A significant number of industrial protocols are transferred using radio telemetry systems.

Radio is
often chosen in preference to using landlines for a number of reasons:
Costs of cable can far exceed that of radio telemetry systems
Radio systems can be installed faster than landline systems
Radio equipment is very portable and can be easily moved
Radio can be used to transmit the data in any format required by the user
Reasonably high data rates can be achieved compared to some landline applications
Radio can be used as a backup for landlines

Components of a radio link

A radio link consists of the following components:
Antennas
Transmitters
Receivers
Antenna support structures
Cabling
Interface equipment.

Antenna
It is the device used to radiate or detect the electromagnetic waves. There are many different designs
of antennas available. Each one radiates the signal (electromagnetic waves) in a different manner. The
type of antenna used depends on the application and on the area of coverage required.
Transmitter
It is the device that converts the voice or data signal into a modified (modulated) higher frequency
signal. Then it feeds the signal to the antenna where it is radiated into the free space as an
electromagnetic wave at radio frequencies.

Receiver
It is the device that converts the radio frequency signals (fed to it from the antenna detecting the
electromagnetic waves from free space) back into voice or data signals.

Antenna support structure

An antenna support structure is used to mount antennas, in order to provide a height advantage, which
generally provides increased transmission distance and coverage. It may vary in construction from a
three-meter wooden pole to 1000 m steel structure.

Cabling
There are three main types of cabling used in connecting radio systems:
Coaxial cable for all radio frequency connections
Twisted pair cables for voice, data and supervisory connections
Power cables.

Interface equipment
This allows connection of voice and data into the transmitters and receivers from external
sources. It also controls the flow of information, timing of operation on the system and
control and monitoring of the transmitter and receiver.
The radio spectrum and frequency allocation

There are very strict regulations that govern the use of various parts of the radio frequency spectrum.
Specific sections of the radio frequency spectrum have been allocated for public use. All frequencies
are allocated to users by a government regulatory body. Table 17.1 illustrates the typical sections of
the radio spectrum allocated for public use around the world. Each section is referred to as a band.

Certain sections of these bands will have been allocated specifically for telemetry systems.

Application must be made to the government body, or independent groups that hold larger chunks of
the spectrum for on selling, to obtain a frequency and no transmission is allowed on any frequency
unless a license is obtained.
Radio modems

Radio modems are suitable for replacing wire lines to remote sites or as a backup to wire or fiber optic
circuits, and are designed to ensure that computers and PLCs, for example, can communicate
transparently over a radio link without any specific modifications required.
Intermodulation

Besides noise and interference that emanates from man-made sources (cars, electrical motors,
switches, rectifiers etc) there are three other main causes of RF interference.

The first and the most obvious source, is another radio user operating close by on the same frequency
as the system suffering from interference.

The second source of interference comes from noisy transmitters that emit spurious frequencies
outside their allocated bandwidth. These spurious emissions will tend to fall on other users’ channel
bandwidths and cause interference problems. Aging transmitters and those that are not well
maintained are normally the culprits

The third source of interference is known as intermodulation. This is normally the most common
source of interference and generally the most difficult to locate and the most costly to eliminate.

Intermodulation occurs where two or more frequencies interact in a non-linear device such as a
transmitter, receiver or their environs, or on a rusty bolted joint acting as an RF diode to
produce one or more additional frequencies that can potentially cause interference to other
users.

When two electromagnetic waves meet and intermodulate in a non-linear device, they produce a
minimum of two new frequencies – one being the sum of the frequencies and the other being the
difference of the frequencies.

A nearby receiver may be on or close to one of the intermodulation frequency products, receive it as
noise and interference and then could also retransmit it as further noise and interference.

For example, if two frequencies a and b interact, then they will produce two new frequencies c
and d where a + b = c and a – b = d. c and d are referred to as intermodulation products.

If there are more than two frequencies at one location then the number of intermodulation products
possible increases dramatically. For example, if there are transmitters on frequencies a, b and c at one
location then the intermodulation products become:
a b = f1
a b = f2
b c = f3
b – c = f4
a c = f5
a – c = f6
a b – c = f7
a b – c = f8
a – b c = f9
a – b – c = f10

Each frequency from a transmitter will produce a significant harmonic at twice, three times, four
times, etc, its carrier frequency (this is particularly true with FM systems). Each sequential harmonic
will be of a lesser magnitude than the previous one.

