Harbour and Dock Engineering TE - I

MODULE VI
HARBOUR ENGINEERING

Harbour can be defined as a basin or haven or road stead of navigable waters

well protected naturally or artificially from action of wind and waves, and is situated
along sea shore or river or lake or canal connected to sea.
Basin is said to be navigable when depth of water in basin is greater than draft
required for largest ship, likely to visit the harbour.
Draft is vertical linear immersion of ship below water surface for ship to float
in stable condition safely.

CLASSIFICATION OF HARBOURS:

(i) Classification depending upon the protection needed

(ii) Classification depending upon the utility
(iii) Classification based upon the location

1) Classification depending upon the protection needed

a. Natural harbours or natural roadsteads
b. Semi natural harbours
c. Artificial harbours or artificial roadsteads

a. Natural harbours or Natural road stead

Natural formations, which allow safe discharging facilities for ships on sea
coasts, in the form of creeks and basin, are called natural harbours. In other words,
natural harbour is an inlet protected from storms and waves by natural configuration
of land.
 With the rapid development of navies engaged either in commerce or war,
improved accommodation and facilities for repairs, storage of cargo and
connected amenities had to be provided in natural harbours.

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 The size and draft of present day vessels have necessitated the works
improvement for natural harbours.
 The factors such as local geographical features, growth of population,
development of the area, etc. have made the natural harbours big and attractive.
E.g. Bombay and Kandla

Natural Road Stead

A deep navigable channel with a protective natural bank or shoal to seaward is called
natural road stead.

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(ii) A confined area naturally enclosed by islands as in a creek if available is

known as a circumscribed natural roadstead.

b) Semi natural Harbour

This type of harbour is protected on sides by headlands protection and it
requires man-made protection only at the entrance.
E.g. Vishakhapatnam

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c. Artificial harbours or Artificial Roadsteads

Where such natural facilities are not available, countries having a sea board
had to create or construct such shelters make use of engineering skill and methods and
such harbours are called artificial or manmade harbour.
E.g. Madras
Artificial Road Stead may be created suitably by constructing a breakwater or
wall parallel to the coast or curvilinear from the coast.

Turning basin – water space for manoeuvring the ships after they enter the
harbour for going to or leaving a berth

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2. Classification of harbour depending upon the utility

(a) Harbours of refuge
(b) Commercial harbours
(c) Fishery Harbours
(d) Military harbours
(e) Marina harbours

(a) Harbours of refuge:

Requirements:
i. Ready accessibility from the high seas
ii. Safe and convenient anchorage against the sea
iii. Facilities for obtaining supplies and repairs
On dangerous coast lines, disabled or damaged ships under stress of weather
conditions will need quick shelter and immediate repairs.
(b) Commercial harbours:
Requirements:
i. Spacious accommodation for the mercantile marine.
ii. Ample quay space and facilities for transporting, loading and unloading of
cargo.
iii. Storage sheds for cargo.
iv. Good and quick repair facilities to avoid delay.
v. More sheltered conditions as loading and unloading could be done with
advantage in calm waters
(c) Fishery harbours:
Requirements:
i. Harbour should be constantly open for departure and arrival of fishing
ships.
ii. Loading and unloading facilities and quick despatch facilities for perishable
fish catch like railway sidings and roads.
iii. Refrigerated stores with ample storing space for preserving the catch.

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(d) Military harbours:

These harbours are the naval bases which are meant to accommodate the naval
vessels.
E.g. Bombay and Cochin harbours.
(e) Marina harbours:
Marina harbour providing facilities of fuel, food, showers, washing machine,
telephone etc. For small boat owners having temporary or permanent berths.
iii. Classification.
a. Large marinas : having 200 or more berth
b. Small marinas: less than 100 berth.
iv. Facilities provided in marina:
(a) Resort facilities – includes restaurants, swimming pools, departmental
stores etc
(b) Yatch club – club house
(c) Sports fishing facilities – swimming, surfing, casinos etc
(d) Marina pubs – bars supplying liquors

iii) Classification of harbour based upon the location:

i. Canal harbour
Harbour located along the canals for sea navigation and inland is known as
canal harbour.
ii. Lake harbour
Harbour located along the shore of the lake is known as lake harbour.
iii. River harbour :
Harbour located along the bank of the river is known as river harbour.

ACCESSIBILITY AND SIZE OF HARBOUR

 Accessibility depends on the location of the harbour.
 The harbour entrance should be designed and located for quick and easy
navigation by ships, overtaken by storms.
 At the same time, it should be narrow enough not to expose the harbour to the
effects of the stormy sea.

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 Maximum dimensions upto 180 m have been adopted

 Size of harbour depends upon the number and size of ships likely to use the
harbour at one time.

The size of the harbour is determined by the following factors:

1. Accommodation required
2. Convenience for manoeuvring the navigation.
3. Adaptability to natural features.
Regarding the entrance width, narrower the entrance, better is interior
protector, consistent with the easy and quick entry or exist of biggest vessel in the
harbour.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN OF HARBOUR:

1. Site selection
- Availability of cheap land and construction material
- Transport and communication facilities.
- Natural protections from the winds and waves.
- Industrial development of the locality
- Traffic potentiality of the harbour.
- Availability of electrical energy and fresh water.
- Seabed, subsoil, and foundation condition.
- Defence by strategic aspects.
- Favourable marine conditions
2. Shape of harbour
While deciding the shape of the harbour following factors should be
considered.
i. One of the pier heads should project a little beyond the other, To protect the
harbour from sea waves.
ii. Inside the pier head the width should widen very rapidly.
iii. The general shape of the harbour should be obtained by a series of straight line.

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3. Depth of the harbour

I. The channel depth is generally determined from the formula.

= + +
3
D1= draft of the largest ship to be accommodated.
D2= allowance for squat of the moving ship
H= height of storm waves.

