neither open nor closed.

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 Signal Flow Graphs
 Loop : A loop is a closed path.

 Loop gain : The loop gain is the product of the branch transmittances of a loop.

 Nontouching loops : Loops are nontouching if they do not possess any

common nodes.

 Forward path : A forward path is a path from an input node (source) to an

output node (sink) that does not cross any nodes more than once.

 Forward path gain : A forward path gain is the product of the branch
transmittances of a forward path.

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 Proprieties of Signal Flow Graphs
A few important properties of signal flow graphs are as follows :

 A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal on another. A signal

passes through only in the direction specified by the arrow of the branch.

 A node adds the signals of all incoming branches and transmits this sum to all
outgoing branches.

 A mixed node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches, may be treated
as an output node (sink) by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance
(x6). However, we cannot change a mixed node to a source by this method.

 For a given system, a signal flow graph is not unique. Many different signal flow
graphs can be drawn for a given system by writing the system equations
differently.

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 Signal Flow Graphs Algebra
To determine the input-output relationship, we may use Mason’s formula, which will
be given later, or we may reduce the signal flow graph to a graph containing only
input and output nodes. To accomplish this, we use the following rules :

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Signal Flow Graphs Algebra

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 Signal Flow Graphs of Control Systems
 Some signal flow graphs of simple control systems are shown in the next figure.
For such simple graphs, the closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) can be
obtained easily by inspection.

 For more complicated signal flow graphs, Mason’s gain formula is quite useful.o
determine the input-output relationship, we may use Mason’s formula, which will
be given later, or we may reduce the signal flow graph to a graph containing
only input and output nodes. To accomplish this, we use the following rules :

C(s)

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Signal Flow Graphs of Control Systems

C(s)

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 Mason’s Gain Formula
 Mason’s Formula permits to determine the relationship between an input
variable and an output variable of the signal flow graph. The transmittance
between an input node and an output node is the overall gain, or overall
transmittance, between these two nodes.

 Mason’s gain formula, which is applicable to the overall gain, is given by :

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Mason’s Gain Formula

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Example 1

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 Example 1
 In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s)
and the output C(s). The forward path gain is: P1 = G1G2G3

 The signal flow graph shows that there are three individual loops. The
gains of these loops are :

L1 = −G1G2H1 L2 = G2G3H2 L3 = −G1G2G3

 Since all three loops have a common branch, there are no

nontouching loops. Hence, the determinant  is given by:

= 1-(L1+L2+ L3)= 1+ G1G2H1- G2G3H2+G1G2G3

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 Example 1
 The cofactor 1 of the determinant along the forward path connecting
the input node and output node is obtained from  by removing the
loops that touch this path.

 Since path P1 touches all three loops, we obtain 1 = 1.

 Therefore, the overall gain between the input R(s) and the output
C(s), or the closed-loop transfer function, is given by:

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Example 2

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 Example 2
 In this system, there are two forward paths between the input R(s)
and the output C(s). The forward path gains are :

P1 = G1G2G3 P2 = G1G4

 There are five individual loops. The gains of these loops are :

L1 = −G1G2G3 L2 = G1G2H1 L3 = G2G3H2

L4 = G4 H 2 L5 = -G1G4

 Since all loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching

loops. Hence, the determinant  is given by:

= 1-(L1+L2+ L3+ L4+L5) = 1 − (−G1G2G3+G1G2H1+G2G3H2+G4H2−G1G4)

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Example 2

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 Example 3
 Consider the system shown in the following figure. obtain the
corresponding signal flow graph and then obtain the closed loop
transfer function H(s) =C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason’s gain formula.

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 Example 3
 The corresponding signal flow graph is :

 In this system, there is only one forward path between the input R(s)
and the output C(s). The forward path gain is : P1 = G1G2G3

 There are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are :
L1 = −G1G2H1 L2 = -G2H2 L3 = -G2G3H3

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 Example 3
 All three loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching
loops. Hence, the determinant is given by:

= 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3) = 1 − (−G1G2H1 − G2H2 − G2G3H3)

 The cofactor 1 of the determinant along the forward path connecting

the input node and output node is obtained from  by removing the
loops that touch this path. Since path P1 touches all three loops, we
obtain 1 = 1

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 Example 3
 Therefore, the overall gain between the input R(s) and the output
C(s), or the closed-loop transfer function, is given by :

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 Example 4
 Consider the system shown in the following figure. Obtain the closed-
loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason’s gain formula. :

 In this system, there are three forward paths between the input R(s)
and the output C(s). The forward paths gains are:
P1 = G1G2G3G4G5, P2 = G1G6G4G5, P3 = G1G2G7

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Example 4

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Example 4

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