Therefore if the transmitter is operating on frequency a, then harmonics will be produced at 2a, 3a, 4a,
etc. The 2a and 3a harmonics can be quite large. These harmonics are produced because of resonant
properties of antennas, cables, buildings and tuned circuits in the receivers and transmitters
themselves and also due to the harmonic side bands produced in FM.

A number of devices have been developed to assist in preventing the formation of intermodulation
products and to prevent these products, spurious transmissions and harmonics from causing
interference to nearby receivers or transmitters. All these devices are connected between the
transmitter and the antenna.

Implementing a radio link

an important methodology that must be followed when designing and implementing a radio link if it is
to work satisfactorily

The design methodology in a sequential order is as follows:

Carry out a radio path profile
Calculate RF losses for the radio path
Calculate affects of transmitter power
Decide on required fade margin
Choose cable and antenna
Purchase equipment
Install equipment

1. Path profile
The first requirement in establishing a successful radio link is to draw up a radio path.
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) Transponders are small electronic devices used in
RFID systems for tracking and identifying objects through radio waves. RFID transponders
(often referred to as "tags") consist of a microchip and an antenna that work together to store
and transmit data to an RFID reader. Here's an overview of their components, types, and
applications:

Key Components:

1. Microchip (IC - Integrated Circuit): Stores the data (e.g., a unique ID number) and
controls the transponder’s functions. It is usually very small and low-power, allowing
it to function without a battery in passive RFID tags.
2. Antenna: Facilitates communication between the transponder and the RFID reader by
transmitting and receiving radio signals. The antenna is designed to optimize the
communication range and the efficiency of the system.
3. Capacitor/Power Source: Some RFID transponders, particularly active ones, include
a power source (like a battery) to enhance communication range and perform
additional functions. Passive transponders draw power from the RFID reader's signal.

Types of RFID Transponders:

1. Passive RFID Transponders:

o No Battery: They don’t have a power source of their own. Instead, they use
the energy from the RFID reader’s radio waves to power up and send data
back.
 o Shorter Range: Typically, the read range is from a few centimeters to a few
meters.
o Low Cost: Because they do not require a battery, they are relatively
inexpensive and have a longer lifespan.
o Common Use: Inventory management, access control, asset tracking, etc.
2. Active RFID Transponders:
o Battery-Powered: They have their own power source (battery), allowing
them to broadcast their signal periodically.
o Longer Range: Active RFID can communicate over distances of tens to
hundreds of meters.
o Higher Cost: Due to the inclusion of a battery and more advanced features.
o Common Use: Real-time tracking of high-value items, fleet management, and
large-scale asset tracking.
3. Semi-Passive (Battery-Assisted Passive) RFID Transponders:
o Battery-Assisted: They have a battery but only use it to power the chip (not to
broadcast the signal).
o Medium Range: Typically, semi-passive RFID can communicate over longer
distances than passive tags but shorter than active ones.
o Common Use: Similar applications as passive RFID but in environments
where a slightly longer range is needed without the need for a fully active
system.

Working Principle:

 The RFID reader sends out a signal that activates the transponder.
 The transponder receives the radio waves, powers up (in the case of passive tags), and
responds by transmitting data (like an identification number) back to the reader.
 The reader receives this information and processes it for use in a database or system.

RFID Interrogators

RFID Interrogators (also called RFID readers) are devices that communicate with RFID
transponders (tags) to read the data they contain. The interrogator sends out radio waves,
which activate the RFID tags and allow them to transmit stored data back to the reader. These
devices are integral to RFID systems, enabling the collection and processing of information
in applications such as asset tracking, inventory management, access control, and more.

Key Components of an RFID Interrogator:

1. Antenna:
o The antenna emits radio waves to communicate with RFID transponders.
o It also receives signals back from the RFID tag.
o The antenna’s design (e.g., its range, directionality, and frequency) impacts
the system’s performance.
2. RF Module:
 o The RF (radio frequency) module is responsible for generating and receiving
radio waves. It handles the modulation and demodulation of signals.
o This module converts the analog signals to digital data that can be processed
by the interrogator.
3. Processor/Controller:
o The processor interprets the data received from the RFID tags and controls the
reader’s functionality.
o It processes the information and converts it into a format usable by other
systems (e.g., inventory management systems).
4. Communication Interface:
o RFID interrogators often have communication interfaces (such as USB,
Ethernet, or wireless protocols like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth) to transmit data to
other systems, such as databases or cloud platforms.
o This enables the integration of RFID data into broader business operations.
5. Power Supply:
o Depending on the interrogator type (fixed or mobile), the power supply could
come from mains power (AC) or a battery (for mobile readers).