Maximum harbour depth= loaded draft +1.2 meter when bottom is soft.
Maximum harbour depth = loaded draft +1.8 meter when bottom is rock.
4. Marine survey:
It is necessary to collect information about area before designing the harbour
i. Topographic survey
ii. Hydro graphic survey

 Hydro graphic survey consists of locating shore line at low by high tide level
and positions of all structures or obstructions in the water and along the shore.
The depth of sea bottom is obtained by the use fathometer or echo sounder. The
instrument is normally mounted on a motor boat which is kept along pre
established range line. The recording chart automatically registers natural
profile of the sea bed.
 Topographic Survey is carried out be obtain ground contour at intervals of 0.5
meter to 1.5 meter. The higher contour interval is used where the terrain is
rough and in areas where there is little or no construction work of any
importance. In addition to levels (elevation), topographic survey should include
following details
- Location of existing building and other structures.
- Location of borings and test pits.
- Prominent land marks.

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5. Harbour Planning.
The important facts to be studied and analyzed in the harbour planning can be
listed as below.
- It is necessary to carry out, a thorough survey of the neighbourhood including
the fore shore and depth of the water.
- The borings and soundings should be taken to ascertain the character of the
ground.
- The borings on land should also be made so as to know the probable subsurface
conditions on land. It will be helpful in locating the harbour works correctly.
- The nature of the harbour, whether sheltered or not, should be studied.
- The existence of sea insects which undermine the foundations should be noted.
- The problem of silting or erosion of coastline should be carefully studied.
- The factors like rain fall intensity, frequency of storms, range of tides,
maximum and minimum temperature, direction and intensity of the winds,
humidity etc. of the area should be studied.
6. Features of a harbour
- Entrance channel
- Break water
- Turning basin
- Docks
- Berthing basin
- breakwaters
- quays and wharves
- jetties and piers
- docks
- slipways
- other ancillaries such as godowns, sheds etc.
The term turning basin is used to mean a water area inside a harbour or an
enlargement of a channel to permit the turning of a ship. (DRAW FIG: TYPICAL
LAYOUT OF AN ARTIFICIAL HARBOUR)

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7. Defects in harbour:
The usual defects which are noticed in the construction of many harbours are as
follows
i. The size of the harbour proves to be small to accommodate the increase in
traffic.
ii. The depth of water proves to be insufficient for the ships to berth safely.
iii. The quay or landing area between the berths is very narrow and there is no
enough room for the cargo to be stored.
iv. The whole area is congested and hence, the functioning of the harbour
cannot be carried out smoothly.

8. Requirements of a good harbour:

i. The ship channels which may either be natural or artificial must have sufficient
depth for the draft of the vessels visiting the harbour.
ii. The bottom should furnish secured anchorage to hold the ships against the
force of high winds.
iii. The land masses or beak waters must be provided to protect against the
destructive wave action.
iv. The harbour entrance should be wide enough to permit ready passage for
shipping and at the same time it should be narrow enough to restrict the
transmission of excessive amounts of wave energy during storm.
9. Ship characteristics:
i. The principal types of vessels likely to visit the harbour will determine the
land requirements.
ii. The depth and width of channel will depend on the dimensions of the
largest vessel likely to use the waterway.
iii. The quantity of traffic at the harbour will decide whether the channel should
be single lane or double lane.
iv. The minor factors like speed of ship, alignment of channel, etc. will also
have impact on the harbour development.

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10. Terms common for ship characteristics:

i. Load line or Plimsoll mark:-It indicates the line or set of lines on the outside
of the merchant ships, showing the water level to which they may legally be
loaded.
ii. Displacement load: The weight of ship and its contents when fully loaded
with cargo to the load line is known as displacement load.
iii. Displacement light: The weight of ship in kN without cargo, fuel and stores
is known as displacement light
iv. Dead weight tonnage: The difference between the displacement load and
light is known as dead weight tonnage.
v. Gross Tonnage : The carrying capacity of a ship expressed in volume
measurement is known as gross tonnage.
vi. Net tonnage: The difference between gross tonnage and the space provided
for the crew, machinery, engine room and fuel is known as net tonnage.
vii. Cargo tonnage: It is a commercial expression which forms the basis of
freight charge.
viii. Ballast: The weight added to improve the stability of ship when it has
discharged its cargo is known as ballast.
NATURAL AND METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA
Natural and meteorological phenomena that affect location and design of
harbour are:
 Littoral drift
 Tides
 Wind and waves
Littoral Drift
The waves created by prevailing winds create a current flow which tend to stir
up and move the lighter particles of sand in suspension. It tends to carry the
drifting sand in zig-zag line. Such sand drifts occurring in the proximity of fore
shores are called littoral drifts.

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If harbour is constructed in the path of littoral drift,

drift, there will be
accumulation of sand on one side and erosion on the other side of harbour.
Direction of littoral drift depends on wave direction and quantity
uantity of material
moving depends on velocity of tidal currents.

Tides
Due to gravitational force of sun and moon there is rise and fall in ocean water
water.
The rise in water level is called high tide or tide, and fall in water level is called
low tides or ebb.
Major tides:
 Spring Tide:- These are highest tides which occur when sun, moon and
earth fall in line.
 Neap Tide:- These are lowest tides which occur when the lines
connecting the earth with the sun and the moon form right angle.
Lunar tides
 Diurnal tide: An area has a diurnal tidal cycle if it experiences one high
and one low tide every lunar day.
 Semidiurnal tide: An area has a semidiurnal tidal cycle
le if it experiences
two high and two low tides of approximately equal size every lunar day
 Mixed tide: An area has a mixed semidiurnal tidal cycle if it experiences
two high and two low tides of different size every lunar day.

