MODULE 02

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PHYSICS

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AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN CERTIFICATION SERIES

Contributors Thomas Forenz

Nerijus Baublys
Layout/Design Michael Amrine

Version 003.2 - Effective Date 05.01.2020

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REVISION LOG
VERSION EFFECTIVE DATE DESCRIPTION OF CHANGE
001 2013 12 Module Creation and Release
002 2016 11 Format Update and Apprearance Update
003 2018 07 Refined content sequencing to Appendix 1.
003.1 2020 05 Clarified formulas for Buoyant Force – Sub‑Module 02
003.2 2021 05 Corrected formulas for Pendular Movement and Vibration. Sub-Module 02, page 2.11

Version 003 - The following content was added for clarity:

Sub-Module 01 Elasticity
Sub-Module 02 Harmonics, Velocity Ratio, Inertia, Total Energy, Coefficient of Friction, Compressibility
Sub-Module 04 Reflection
Sub-Module 05 Wave Motion, Production of Sound

Module 02 B1 - Physics iii

 CONTENTS

PHYSICS Acceleration‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.9

Welcome‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ iii Newton's Laws Of Motion‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.9
Revision Log‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ iii First law‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.9
Forward‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ iv Second Law‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.9
EASA License Category Chart‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ v Third Law‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.10
General Knowledge Requirements‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ v Rotational Movement‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.10
Contents‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ ix Periodic Movement‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.11
Pendular Motion‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.11
SUB-MODULE 01 Theory Of Vibration, Harmonics, Resonance‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.11
MATTER Vibration‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.11
Knowledge Requirements‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.1 Harmonics‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.12
2.1 - Matter‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.2 Resonance‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.12
Nature Of Matter‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.2 Velocity Ratio, Mechanical Advantage And Efficiency2.12
Isotopes‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.4 Velocity Ratio‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.12
Chemical Compounds‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.5 Simple Machine‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.12
States Of Matter‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.5 Mechanical Advantage‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.13
Plasma‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.5 The Lever‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.13
Solid‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.5 The Pulley‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.15
Liquid‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.5 The Gear‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.15
Gas‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.5 Inclined Plane‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.18
Changes Between States‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.5 The Wedge‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.19
Catalyst‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.6 Efficiency‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.19
Questions‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.7 2.2.3 - Dynamics‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.19
Answers‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 1.8 (A) Mass And Weight‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.19
Force‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.19
SUB-MODULE 02 Inertia‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.19
MECHANICS Work‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.20
Knowledge Requirements‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.1 Power ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.20
2.2.1 - Statics‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.2 Torque‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.21
Forces, Moments And Couples‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.2 Energy‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.22
Center Of Gravity‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.2 Potential Energy‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.22
Elements Of Stress, Strain, And Stress‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.2 Kinetic Energy‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.23
Elements Of Theory Of Stress‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.2 Total Energy ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.23
Tension‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.2 Heat And Efficiency‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.23
Compression‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.3 (B) Momentum‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.23
Torsion‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.3 Conservation Of Momentum‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.23
Shear‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.3 Impulse‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.23
Bending Stress‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.3 Gyroscopic Principles‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.24
Strain‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.4 Friction‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.25
Elasticity‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.4 Static Friction‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.26
Pressure and Buoyancy In Liquids‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.4 Sliding Friction‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.26
Fluid Pressure‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.4 Rolling Friction‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.26
Buoyancy‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.6 Coefficient Of Friction‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.27
2.2.2 - Kinetics‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.8 2.2.4 - Fluid Dynamics‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.27
Motion‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.8 Density‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.27
Linear Movement‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.8 Specific Gravity‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.27
Speed And Velocity‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.8 Viscosity‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.28

Module 02 B1 - Physics ix
 CONTENTS

Fluid Resistance‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.29 Questions‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.19

