Communication and Internet technologies

Cibinong, Western Java

09 October 2020
Protocols

A set of rules for data

transmission which are
agreed by sender and
receiver

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
Protocols

At the simplest level, a protocol could
define that a positive voltage
represents a bit with value 1.

A protocol might define a transmission
speed that a sender must not exceed.

Many of the rules relate to the format of
a message or of a component of a
message. For example, a definition of
the format of the first 40 bytes in a
packet.

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 A protocol stack
For a protocol suite the protocols can be viewed as layers within a protocol
stack. There are a number of aspects relating to this concept.


Each layer can only accept input from the next higher layer or the next
lower layer.

There is a defined interface between adjacent layers which constitutes
the only interaction allowed between layers.

A layer is serviced by the actions of lower layers.

With the possible exception of the lowest layer the functioning of a layer
is created byinstalled soft ware.

A layer may comprise sub-layers.

Any user interaction will take place using protocols associated with the
highest level layer in the stack.

Any direct access to hardware is confined to the lowest layer in the
stack.
The TCP/IP protocol suite
Using layers breaks the process down into manageable self-contained modules
(this process is known as decomposition), making it easier to develop and
easier to make software and hardware compatible.

When sending data across the internet (network), the layers are used in the
order layer 4 to layer 1.

When receiving data across the internet (network), the

layers are used in the order layer 1 to layer 4. Each of the layers is implemented
using software.
 The Application Layer

The Application layer is responsible for

providing network services to applications.
It includes protocols such as HTTP, FTP,
POP3, IMAP, and SMTP. These protocols
facilitate tasks like web browsing, file
transfer, email retrieval, and email sending.

The Transport Layer

The Internet Layer
The Transport layer ensures reliable data
delivery between hosts. It uses protocols like The Internet layer is responsible for routing
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and packets across different networks. It uses IP
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) to establish (Internet Protocol) to provide logical
and manage connections, handle error addressing and routing functionality. This
recovery, and perform flow control. layer enables communication between hosts
on different networks.

The Link Layer

The Link layer handles the transmission of

data over the physical network. It includes
protocols like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and DSL. This
layer is responsible for encapsulating IP
packets into frames and managing the
physical connection.
01 Application 03 Internet
When a message is sent from The Internet layer adds the
one host to another on the source and destination IP
internet, the Application layer of addresses and routes the
the sending host prepares the packets.
data.

02 Transport 04 Link
The Transport layer then Finally, the Link layer
segments the data into smaller encapsulates the packets into
packets and adds necessary frames for transmission.
information.
The TCP/IP suite comprises a number of protocols,
including the following:

“
application layer: HTTP, SMTP, DNS, FTP, POP3, IMAP

transport layer: TCP, UDP, SCTP

network layer: IP, IGMP, ICMP, ARP.

”
Application layer

The application layer contains all the programs that

exchange data, such as web browsers or server software;
it sends files to the transport layer.

This layer allows applications to access the services used

in other layers and also defines the protocols that any app
uses to allow the exchange of data.

There are several protocols associated with the application

layer:

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Application layer

Photo by Dave Hoefler on

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Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)
Email protocols
 Email protocols


Of the two protocols shown being used, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a ‘push’

protocol whereas POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is a ‘pull’ protocol.

There is a more recent alternative to POP3, which is IMAP (Internet Message Access
Protocol).

The approach using POP3 is for emails to be downloaded onto the client computer. With
IMAP the emails are not downloaded; they remain stored on the server but remain
accessible from the client.

It can be argued that POP3 is more secure to cyber-attack because emails are locally
stored.

However, the server will be backed up regularly whereas the local client might not be.

The major advantage for IMAP is that the server can be accessed from any client. This
makes it suitable for anyone on the move or if someone is using a system other than that
normally used. POP3 emails are only accessible from the one client system.