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Uses of tides
 Tides can be used for harnessing the power.
 Tides are used for entry and exit of ships in the harbour.
 Fisherman takes an advantage of tides.
 Ports remain clean due to tides.
 High tide water can be used for harvesting salt.
Effects of tides
 Tide raises water level, hence raises point of action of static water
pressure
 Develops tidal range (apparent variation in mean sea level).
 Develops tidal prism (amount of water that changes in a harbour basin
within a single tide).
 Tidal variations causes difficulties in stable floating of vessels
 Generates tidal bore (a sudden increase in water depth, occurring on
several rivers emptying into the ocean when tides get really big as they
enter the river mouths).
 Reflection of tidal bore by sea wall or breakwater produces clapotis.
Wind and waves
Wind is horizontal movement of air due to differences in air pressure which are
caused by differential heating and cooling.
In short wind means air in motion.
Wind Characteristics:-
 Direction of wind usually specified by compass.
 Frequency of wind is the percentage of the time in a year it will blow
from a particular direction.
 Intensity gives the velocity of the wind.
Factors affecting wind pattern
 Action of mass of water: Compared to land, the mass of water absorbs

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more heat and reflect less. As a result, the cooler sea air flows from sea to
land in summer and the process is reversed in winter.
 Location: The tropical regions are heated more effectively than the arctic
areas. The lighter warm air in the tropics is replaced by heavier cool air
coming from polar regions. The rising tropic air flows towards the poles in
the upper atmosphere
 Rotation of earth: Earth rotates about its own axis from east to west. The
angular velocity is imparted to all points on the surface of earth. As a result,
the winds with different velocities in suitable directions are formed on the
surface.

Waves are periodic undulations of the sea surface. Water waves are
generated by transfer of energy from air moving over the water.
Types of wind water waves
 Waves of oscillation- stationary waves
 Waves of translation- possess forward motion. But all translatory waves
originally start as waves of oscillation and become translatory by further
wind action.
The harbour engineer’s main concern is the translator wave.

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Wave parameters
Wave Velocity:-

Where, L = Length
T = Wave Period
Fetch:-
Straight line stretch of open water available for wave growth
without the interruption of land is called fetch.

Where, H = Wave Height (m)

F = Fetch (km)
Length of wave:
The length could be defined as the distance between crests of a wave. The
length influences the force of the wave. It is difficult to estimate the length in
open sea and is generally computed by Bertin's formula, as:
L = (t2/2π)*g
(OR)
L = 1.56t2
Where L = length in feet and t is the period in seconds for two successive
waves to pass the same section.
The length of the wave, with the water depth, determines the velocity of
the particles of water in the wave. Lengths have been known to reach a
maximum off 600 feet to 1000 feet.

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Wave action
Ocean waves on breaking against marine structure give rise to following forces:
 Compression due to direct horizontal force.
 Shearing action at the projection on the face of the wall.
 Suction effect due to return water after striking.
 Sea bed & Foundation disturbance due to downward vertical force.

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Above forces result in following phenomena:

 Powerful momentary impact combined with a hydrostatic pressure
for a short period.
 Vibration on whole structure.
 Internal Pressure in various directions.
 Expansion and contraction of cavities of the structure.
SHORE PROTECTION WORKS:

The shoreline is likely to undergo continuous changes due to effects caused by various
natural phenomena such as tides. waves, etc. Hence, shore protection works are to be done
for the following purposes:

 i) to protect an exposed beach line;

 (ii) to create and stabilize artificial beaches:
 iii) to restore erodable beach; and
 (vi) to stabilize an existing beach.

Shore protection works are usually in the following forms:

(1) Sea-walls, bulkheads and revetments: These the structures constructed parallel to shore-
line to develop demarcation line between land area and water area. Sea walls are used where
land to be protected is a developed one and wave effects are severe. These walls are very
massive and expensive. Bulkheads are generally used in areas where wave action is less
severe. They are found be less expensive than sea-walls. They are constructed along the shore
line to prevent encroachment of the sea direct wave action. They primarily serve as a
retaining wall. A revetment is a protective pavement supported by earth bank. It protects the
land from wave erosion. Itmay be constructed of stone or bituminous concrete or cement
concrete. The stone revetment is usually preferred.

(2) Protective beaches or spending beaches: It found that beaches of suitable dimensions can
prove be effective to grant protection to the adjacent upland from the effects of waves and
tides.

(3) Sand dunes: These are the formations along the coast and they prevent the movement of
tides and waves into the area behind them. Vegetation is used to stabilize the dune sand. The

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process of dune building is hastened by fences or vegetation. Under severe wave attack, dune
is over-topped by waves.

(4) Groynes: These are structures which are built to protect beach or retard erosion of an
existing or restored beach by trapping of littoral drift. They also protect toes of sea-wall or
bulkhead. They are usually perpendicular to shoreline and extend into water to accomplish
their purpose.

15) Off-shore breakwater: These are usually of rubble mound type and they afford protection
to harbour entrances. They are found to be very effective for intercepting littoral movement.
They protect the area from wave action and also serve as an aid to navigation.

BREAK WATER

The protective barrier constructed to enclose harbours and to keep the harbour
waters undisturbed by the effect of heavy and strong seas are called breakwaters.
It provided safe anchorage for ships and to facilitate loading and unloading of
cargo in comparatively calm waters.
The main function of a breakwater is to break the momentum of water by
means of wave breakers.
Necessities and functions
 The break water enclosed areas used for safe anchorage of ships and facilitate
loading and unloading of cargo.
 Actually breakwater is an artificial construction, which breaks the force of
incoming wind and wave.
 The main function of breakwater is breaking the momentum of water.
 Sometimes the inner side of break water constructed as quay.
ALIGNMENT
A good alignment for breakwaters is to have straight converging arms so that the
angle of intersection does not exceed 60 degrees. It is desirable to avoid straight
parallel or diverging arms running out to sea.

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DESIGN INFORMATION AND CONSIDERATIONS

Information
a. Character of coastal currents
b. Cost and availability of materials of construction
c. Directions and force of prevailing winds
d. Nature of the bottom or foundation
e. Probable maximum height, force and intensity of waves.
Considerations:
a. The design should be based on the extreme phenomena of the wind and
waves and not on the mean or average
b. The height of the wave should be, determined by the equation = 0.34 √
c. It should be seen that material in the foundation is not subject to scour.
FORCES ACTING ON BREAKWATERS
i. Hydrostatic forces: This force reduces the apparent weight and hence, the
marine structures suffer these losses to a great extent unless the foundations
are absolutely impervious.
ii. External forces: The intensity of external forces, especially wind and wave
action, is enormous. The power of wind produces vibrations in the masonry
structure and weakens the different courses of masonry. In a similar way, the
wave when it recedes induces suction action and it results in the erosion of
the foundation unless it is made safe and secure.
iii. Solvent action of sea water: This quality of sea water causes damage to the
materials of construction.
iv. Sea insects. The concentrated action of sea insect's results in the
undermining of the hardest and soundest building material and it is for the
reason marine structures are made specially bulky and strong.