Pascal's Law‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.29 Answers‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.20
Streamlining ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.31
Compressibility‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.32 SUB-MODULE 04
Bernoulli's Principle‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.32 OPTICS (LIGHT)
Questions‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.35 Knowledge Requirements‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.1
Answers‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 2.36 2.4 - Optics‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.2
The Nature Of Light‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.2
SUB-MODULE 03 Speed of Light‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.2
THERMODYNAMICS Reflection ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.2
Knowledge Requirements‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.1 Refraction ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.3
2.3 - Thermodynamics‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.2 Lenses ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.3
Temperature‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.2 Fiber Optics ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.4
Thermal Expansion/Contraction‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.2 Cable Construction ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.4
Heat Energy Units‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.3 Fiber Modes ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.4
Thermometers‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.3 Termination And Splicing ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.5
Non-Electric Temperature Indicators‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.3 Fiber Optic Data Link ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.6
Electrical Temperature Indication‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.4 Questions‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.9
Electrical Resistance Thermometers‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.5 Answers‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 4.10
Ratiometer Electrical Resistance Thermometers 3.6
Thermocouple Temperature Indicators ‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.6 SUB-MODULE 05
Heat Definition‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.8 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
Specific Heat‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.8 Knowledge Requirements‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.1
Heat Transfer‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.9 2.5 - Wave Motion And Sound‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.2
Conduction‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.9 Wave Motion ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.2
Convection‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.10 Mechanical Waves‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.2
Radiation‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.11 Transverse Waves‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.2
Thermodynamic Laws‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.11 Longitudinal Waves‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.2
First Law‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.11 Surface Waves‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.2
Second Law‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.11 Electromagnetic Waves‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.3
Gas Laws ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.12 Sinusoidal Wave Motion‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.3
Boyle's Law ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.12 Interference Phenomena‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.3
Charles' Law ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.13 Standing Waves‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.3
General Gas Law ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.13 Sound ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.3
Dalton's Law ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.13 Sound Waves‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.4
Ideal Gas Law ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.13 Speed Of Sound‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.5
Work And Expanding Gases ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.14 Mach Number ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.5
Adiabatic‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.14 Production of Sound‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.5
Isothermal‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.14 Sound Intensity‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.6
Engine Cycles ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.14 Pitch And Quality‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.6
Constant Volume ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.14 Loudness‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.6
Constant Pressure ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.15 Doppler Effect ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.7
Thermal Efficiency ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.15 Questions‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.9
Refrigeration And Heat Pumps‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.16 Answers‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 5.10
Latent Heat‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.17
Thermal Energy ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.17 Acronym Index‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ A.1
Heat Of Combustion ‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ 3.17 Index‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥‥ I.1

x Module 02 B1 - Physics
2.4 - OPTICS

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Shorter Wavelength (centimeters) Longer
10 -10 10 -9 10 -8 10 -7 10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 11 0 100 1 000 10 000 100 000

Gamma ray X-ray Ultraviolet Infrared Radio

10 20 10 19 10 18 10 17 10 16 10 15 10 14 10 13 10 12 10 11 10 10 10 9 10 8 10 7 10 6
Higher Lower
Frequency (number of waves per second) Visible UHF VHF HF MF LF VLF

Figure 4-1. Radio waves are just some of the electromagnetic waves found in space.

THE NATURE OF LIGHT REFLECTION

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It is part Ref lection is a change in direction of a lightwave
of the wide spectrum of electromagnetic radiation that when it strikes a different media than that in which
surrounds us at all times. Visible light is a relatively it was traveling so that the wave returns back into the
small part of the spectrum. (Figure 4-1) original media. Mirror-like reflection is called specular
reflection. This can occur when the reflective surface is
SPEED OF LIGHT a material that suppresses the propagation of the light
Light is a type of wave. As in the case of all wave wave or in a material that allows the passage of light
motion, the wave moves with a definite speed. The speed such as water or glass. Specular reflection is shown in
of light (c) is exactly 299 792 458 meters per second Figure 4-2.
which is 186 282.4 miles per second. It should be noted
that this is the speed of light in a vacuum. The passage A perpendicular line drawn from the point where the
of light through matter reduces this speed. Materials light strikes the mirror is called the normal. The light
have a refractive index (n) which is the speed of light (c) striking the mirror forms an angle of incidence (0i)
in a vacuum divided by the speed of light through the with the normal. The light ref lected from the mirror
material (v). The refractive index of air is 1.000 29. The also forms an angle with the normal called the angle of
refractive index of water is 1.33 and approximately 1.6 reflection (0r). It is a law of reflection that the angle of
for glass. This means that light travels slower through incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Two further
water than air and slower through glass than water. laws of reflection are: the incidence ray, the reflective ray
and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same
The wavelength of visible light is usually measured in plane, and the reflected ray and the incidence ray are on
a unit called the Angstrom (A): 1A = 10 -10m. Various opposite sides of the normal.
colors of visible light have characteristic wavelengths.
They also have characteristic frequencies since the
A
frequency of light × wavelength = speed of light. With
symbols this is written f λ = c. Figure 4-1 lists various I

colors of light and their respective wavelengths.

Wavelengths of visible light.

• Violet = 4 500 A • Yellow = 5 800 A N
O
• Blue = 4 800 A • Orange = 6 000 A
• Green = 5 200 A • Red = 6 400 A
R

B C

Figure 4-2. Specular reflection.