SMTP has been largely replaced by the use of web-based mail. A browser is used to
access the email application, so HTTP is now the protocol used. However, SMTP remains
in use for transfer between the mail servers.
Email protocols
 Transport layer

The transport layer regulates the network connections; this is where data is broken up
into packets which are then sent to the internet/network layer (IP protocol).
The transport layer ensures that packets arrive in sequence, without errors, by swapping
acknowledgements and retransmitting packets if they become lost or corrupted.
The main protocols associated with the transport layer are transmission control protocol
(TCP), user datagram protocol (UDP) and SCTP.
 Transmission control protocol (TCP)

TCP is responsible for the safe delivery of a message by creating sufficient packets for
transmission.

It uses positive acknowledgement with re-transmission (PAR) which means it automatically

re-sends a data packet if it has not received a positive acknowledgement.

TCP is also connection-orientated since it establishes an end-to-end connection between

two host computers using handshakes.

For this last reason, TCP is often referred to as a host-to-host transmission protocol.

The term host refers to a computer or device that can communicate with another
computer/device (host).

Hosts can include clients and servers that send/receive data, provide services or apps.
These are the steps taken when host computer ‘X’ communicates with another
host ‘Y’ :
» Host ‘X’ will first of all send host ‘Y’ a segment (packet) which will include
synchronisation sequence bits so that segments will be received in thecorrect order.

» Host ‘Y’ will now respond by sending back its own segment (containing an
acknowledgement together with its own synchronisation sequence bits).

» Host ‘X’ now sends out its own acknowledgement that the segment from ‘Y’
was received.

» Transmission of data between ‘X’ and ‘Y’ can now take place.
 Internet/network layer and network/data-link layer

The internet layer identifies the intended network and host.

The common protocol is IP (internet protocol).
The network/data-link layer identifies and moves traffic across local segments,
encapsulates IP packets into frames for transmission, maps IP addresses to MAC
(physical) addresses and ensures correct protocols are followed.
The physical network layer specifies requirements of the hardware to be used for the
network. The data-link layer identifies network protocols in the packet header
(TCP/IP in the case here) and delivers packets to the network.

This is a summary of the IP functions:

» Ensure correct routing of packets of data over the internet/network.
» Responsible for protocols when communicating between networks.
» Take a packet from the transport layer and add its own header which will include the IP
addresses of both sender and recipient.
» The IP packet (datagram) is sent to the data-link layer where it is assembles
the datagrams into frames for transmission.
Important terminology:


Packets are known as frames at the data-link layer,


Datagrams at the internet layer;


Segments at the transport layer.

Different names are used as each layer adds its own header to the packet.
 Ethernet protocols

Description:
▻
Ethernet is a system that connects a number of computers or devices together
▻
to form a LAN.
▻
It uses protocols to control the movement of frames between computers or
devices and to avoid simultaneous transmission by two or more devices.
▻
It is a local protocol and does not provide any means to communicate
▻
with external devices. This requires the use of IP which sits on top of the
▻
Ethernet protocol.
A typical frame used by the Ethernet protocol
The components that make up Ethernet data are:

» destination – this is the MAC address of the destination computer or device

(it is possible to use the value FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF as the MAC address if the
sender wishes to target every device (for example, to advertise services) or
if they do not know the MAC address of the destination device)
» source – this is the MAC address of the source computer (using the usual
MAC address format of 6 bytes)
 Wireless (WiFi) protocols

Wireless LANs (standard IEEE 802.11 protocol) use a MAC protocol called carrier
sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) (not to be confused
with CSMA/CD).

CSMA/CA uses distributed control function (DCF) to ensure a WiFi device can
only transmit when there is a free channel available.

Since all transmissions are acknowledged when using DCF, if a device does not receive
an acknowledgement it will assume a collision will occur and waits for a random time
interval before trying again.

This is an important protocol to ensure the security and integrity of data being sent over
a wireless network (such as WLAN).
 Bluetooth protocols

Bluetooth uses the standard IEEE 802.15 protocol for short-range data
transmission/communication.

There are numerous additional Bluetooth protocols due to the many applications that
may use this wireless connectivity.
 WiMax

Worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMax) runs under IEEE 802.16
protocol.

This connectivity was designed originally for wireless MANs (WMAN).

Fixed WiMax networks are based on the IEEE 802.16-2004 protocol, whereas mobile
WiMax is based on IEEE 802.16-2005 protocol.