CLASSIFICATION OF BREAKWATERS:
1. Heap or mound water
i. Rubble mound breakwater
ii Concrete blocks mound breakwater

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iii. Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by concrete blocks

blocks.
iv. Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by patented stones.
stones.
2. Mound with superstructure or composite breakwater
3. Upright wall breakwater
4. Special breakwaters

Selection Of Type Of Breakwater

 Availability of materials of construction
 Depth of water at site of construction
 Nature of natural foundations
 Equipment available for construction
 Funds and time available for construction

1. Heap or mound breakwater

It is a heterogeneous assemblage of natural rubbles, undressed stone blocks and
the artificial block of huge size and weight, the whole being deposited without any
bond or binding material.
This is a simplest type and is constructed by dumping of rubble sstone into sea till
the heap or mound emerge out of the water.
The side slope of these type break water is regulated by the action of wave. The
quantity of rubble depends upon the depth, rise of tides and waves and exposure.

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Components of mound breakwater

1. Interior or hearth or core: Function of core is to increase the bulk or size of
breakwater. This makes the construction of mound breakwater economical.
Core is usually quarry waste or washed dredged materials, weighing 10 kg to
20 kg. Core is less pervious as compared to armour and filter.
2. Filter or secondary armours. Construction is more pervious. Each size of stone
is from half tonne to 1.5 tonnes. The function of filter zone units is to destroy
the energy of waves that come through armour layer of stones.
3. Armour blocks. These stones or blocks are like fighters in army, hence the
name is given as armours. They resist major part of force (kinetic energy) of
wind and waves. They will be largest in size and weight.
Characteristics of Mound breakwater
 Dissipation of kinetic energy – successfully by different layers of mound
 Natural foundation is unprepared
 No special bond – no binding materials are provided
 No possibility of sliding
 No possibility of overturning
 No possibility of uplift
 The (mound) construction is porous or pervious
 The mound construction is flexible
 Unskilled labour can used in construction of mound

i) Rubble mound break water

Type 1:
 In this type of construction the top of core of mound breakwater is above mean
sea level
 Large volume of core is used to make mound construction economical
 Armour stone have different weights at different level.

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Type 2: ‘
 In this type of construction Crest level of core is kept below M.S.L by
specified distance ‘x’

Advantages and Disadvantages of Mound type breakwater

Advantages:-
 Low in initial cost of materials of construction, equipment for construction and
labour required
 No preparation of foundation
 Construction is porous or pervious, hence no possibility of uplift.
 Dissipates the energy of incoming water waves most efficiently
Disadvantages:-
 Requires continuous maintenance
 Mound construction requires huge quantity of materials

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ii. Concrete block mound breakwater.

 Casting of concrete blocks of odd shape and sizes are very difficult and costly.
 High transportation cost.
 Hence these type break water is rare
iii. Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by concrete blocks.
 Concrete block with reinforcement take more force than natural rubble stones.
 The construction is similar to rubble mound breakwater, but in this type
construction of concrete block are laid towards sea side to act as extra armour
blocks
 The concrete block can be laid in
i. Pell-mell fashion
ii. Well compacted fashion
Concrete blocks placed in Pell mell fashion:- Heavier concrete blocks are laid
between H.W.S.T and crest. Concrete blocks though may be casted rough yet they
will not have hydraulic roughness as natural rubble also more number of chances of
sliding as compared to natural rubble (see figure)
Concrete blocks placed in compacted fashion:- The concrete armour blocks are
arranged tightly without binding materials. (see figure)

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iv. Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by patented stones

 Concrete block having rectangular section with sharp edges are not rough
enough and not their faces of adjacent blocks are likely to coincide.
 Hence energy of wave water cannot be killed or dissipated partially. Only a
small percentage energy dissipated.
 After making no. of experiment, various countries are developed different type
and shapes of concrete block which is rough and stable in any position.
 Tetrapods
 Tetrapods are assembly of symmetrically prepared for legged truncated
cones with proper amount of reinforcement. (40 kN to 250 kN)
 Developed by Neyrpric Laboratory of Sotromar in France in 1948
 These are most common.
 They are stable.
 Less amount of concrete block required.
 These are economical
 Dissipated more energy.

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 Tri bars
 Weight vary from 4 tonne to 40 tonnes.
 They are three legged
 Three legs connected using plates at mid height
 Developed by U S army engineers
 Modified Cubes
 Made from ordinary cubes
 On each faces of the cubes a long and wide groove is made, used to
interlock adjacent units. Heavier than tetra pods and tri bars

 Modified cubes

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2. MOUND WITH SUPERSTRUCTURE OR COMPOSITE BREAKWATER

 mound construction with top part made solid – get advantage of mound at
bottom as well as to get advantage of solid or rigid construction at top
 it is classified into two types
a. Mound with superstructure founded at low water level
b. Mound with superstructure founded at below low water level
Mound with superstructure founded at low water level
A solid super structure consisting of a quay protected by a parapet on the sea face is
constructed on the top of the rubble mound.
Advantages:-
 It provides a platform for handling cargo
 It protects the top of the mound
 It reduces the mass of rubble required for the mound in proportion to
the depth at which it is founded

Mound with superstructure founded at below low water level

Advantage of these type breakwaters is that founding super structure well below the
level of disturbance, the wave having partially no disturbing effect. In deep water this
type is very economical.

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3. UPRIGHT WALL BREAKWATER

Upright wall is defined as a big regular wall raised to construct a harbour basin on
solid natural and artificial foundation to resist the force and their components
generated by incoming water and waves.