4.2 Module 02 B1 - Physics

Ref lection can occur off of a plane surface such as a As previously mentioned, materials have a refractive
typical f lat mirror or piece of glass. It can also occur index which compares the speed of light through a
off of a curved surface. When reflection occurs off of vacuum to the speed of light through the material. The
a flat surface, it is said to form a mirror image. When higher the refractive index, the slower the speed of light
occurring off of a curved surface the image may be through the material.
magnified or demagnified.
Using information about how light will pass through a
Most curved mirrors are spherical. They can be convex medium enables the production of optic lenses. Snell's
(bulging outward toward the light source) or concave Law provides a mathematical equation for determining
(bulging inward away from the light source). A convex the angle that light will refract when passing from one
mirror reflects light outward and demagnifies the image. medium through another:
It also provides a wider field of view. Convex mirrors
n₁ sin0₂
are commonly used as passenger-side rear-view mirrors =
n₂ sin0₁
on automobiles. A concave mirrors focuses light when
it reflects. The image it reflects depends on the distance In this equation; n₁ is the index of refraction of the first
away from the surface. Generally, a concave mirror is medium and n₂ is the index of refraction of the second

OPTICS (LIGHT)
used so that it magnifies the image. It can be found in medium through with the light will pass and bend. The
telescopes and in make-up mirrors to gain a close look at angles are measured from the normal.
one's face. (Figure 4-3)
LENSES
REFRACTION Because light can be directed at different angles using
Refraction is the phenomenon observed when light various mediums, lenses are developed to focus light
changes direction due to it passing through a medium so that it is beneficial. Eye glasses are made so that the
in which it travels at an altered speed. When light enters incoming light will be corrected so that it focuses the
a slower medium at an angle, its frequency remains the image of the object being looked at directly on the retina
same. This is established at the source of the light. But of the eye.
as soon as part of the incoming light ray reaches a slower
medium, its wavelength is shortened and the light bends A lens can be defined as any device that transmits and
towards the normal line. The amount of bend depends of refracts light. Note that some lenses are constructed to
the speed of light through the medium. The slower the focus electromagnetic waves that are not visible light
speed, the more light will bend. such as microwaves. A lens can be simple, causing a
single refraction of light, or compound, consisting of
more than one simple lens. Compound lenses are used to
refine the focus and eliminate aberrations. An aberration

Reflection on a Concave Mirror Reflection on a Convex Mirror

Principle Axis Principle Axis

F

Focal Length Focal Length

Figure 4-3. Reflection patterns of light on a concave and convex mirrored surface.

Module 02 B1 - Physics 4.3

 Biconvex Planoconvex Positive Negative Planoconcave Biconcave
Meniscus Meniscus

Figure 4-4. A sample of different shaped lenses.

in optics is the failure of rays to converge at a single focus

point because of the limitations or defects in the lens. In
addition to the material a lens is made from, the shape
of a lens also factors in to the direction and focus of light
passing through it. (Figure 4-4)

Similar to mirrors, lenses are often ground spherically.

A lens that bulges outward from the lens is convex, a
lens that curves into the lens is concave. Variations exist. Figure 4-5. Fiber optic cable bundle.
Advanced optic manufacturing technology now allows
the creation of aspheric lenses (non-spherical).

FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optics is the branch of optical technology concerned
with the transmission of light through fibers. Electrical
data is converted to optical signals and sent through
optical fibers at the speed of light. The transmission of
data through optical fibers offers wide bandwidth, light
weight, and freedom from electromagnetic influence.
(Figure 4-5)

CABLE CONSTRUCTION Figure 4-6. Construction of a fiber optic cable.

A fiber's cladding is usually coated with a tough buffer
layer which may be further surrounded by a glass jacket FIBER MODES
layer. These layers add strength to the fiber but do Single-mode (or mono-mode) fiber has a core diameter
not contribute to its optical properties. Fiber bundles less than about ten times the wavelength of the
sometimes put light-absorbing material between the propagating light and can process only a single signal at
fibers to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from a time. Most single-mode fiber is designed for use in the
entering another. (Figure 4-6) near infrared portion of the light spectrum.