Types of RFID Interrogators:

1. Fixed RFID Interrogators:

o These are stationary readers installed in specific locations, such as at entry/exit
points, warehouse gates, or production lines.
o Fixed interrogators are often used in asset tracking systems, supply chain
management, and access control, where a consistent and automated read rate is
needed.
o Examples include RFID readers at shipping docks or in security gates.
2. Mobile RFID Interrogators:
o Mobile or handheld RFID readers are portable devices that allow for flexible
scanning of RFID tags in dynamic environments.
o These are used for tasks like inventory management in large warehouses, asset
tracking, or logistics, where items need to be scanned in various locations.
o Mobile interrogators are often battery-powered and feature a screen and
interface for real-time data collection and reporting.
3. Integrated RFID Interrogators:
o These interrogators combine both the antenna and the reader in a single
device.
o Typically used in specialized applications where integration is crucial for
reducing hardware complexity or space requirements.
o These are often used in smaller installations or embedded systems where
compactness and simplicity are important.

Working Principle:

1. Signal Transmission:
o The RFID interrogator sends out radio waves through its antenna. The
frequency of these radio waves can vary depending on the RFID system (e.g.,
low frequency, high frequency, or ultra-high frequency).
2. Tag Activation:
 oWhen an RFID tag comes within range of the interrogator’s radio signal, the
tag is powered (for passive RFID) or continues transmitting data (in the case
of active RFID tags).
o Passive RFID tags use energy from the interrogator’s signal, while active tags
have their own power source and can communicate over longer distances.
3. Data Exchange:
o The RFID tag transmits its stored data (e.g., unique ID number or other
information) back to the interrogator via radio waves.
o The interrogator receives this data through its antenna and decodes it into
usable information, typically in a digital format.
4. Processing and Forwarding:
o The interrogator processes the decoded data and sends it to a central system
(e.g., an inventory database, access control system, or tracking software)
through its communication interface.
o The central system uses this data to update records, trigger actions (e.g.,
opening a door or updating inventory), or trigger alerts.

WirelessHART
WirelessHART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) is a wireless communication
protocol designed for industrial automation, enabling secure and reliable data transmission
between field devices (like sensors and actuators) and control systems in industries such as
oil and gas, chemicals, and manufacturing.

Key Features of WirelessHART:

1. Industrial Use: WirelessHART is tailored for industrial environments, where

traditional wired connections may be expensive or impractical. It is specifically
designed to work in harsh conditions, such as high temperatures, humidity, and
electromagnetic interference.
2. Based on HART Protocol: WirelessHART extends the existing HART (Highway
Addressable Remote Transducer) protocol, which is widely used for communication
in process control systems. WirelessHART provides an additional wireless layer to
HART devices, making them part of a more flexible, scalable system.
3. Mesh Networking: WirelessHART operates using a self-organizing mesh network.
This means that devices can communicate with each other directly or through
intermediate nodes, enhancing network reliability by creating multiple paths for data
to travel. If one path fails, another can be used, ensuring robust communication.
4. Security: The protocol includes strong security features, such as encryption,
authentication, and message integrity checks, to protect against unauthorized access
and tampering. WirelessHART ensures that data is transmitted securely and remains
protected from cyber threats.
5. Real-time Performance: WirelessHART ensures reliable, real-time communication
in process control systems, where timely and accurate data is critical. It supports
deterministic performance to meet the needs of industrial applications.
6. Low Power Consumption: WirelessHART devices are designed for low power
usage, enabling them to run for extended periods on battery power. This is especially
 important for remote or hard-to-reach locations where replacing batteries or
maintaining power lines is difficult.
7. Interoperability: Since WirelessHART is an extension of the existing HART
protocol, it can be integrated into existing HART systems, allowing companies to
modernize their infrastructure without a complete overhaul.
8. Device Management: WirelessHART offers features for managing devices remotely,
such as configuration, diagnostics, and status monitoring, which are critical for
maintenance and troubleshooting in industrial settings.

Applications of WirelessHART:

 Remote monitoring and control: WirelessHART is used to monitor remote assets,

such as pipeline pressure sensors or tank levels, without needing extensive wired
infrastructure.
 Asset management: It allows tracking and monitoring of equipment health, providing
valuable insights into maintenance needs.
 Process automation: WirelessHART is used in automation systems for continuous
data transmission, enabling better decision-making and more efficient processes.

Overall, WirelessHART enables increased flexibility, lower costs, and higher reliability in
industrial networks, helping industries move toward more digitalized and connected
operations.