Types of wall breakwater

1. Wall breakwater of smaller size unit. Eg. Natural or artificial unit weighing
20tonne to 30tonnes
2. Wall break water of large size unit: greater than 30 tonnes
i. Mass concrete unit – Mass concrete is laid between lines of steel sheet

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piles driven parallel to one another at constant distance from alignment

of breakwater.
ii. Caisson unit - Hollow RCC boxes open at top and closed on all other
sides are casted on shore and floated to site for sinking by their weight.
Such large units sunk one abutting other are set along alignment of the
breakwater wall. Caissons are filled by stones, concrete or RCC.
Advantages
i . Reduce the amount of material.
ii. Avoid the dangers of unequal settlement
iii. Increase the size of the harbour basin.
iv. Maintenance cost is least.
Disadvantages
i. Required special care and costly method of construction.
ii. Involve building a good height of wall under water.

Comparison between Mound type and Wall type Breakwater

Mound type break water Wall type break water

 Initial cost is low  Initial cost is high
 Inspection is easy and repairs can  The repairs are difficult to attend
be carried out periodically
 It does not require sinking for  It requires sinking for foundation
foundation
 It requires foundation with more  It requires foundation with less
width width
 It requires unskilled labour  It requires skilled labour
 It is not very efficient  It is efficient
 Maintenance cost is high  Maintenance cost is low
 The material required is more  The material required is less

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SPECIAL BREAK WATERS:-

(I) Floating type breakwater
(II) Hydraulic breakwater
(III) Pneumatic break water
Floating type breakwater

 Floating type break water consists of well connected floating bulk heads nearly
5m to 10m deep and properly anchored so that below 10 m depth of water there
is no construction.
 Such breakwaters cannot be too strong hence can be constructed on small
harbours

Hydraulic breakwater:

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 Translatory waves of sea water moves towards shore or harbour basin. Such
waves do rotate about own axis also which generate destructive force. This
force of rotation if it is nullified the wave can be converted silent water mass.
To nullify or compensate the force of waves equal and opposite artificial force
acting in opposite direction of rotation can be generated that will solve the
problem for developing a silent zone of water for harbour basin. The artificial
ways to create such resisting force are:
o By supplying water through pipes and nozzles with required head
obtained through overhead tank
o By supplying compressed air at required head
Pneumatic breakwater
Instead of supply of water supply of air at required pressure can also perform
same function. When air is used it is known as pneumatic break water.
LOADING AND UNLOADING FACILITIES

Fixed units in form of stationary platform known as quays, wharves, piers and jetties
Movable units in form of cranes of various capacities on rails, conveyors, escalators,
vacuum pumps etc
Quay: -
. Wharves along or parallel to the shore are generally called quays and their protection
walls are called quay wall. Quays are solid construction.
Design of quay wails
1. Character of foundation

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2. Pressure due to water that finds its way to the rear of the wall
3. Effect of buoyancy for the portion of the wall submerged
4. Earth pressure at rear
5. Weight of the wall itself
6. Live load of vehicles passing on the platform at the rear
7. Dead load of the goods stored on the platform
8. Force of impact of vessels
Quay wall are designed similar to retaining wall.
Forces on quay walls
i. Horizontal pressure: Earth pressure and water pressure
ii. Overturning moment
For equilibrium overturning moment has to be balanced by the weight of wall and
counter moment.
Wharves:-
The landing places or platforms in the form of walls built near shore for vessels
to berth are known as wharves. Thus a wharf affords a working platform alongside the
ship in continuity of shore. A wharf may be a sheet pile wall or it may consist of a
piled projection with or without artificial retention of soil some distance behind.
Wharves will be parallel to the shore. The level of wharf should be above the high
water level. Wharf should act as a unit when there is an impact from any vessel.
Hence, it should be properly braced and bolter. The wharves should be located in such
a way that sufficient depth of water is available for the ship to float.
The design of wharves involves the following factors:
i. Provision for the berthing of ship
ii. handling and storage of cargo
iii. terminal facilities for rail and truck transportation

Piers:
The structures which are built perpendicular or oblique to the shore of a river or
a sea are known as piers. In the sea, the piers are constructed where the sea is not deep
and the natural harbour is not convenient for allowing the ships to berth adjacent to

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the shore.

Pier heads:
A pierhead is a structure constructed at the tip of a breakwater near the harbour
entrance. It helps in demarcating clearly the approach channel. It protects the
breakwater section immediately adjacent to it. It should be furnished with a lantern or
a light.

Jetties:
These are structure in the form of piled projections and they are built out from
the shore to deep water and they may be constructed either for a navigable river or in
the Sea.
In the sea, the jetties are provided at places where harbour entrance is affected
by littoral drift or the sea is shallow for a long distance.
Depending upon the natural conditions and features of the entrance channel, the
jetties should be constructed and they may take various forms such as single curved
jetty, converging jetty, diverging jetty, etc.

Differences between wharf and jetty:

i. The wharf is a berth parallel to the shore. A jetty is perpendicular to the

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shore or break water

ii. The wharf has berth on one side only as it has a back fill of earth. A jetty
may have berths on two faces.
Dolphins:-
The construction in the form of a cluster of closely spaced piles is known as
dolphins. The piles are pulled together at the top and tied by a cable. They are marine
structures for mooring vessels.
Classification of dolphins:-
 Flexible dolphins – These are in the form of cluster of piles tied with
galvanized cable. The piles are in odd numbers of 3, 5, 7, 9 etc.
 Rigid dolphins – In this type the piles of the cluster are bolted to wooden cross
members located just above low water with wooden framing at the top.

Fenders:-
Wet dock walls are damaged when a loaded ship or vessel entering and taking
berth against dock wall. To protect the dock wall against such hits of ship in between
ship and dock wall provision of buffer or cushion is to be made.
Types of fenders:-
 Timber piles fenders with springs
 Rubber fenders
 Pneumatic fenders
Slip:-
The space of water area between two adjacent piers where ships are berthed is
known as slip.

Moles:-
The structures formed by rock filling and extending from shores are known as
moles.
Moorings:-
These are the devices which are provided where anchorage water is limited.
Mooring accessories for the fixed type:- Mooring port, Bollard, Capstan

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Mooring accessories for the floating type :- Buoys, cables and anchors

GUIDING FACILITIES/ NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Purpose of Navigation
 To avoid dangerous zone like hidden rocky
 To follow proper harbour approaches
 To locate port, especially during night and bad weather condition
Signal two types
1) Fixed signals :- light station in fixed form (e.g. Light House)
2) Floating signals :- light stations in floating form ( eg. Buoys)
Light House
 It is built of masonry or reinforced concrete in the shape of a tall tower.
 The tower is divided into convenient number of floors, the top most floor
containing a powerful lighting equipment
 The lower floors are used, as store and living rooms necessary for maintenance
and working of light stations.
 Light house may located on shore or on islands away from the main land.
 Their stores and staff quarters are provided for the efficient and unfailing
maintenance and working of the light house.

