HINDUSTHAN

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)

COIMBATORE 641 032

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE & HUMANITIES

STATISTICS WITH R-PROGRAMMING

LABORATORY MANUAL

Student Name : __________________________________

Reg. Number : __________________________________

Class : __________________________________

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STATISTICS WITH R-PROGRAMMING
LABORATORY MANUAL

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 HINDUSTHAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
COIMBATORE 641 032

Certificate

This is to certify that it is a bonafide record of practical work done by

___________________________ bearing the Reg. No. ___________ of ________

year ___________ branch in the ______________________________ laboratory

during the academic year __________________ under our supervision.

Date :
Place :

Faculty In-charge Internal Examiner

Head of the Department

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Ex. No. List of Experiment Page No.

1 Introduction to R Programming 06

Application of descriptive statistics – Mean, Median,

2 17
Mode, Variance and Box plot

3 Applications of Correlation and Regression 23

4 Application of Normal distribution 30

5 Application of Student t - test 34

6 Application of F test 41

7 Application of Chi-square test 45

8 ANOVA – completely randomized design 51

9 ANOVA - randomized block design 56

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 MARKS STATEMENT

Ex. Marks Faculty

Date List of Experiment
No. (25) Sign.

1 Introduction to R Programming

Application of descriptive statistics – Mean,

2
Median, Mode, Variance and Box plot

3 Applications of Correlation and Regression

4 Application of Normal distribution

5 Application of Student t - test

6 Application of F test

7 Application of Chi-square test

8 ANOVA – Completely Randomized Design

9 ANOVA - Randomized Block Design

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Ex. No. :1 Date :

Introduction to R Programming
Objective:
 To understand the concept of R and R –studio Programming
 To Understand the basic data representation
 To create data frame by using given data
 To import data from MS Excel file

Formula:
Introduction to R – Programming:

R is a versatile and powerful statistical programming language developed by the statistics

professors Robert Gentleman and Ross Ihaka at the University of Auckland, New Zealand.
Different from other statistical programs, R is free and its source code is available. R was
released in 1996 and is maintained by the R development core team (http://www.R-project.org/)
with a very large number of international contributions and continues to develop at a fast pace. R
is among the most widely used statistical programs at universities today.
R allows integration with the procedures written in the C, C++, Python or FORTRAN
languages for efficiency.

Using R Studio to work with R

R Studio incorporates the console, script, graphical output and various other elements in
an accessible and easy-to-manipulate form. R Studio is free and available for both Windows and
Macintosh operating systems and can be downloaded from
http://www.rstudio.com/products/rstudio/. Note that the R studio menu differs slightly between
PC and Mac versions.
The R Studio screen is divided into four resizable parts:

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  The upper left part contains a script editor where commands are written and
saved. The various tabs in the upper left part can contain multiple scripts and also
data files.
 Commands are sent to the console in the lower left part using the key combination
cmd + Return (Macintosh) or Control+R (PC).
 On the right side,RStudio displays a workspace tab listing all objects in the
current analysis and a history tab providing a recollection of executed
commands.
 The lower right partition hosts a figure tab where graphical output is stored, a
package tab where packages can be viewed and installed, a file tab to manipulate
files and a help tab where R help information can be searched and displayed.

In R Studio, you can bundle your analyses into projects using the project drop-down
menu on the top (through “file” for PC and through “project” for Mac) or the pop-up menu in the
top right corner of R Studio (both versions). Projects will contain all elements of analyses
allowing you to continue a session exactly where you ended the previous time.

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Procedure:
You can set a new working directory following the menu options Session > Set working
directory

To create a new script, you can follow “File > New File > R script”, or use the shortcut
Ctrl + Shift + N. Save your scripts regularly. A file that has been modified but not saved again
will show with a red title and a * at the end.

You can navigate between different plots produced during a session using the blue arrows
at the top left corner of the Plots tab. You can save your graphs by clicking on “Export”.

Object assignment and the workspace:

R stores data, analyses and outputs as objects in the current workspace that can be saved.
Observe that workspace is a collection of R objects with properties assigned through R
commands whereas the working directory basically is a folder on your computer that contains
various files of any type.
You assign information to variable using the operator- an "arrow" composed of a smaller
than sign and a minus sign (<-) pointing to the name of the variable. There are certain rules for
naming your variables.