Fiber cable can be very flexible, but optical loss increases Fiber with a core diameter greater than 10 micrometers
greatly if the fiber is bent to a radius smaller than around is called multi-mode fiber. In multi-mode fiber, multiple
30 mm, creating problems if the cable is bent around rays of light are guided along the fiber core by the
corners or wound around a spool. Some fiber optic cables internal ref lection of the cladding surrounding the
are reinforced with glass yarns to increase strength and fiber. Each light pulse carries its own piece of data and
also to protect the cable core against rodents and insects. is transmitted through the cable at different angles so
as not to interfere with other pulses traveling through
the same cable. Rays that reflect from the cladding at

4.4 Module 02 B1 - Physics

angles greater than the critical angle are completely
reflected. Rays that meet the boundary at a lower angle
are refracted into the cladding, and do not convey light Cladding
or information along the fiber. (Figures 4-7 and 4-8) Acceptance Core
Cone
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission Cladding
loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam as it
travels through the fiber medium. Attenuation is caused
by both scattering and absorption within the fiber and is
an important factor limiting the transmission of a signal Figure 4-7. Propagation of light through a multimode optical fiber.

across large distances. Much research has gone into

limiting attenuation. It has been said that if ocean water
was as clear as single-mode fiber, one could see all the
way to the bottom of the Marianas Trench in the Pacific
Ocean, a depth of 36 000 feet.

OPTICS (LIGHT)
TERMINATION AND SPLICING
Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment
by optical f iber connectors. (Figure 4-9) Standard
connectors provide a physical contact where the mating
surfaces touch each other at an angled surface to achieve Figure 4-8. A laser bouncing through an acrylic rod illustrating
the lowest possible attenuation and reduced reflections. the reflection of light in a multimode optical fiber.

A fiber-optic connector is basically a rigid cylindrical

barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds the barrel in
its mating socket. A typical connector is installed by
preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rear of
the connector body. Quick-set adhesive is usually used
to hold the fiber securely, and a strain relief is secured
to the rear. Once the adhesive sets, the fiber's end is
polished to a mirror finish. Various polish methods are
used, depending on the type of fiber and the application.
For single-mode fiber, fiber ends are polished with a
slight curvature that makes the mated connectors touch
only at their cores. This is called a physical contact (PC) Figure 4-9. Fiber optic cable connections into a data panel.
polish. Such connections have higher loss than PC
connections, but greatly reduce back reflection, because In fusion splicing, the two cable ends are fastened inside
light that reflects from the angled surface leaks out of a splice enclosure and the fiber ends are stripped of their
the fiber core. protective coating and outer jacket. The ends are cleaved
with a precision cutter and are placed in the splicer. The
Optical f ibers may be connected to each other by splice area is inspected via a magnified view screen to
connectors or by splicing; that is, joining two fibers check the cleaves before and after the splice. The splicer
together to form a continuous waveguide. The generally then emits a small spark at the gap to burn off dust and
accepted splicing method is known as arc fusion splicing, moisture. Then the splicer generates a larger spark that
which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. fuses the ends together permanently. The optical loss due
For quicker fastening jobs, a mechanical splice can also to the splice is measured by directing light through the
be used. cladding on one side and measuring light leaking from
the cladding on the other. A splice loss of optical clarity
under 0.1 dB is typical.

Module 02 B1 - Physics 4.5

 Figure 4-10. Mechanical and fusion splicing techniques.

Mechanical splices are designed to be quicker and easier

to install, but there is still the need for stripping, careful
cleaning and precision cleaving. The fiber ends are
aligned and held together by a sleeve, often using a clear
gel that enhances the transmission of light across the
joint. Mechanical splices typically have higher optical
loss and are less robust than fusion splices, especially if
the gel is used. (Figure 4-10)

Military aircraft have used fiber optics for heads up

displays. (Figure 4-11).

The Boeing 777 uses some fiber optics transmission line

for its inflight entertainment systems and expanded use
of fiber optics is promised. Some basic advantages of
fiber optics for data transmission include: Figure 4-11. Fiber optic heads up display.
• System Performance
• Greatly Increased Bandwidth and Capacity Important deterrents are high cost and the reliability of
• Lower Signal Attenuation (Loss) connectors in the harsh aviation operating environments.
• Immune to Noise (Electromagnetic Interference)
and Radio-Frequency Interference FIBER OPTIC DATA LINK
• No Crosstalk Fiber optic data link is the name given to the system of
• Lower Bit Error Rates components that use optical fibers for the transmission
• Signal Security of data. Data is input to a transmitter which converts
• Difficult To Tap the electric signals into optical signals and directs them
• Nonconductive Electrical Isolation into the fiber. The transmitter's drive circuit converts the
(Does Not Radiate Signals) electric signal to an optical signal by varying the electric
• No Common Ground Required current through the light source. LED's (light emitting
• Freedom From Short Circuit and Sparks diodes) and laser diodes are two common light sources
• Reduced Size and Weight of Cables employed. A secure, reliable and durable connector is
• Environmental Protection required to join the transmitter and the fiber. At the
• Resistant to Radiation and Corrosion remote end of the fiber, another connector joins the fiber
• Resistant to Temperature Variation to a receiver. The receiver transforms the optical signal
back into an electrical signal for use.

4.6 Module 02 B1 - Physics