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Light house construction:-

 The type of foundation to be adopted for a particular situation will depend on
the characteristics of soil of that area
 On good rock or hard soil, a thick bed of concrete may serve while on
submarine or marshy locations, piles or caissons could be used
 The superstructure is generally a masonry or an R.C.C tower constructed on a
prominent basement

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 The stone or concrete blocks used in the construction of the basement are
joggled both vertically and horizontally as shown in fig. to secure and bind the
blocks together and resist strongly forces tending to dislodge or move them
 The tower is divided into a number of floors and the light is housed at the
summit in a glazed room
 Just below the lantern room is the service room and other rooms lower down
are used for oil and general stores, personnel, and other accessories like water
storage and fire fighting apparatus
 A narrow gallery is provided outside the lantern room protected by pipe railing
 The light should be identified and its distance ascertained, for the mariner to
locate his position
 These lights are made ‘fixed’ or flashing for easy identification by the
navigator and are classified accordingly to their illuminating power
 Fixed lights are likely to be confused with the private lights of the
neighborhood and hence, it is desirable to avoid fixed lights as far as possible.

TYPES OF SIGNALS: -
 Light signals
 Light ships
 Beacons
 Buoys
 Fog signals
 Audible signals

1. Light signals
a) Light ships

 Small ships displacing about 5000 kN are used for this purpose
 The lantern is carried on an open steel tower approximately 9 m to 12 m
above the water level and erected amidships.

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 The light apparatus consists of four pairs of mirror reflectors placed around
the light and made to revolve at a suitable speed emitting ,a predetermined
number of flashes.
 The ship is with service personnel and is securely anchored or moored.
 The hulls of light ships are built of steel and they are generally painted with
red colour
 The name of the station is painted in white colours on both sides of light
ship.
 The storm warning signals are also installed on the light ships.
 When the light ships are being overhauled, red colour relief light ships with
the word ‘Relief’ on the sides are used.

b) Beacons :

 Any prominent object, natural or artificially constructed, easily identifiable and

capable of being used as a means to indicate and guide in navigation is
generally designated as a beacon.
 Lofty topographical feature like hill summit, building or structure like a church
steeple, or factory chimney, could all be made use of as beacons.
 Beacons are used for indicating direction changes in navigation or as means of
alignment.

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(c) Buoys
 Buoys are floating structures of small size employed for demarcation like
entrances, approach channel and boundaries so on

 They are useful in indicating approach channel widths, two rows of buoys
being used one along each boundary.

 Buoys are of different designs and patterns. They are designed not only to
support their own weight, but also the weight of cables or chains by which they
are moored

 Buoys are also classified according to their size, shape, colour, weight,
purpose, etc.

a. Mooring Buoys - In harbour interiors, buoys are provided in fixed

positions to which ships could be moored during their stay in the
harbour without using anchors.

b. Wreck buoys - These are of peculiar shape and are used to locate
wrecks in harbour exteriors or open seas. They are also used for sea
cable crossing locations

c. Buoyage system – The shape or colour of the buoy is used to indicate

the purpose of the buoy.

2. Fog signals
These signals are to be provided at places likely to be seriously affected
by fog and they take the following forms:
 Ordinary bells struck by hand.
 Ordinary bells operated by mechanism.
 Submarine bells struck by mechanism.
 Whistles or sirens blown by compressed air or steam.

3. Audible signals:

 These signals are to be used in emergency to bring immediate attention of the

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mariners and they take up the form of explosive signals, electric oscillators,
sirens, bells and diaphones.
 audible or sound signals are very useful during heavy mists or fogs.

STORAGE FACILITIES

Transit Shed:-
A building located on or near a pier or wharf used for shortterm storage of carg
o in transit. These sheds are single or double storied in height.

Essential features of transit shed:-

 Adequate storage space with light components of the structure
 Adequate day light with arrangements for proper illumination
 Provision of fire fighting equipment
 Doors should be provided for ready and rapid opening and closing
 Mobile cranes with varying capacities are made available

Factors influencing the size of transit shed:

 Nature of cargo, height of its staking and allowance for movement and other
non storage areas
 Size of vessels

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Warehouse:-

Both transit shed and warehouses serve the same purpose, the only difference
being the duration for which goods are to be stored. Warehouses are used for long
term storage. The incoming or outgoing cargo requires clearance. Such cargo kept in
Bonded warehouse.

DOCK ENGINEERING
DOCKS
 Docks are enclosed areas for berthing ships, to facilitate loading and unloading
of passenger and cargo and also used for repairs of the vessels.
 The docks are necessary, because the effect of tides affect the loading and
unloading of cargo or passenger
 The docks are protected by break water.

CLASSIFICATION OF DOCK
1. WET DOCK
A dock which is used for berthing of vessels to facilitate loading and unloading of
passenger and cargo are known as wet dock.
2 DRY DOCK
Docks which are used for cleaning, painting and repairing of the vessels are known
as dry dock.

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CLASSIFICATION OF WET DOCK

a) WET DOCK IN TIDAL BASIN
 If there is low tides, which should not affected the ship could be berthed on the
dock,
 Thus these type docks are open to sea coast.
 The doors are protected by an outlying break water and pier wall.

Advantage:
 No need costly arrangement like lock gate for closing of entrance.
 Unrestricted leaving and arrival.
Disadvantage:
 If the range of tide is more, which is seriously affected the loading and
unloading.
 Fluctuation in water level will cause rubbing of sides of the ship against berth

b) WET DOCK IN ENCLOSED BASIN

 If there is high tides, which should affected the ship could be berthed on the
dock.
 Wet docks are enclosed and are shutoff by entrance by lock which maintain
uniform water level.

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Advantage:
 Uniform water level maintained.
 Prevent the rubbing of the side of the slip against Berth.
 Prevent the effect of storm.
Disadvantage:
 Need costly arrangement like lock gate for closing of entrance
 More time take entry and exit of ships.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRY DOCK/ REPAIRING FACILITIES
Classification of repairing facilities
i. Repairing facilities in the fixed form
a. Graving dry dock
b. Slip way or Marine railway dry dock.
c. Lift dock
ii. Repairing facilities in the movable form
a. Floating dock.
b. Depositing dock
1. Graving dry dock
 It stands still like a grave of dead body. Hence it is named graving dry dock.
 It is an excavated chamber having, side walls, end wall, front opening with gate
and a solid floor.

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 Side walls are two in numbers constructed in form of 2m steps of concrete or

masonry covered with granite stones on exposed surfaces.
 End wall may be square, circular, elliptical or trapezoidal in plan.
Facilities to be provided at a Graving dry dock:
1. Lifting : lifting and moving facilities are in form of cranes of different capacities –
2 tonnes to 50 tonnes.
2. Compressed air supply: This ensures working of pneumatic tools for cuttings
drilling etc.
3. Supply of salt water: salt water is supplied to fill for dock chamber.
4. Supply of fresh water: This water is for cleaning the ship surface.
5. Electrical power supply: This power supply can run equipment like welding sets
capstans and pumps.
6. Pulling equipment : well founded electrical motors known as capstans suitably on
both side walls of dry dock. They are used to drag the ship inside to the dry dock.
7. Anchoring facilities in form of bollards: Bollards are provided at a spacing of
3m to 5m c/c. The rope which are tied to the ship, are wound round the bollard. If
one of the motors is stopped the ship will be dragged only on one side which make
the ship to go out of trim. The ropes wound round the bollard will not permit the
ship to go out of trim.

8. Supporting facilities
a. Supporting the ship from sides :- Timber slides are strong, well-seasoned
timber rounds with metal cover at both ends. Timber shores when supplied to

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the dock chamber they float the workers can collect them standing on steps of
alter courses and set them between the corners of steps and ship surface to act
as inclined struts taking compression.
b. Supporting the ship from bottom:
i. At bottom centre thorough keel block.
ii. At bottom sides through bilge blocks or side blocks.
Keel blocks: One row of keel blocks along the centre line of dry dock is laid at
1 .2 m centre to centre. Their height is 0.75 m to 1.2m for small docks and 1.2 m to
1.5m for large docks. The keel blocks are made in to two or three tires. The top
most layer of Keel block is made of soft timber so that keel of ship will not get
damaged when the ship sits on it.
Bilge blocks or side blocks: These are supports over and above to central support
at bottom by keel blocks. It provide stability in lateral direction. Bilge blocks are
set at an interval of 2m to 8m length-wise.

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9. Pumping facilities: For entry and exit of a ship in dry dock first the water level in
the dock is to be made equal to water level in the basin for which flooding of dock
is to be done by supplying water. To make the ship to sit exactly on the keel blocks
and bilge blocks the water is to be gradually pumped out of dry dock with high
power pumps.
Size of Graving dock:- the size of a dock depends on the size of the largest ship it has
to dry dock. Dry docks to handle modern big ship have to be 300m in length, with an
entrance width of 25m to 30m
Forces acting on a Graving dock:
1. Weight of ship
2. Weight of water
3. Upward pressure
4. Earth and hydrostatic pressures
5. Loading imposed
6. Surcharge on the side

Conditions for design of Graving dock

 Dock empty
 Dock filled with water
Marine Railway Dry dock:
 Marine railway or slip dock or slipway is an inclined railway extending from
the shore well into the water as well as the foreshore.
 To enable a ship to be drawn up clear out of the water.
 The essential parts are a cradle, which moves up and down on inclined track
and the track itself being supported on an unyielding and firm foundation or
pile foundation.
 The cradle is constructed of steel and provided with keel and bilge blocks to
receive the ship. The cradle is mounted on a system of rollers which move on
iron tracks carried by longitudinal timbers, supported or cross ties or beams
bearing on piles or other firm foundations.
 Strong cables are attached to the shore end of the cradle to haul the cradle.

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Hauling is operated by strong mechanical winches built on shore.

 The Ways consist of heavy rails secured to longitudinal sleepers supported on
cross ties are laid at an inclination varying from 1 in 15 to l in 20.
The use of this type of dock is no doubt economical but is limited to vessel of not
more than 50000 kN. The ways would have to be drawn out a distance nearly twice
the lengths of the vessel to be docked. It also means that the entire length of the ways
would be over three to four times the length of the vessel to be docked.

Slipways

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1. Components of slipways: This technique is used for the building of ships or for
repairs. A slipway consists of inclined path of timber or stone upon which a series of
rails are fixed and they run up from a sufficient depth of water to the required height
above the high water level.
i. Flat footed rails: Flat footed rails of standard sections are used.
ii. Crane track foundations: The main problem in slipway construction is that the
crane track foundation is partly in dry, partly between tides and partly under
water.
iii. Cradle or carriages: The cradles or carriages are three types.
a. Rigid type: These cradles require longer slips.
b. Semi-rigid type: They require shorter slips as compared to the
rigid type.
c. Collapsible type: These cradles require shortest possible length of
slip and they reduce the expensive under water work to a
minimum. The cradles are in the form of a series of bogies
connected by chains.
Lift Dry Dock:
This is a substantially constructed platform capable of being lowered into and
raised from water. Raising and lowering are accomplished by means of hydraulic
power applied through cylinders supporting the ends of cross girders carrying the
platform.
Floating Type dry Deck:
Floating dock may be defined as a floating vessel which can lift a ship out of
water and retain it above water by means of its own buoyancy. It is a hollow structure
of steel or reinforced cement concrete consisting of 2 side walls and a floor with the
ends open.
 to receive a ship, then the floating dock is sunk into the water
 then the interior chamber of floating dock is filled with water.
 the ship is floating into position and berthed
 The dock is raised bodily with the berthed ship by un ballasting the chambers
by pumping out the water.

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Types or Floating Docks:

1. Rigid type floating docks: In this type the side walls are rigidly fixed to the
pontoon or bottom section. The floor portion is divided into a number of
chambers. The damaged Ship is berthed on the dock. The water is pumping out
partially.

2. Self docking type floating docks: A type of floating dock, which is divided into
sections longitudinally and one of which is capable of being lifted and docked on
the remainder of the dock for the purposes of cleaning, painting or repairing.
A typical self docking dry dock known as bolted sectional type, Firstly the
whole dock (having minimum three sections) is down assembled; secondly the
centre section is shown detached and about to be docked on the two end stations;
and thirdly and end section is seen being docked on the other two.
This type is usually constructed in three equal sections, the two end sections
having stepped ends to form landings during self-docking. It combines the
advantages of strength of the rigid type with self docking facility.

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3. Self docking off shore type floating docks

The offshore type floating dock has no side wall on the water side and has an
‘L’ shaped cross-section. The side wall is connected to the shore by hinged
parallel booms capable of lifting or lowering the dock. The ship to be docked
could be brought on to the dock from either end or sideways.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FLOATING DOCKS.

1. When loaded with a ship
2. When unloaded and floating.
Advantages and disadvantages of floating dry dock.
1. Advantage of floating dry dock:
i. Cheaper in initial working costs
ii. It could be constructed in half the time,
iii. Advantages of mobility and transferred from port to port.
iv. It could be trimmed to take a damaged and lifting ship.
v. It has no elaborate entrance or gate arrangements
2. Disadvantages of floating dry dock:

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i. Durability less. Floating dock being a steel structure constantly afloat

in sea water.
ii. Maintenance are more
iii. Great skill and care required.
Form and arrangements of basins and docks:
The exact arrangement and form must depend upon the available site.

i. Approaches to basins and docks:

 Approaches must be sheltered and they should be adequate length also.
 The dredging can be done frequently.
 Considered cost of dredging.

ii. Depth of docks and basins. The depth of docks and basins should be capable
of accommodating the largest vessel likely to visit the port.

Excavation for docks and basins: The excavation is generally carried out by hand
wagons, excavations, etc. arrangements will have to be made to form an embankment
to keep the sea out.
3. Shape of docks and basins: these should be of shapes formed by straight line, as
curved lines are not suitable for ships to stand alongside.
i. Rectangular shape, The length and breadth could be adjusted to give the
maximum quayage.

ii. Diamond shape : For the same perpendicular distance between the long
sideshow long sides could be conveniently extended.

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iii. Inclined pier type: It consists of number of projecting piers into the basin or
dock.

iv. Location: Docks could be located, on inland ports of rivers.

v. Internal arrangement: Separate docks are usually required for different kinds of
cargo, as for Example, coal and oil should be dealt with separately.
vi. Other aspects:
1. Availability of fresh water to replace leakage and fouled water from dock.
In inland ports, separate canal from the rivers will have to be drawn for this
purpose. Sea coast docks, the sea water could be used for cleaning and
replenishing the dock.
2. Approaches must be sheltered and of sufficient depth. Both on the open sea
coast and in inland docks, the approach channel has to be frequently
dredged.
Design and construction of basin or dock walls
l . Design conditions: These walls are designed as gravity retaining wall sections.
i. Dock empty to withstand pressure of back-fill
ii. Dock full with back-fill removed
iii. Thickness at should be sufficient to resist the shock of contact with ships.
iv. Crane foundations and capstans or bollard fixtures for mooring ships.
v. Surcharge loads in the shape of loaded vehicles or trains.
vi. wall structure from impacts of loaded ships.
2. Design loads

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i. L.L - Live load

ii. D.L - Dead load
iii. E.P - Earth pressure
iv. S.W.P. - Static water pressure
v. Dy. Wop - Dynamic water pressure
vi. U.P. - Uplift pressure
vii. I.P. - impact pressure due to ship
3. Effect of loads: The pressure behind the wall may cause the dock wall either:
i. To slide forward, or
ii. To rotate about the front toe or
iii. To sink at the toe
iv. To develop tension in the joit.
Other aspects of construction details:
i. Basin walls have to be of much greater height the dock walls.
ii. As the water level has to be kept constant, the sides and tile bottom should be
made impervious.
iii. The front face is generally straight.
iv. The front face is given a granite
v. Constructed of masonry, brickwork or concrete or a combination of these
materials.
vi. Tunnel and passages for hydraulic compressed air and electric mains.
vii. They must be provided with encourages for bollards and crane foundations
viii. During constructions, it should be seen that the filling behind the wall is
composed of materials which are unaffected by water.
ix. Pipes should be laid in the wall during construction.
x. Boring will have to be taken to ascertain the nature of soil.
DOCK ENTRANCE
Vessels can enter docks either directly or through locks, In either case, gates are
provided for the dock entrances.
The types of gates used are:
i. Wooden of iron gates

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ii. Caissons.
1. Wooden or iron gates: Wooden or iron gates are adopted for lock. These
consist of a series of horizontal beams of green heart (plain or framed) spaced
closer towards the bottom to resist the water pressure, and joined together by a
heel post and meting post at the two extremities and upright in the middle. Iron
gates consist of plate iron ribs fixed horizontally and vertically and covered
over with a skin of iron sheeting. An entrance to a dock gate takes less space
than a lock and it requires only one pair of gates instead of two.
Also, the lock requires a special chamber. An entrance restricts the admission
of vessel to periods round about high tides only. On the other hand a lock
enables vessels to enter the dock whenever required.

2. Caissons: Two kind of caissons are

i. Sliding caisson
ii. Ship Caisson
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i. Sliding caisson-it consists of box shaped steel structure stiffened internally

with proper bracing. It provided with steel keels sliding on smooth granite
floor. Instead of the keels, the cassion could be moved on rollers and rails. The
entrance is opened by hauling the caisson into a recess provided in the side wall
of the dock. It also serves as a bridge across the dock entrance.
ii. Ship caisson: it resembles the outline of a ship in cross-section and is
constructed of steel with stiffeners at proper interval. It is floated into position
and sunk into specially prepared grooves of in the dock sides and sill. This type
does not require any gate recess or machinery for moving.

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