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R-Code Program:
Online help:
Once R is installed, there is a comprehensive built-in help system.
For general help type:
> help.start()
For help about a function:
> help(log)
You can also list all functions containing a given string.
> apropos("log")
To show an example of a function, type:
> example(log)
First objects:
 R lets you assign values to variables and refer to them by name.
In R, we use the symbol <- for assigning values to variables. We can see the results of
the assignment by typing the name of our new object.
> x <- 3
>x
[1] 3
 The equals sign = can also be used as assignment operator in most circumstances.
>y=5
>y
[1] 5
 R is case sensitive so X is not the same as x.
>X
Error: object ’X’ not found
 Variable names should not begin with numbers or symbols and should not contain blank
spaces.
 Character strings in R are made with matching quotes:
> myname <- "Bea"
> myname
[1] "Bea"

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  TRUE and FALSE are reserved words denoting logical constants in the R language.
> mylog <- TRUE
> mylog
[1] TRUE
Special values used in R:
 At its most basic level, R can be viewed as a calculator. The elementary arithmetic
operators are +, -, *, / and ^ for raising to a power.
> 7 * (3 + 2)/2
[1] 17.5
> 2^3
[1] 8
 Most of the work in R is done through functions. For example, if we want to compute √9
in R we type:
> sqrt(9)
[1] 3
 The natural logarithm can be computed with the function log.
> log(5)
[1] 1.609

Data types:
R deals with numbers, characters (entered in quotes, " ", as the “hej” in the example
above) and logical statements (TRUE or FALSE).
The following types of data are commonly used:

Vector:
One-dimensional, contains a sequence of one type of data, i.e. numbers OR categories
(letters, group names) OR logical statements. Vectors can be created using c(element1, element2,
element3, .... , which concatenates (connect them one after each other) the different elements into
a vector. Note that the elements can themselves be vectors.
For example, c("population1","population2","population3","population4") will generate a
vector as follows:
[1] "population1" "population2" "population3" "population4"
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 Number sequences can be created using the operator ‘:’. For instance,
x <- 1:7 creates the vector x that contains a sequence of number from 1 to 7:
[1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Besides, there are a number of other functions for creating vectors, for user-defined seq()
for sequences and rep() for repeated elements. You can find out about these functions using the
R help.

Factor:
Similar to vectors but also contains information on levels. Entries of a factor that are
equal belong to the same factor level, or in other words, to the same category. Factors can be
created from vectors using factor().
For example, you can create a factor named sex using the code below:
sex <- c(rep("male",25), rep("female", 35))
sex <- factor(sex)

Data Frame:
 A data frame is used for storing data tables.
 Each column can contain different modes of data. The first column can be numeric while
the second column can be character and third column can be logical.
 It is a list of vectors of equal length.
 Data Frames are created using the data.frame() function.
This is the format commonly used for data analysis where each row corresponds to an
observation and each column corresponds to a variable (vector or factor). The section getting
data into R explains how to create data frames from your data and the sections accessing and
changing individual entries, accessing and changing entire rows or columns, adding and deleting
columns explain how to handle and manipulate the contents of data frames.

Example:1
From the following variable, to form a data frame containing three vectors n, s, b where
n = (2, 3, 5), s = (aa, bb, cc), and b = (TRUE, FALSE, TRUE) .

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 R-Code:
> s = c("aa", "bb", "cc")
> n = c(2, 3, 5)
> b = c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE)
> df = data.frame(n, s, b)
> df

Output:

n s b
1 2 aa TRUE
2 3 bb FALSE
3 5 cc TRUE

Note:
> df[1,2]
[1] aa
Levels: aa bb cc
> df[3,3]
[1] TRUE

Example: 2
Create a data frame from the following details regarding the name,gender, height, weight
and age.
Name: A, B, C
Gender: Male, Female, Male
Height:152,162,160
Weight:75,82,69
Age:40,35,29

R-Code:

> name =c("A","B","C")

> gender=c("Male","Female"," Male ")
> height=c(152,162,160)
> weight=c(75,82,69)
> age=c(40,35,29)
> KK=data.frame(name,gender,height,weight,age)
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 > KK
Output:
name gender height weight age
1 A Male 152 75 40
2 B Female 162 82 35
3 C Male 160 69 29

Data Import:
It is often necessary to import sample textbook data into R before you start working on
your homework.
Excel File:
Quite frequently, the sample data is in Excel format, and needs to be imported into R
prior to use. For this, we can use the function read.xls from the gdata package. It reads from an
Excel spreadsheet and returns a data frame. The following shows how to load an Excel
spreadsheet named "mydata.xls". This method requires Perl runtime to be present in the system.
R-Code:
> library(readxl)
> kk <- read_excel("D:/kannan/kk.xls")
> View(kk)

CSV File:
The sample data can also be in comma separated values (CSV) format. Each cell inside
such data file is separated by a special character, which usually is a comma, although other
characters can be used as well.
The first row of the data file should contain the column names instead of the actual data.
Here is a sample of the expected format.
Col1,Col2,Col3
100,a1,b1
200,a2,b2
300,a3,b3
After we copy and paste the data above in a file named "mydata.csv" with a text editor,
we can read the data with the function read.csv.
R-Code:

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 > mydata = read.csv("mydata.csv") # read csv file
> mydata

Output:
Col1 Col2 Col3
1 100 a1 b1
2 200 a2 b2
3 300 a3 b3
In various European locales, as the comma character serves as the decimal point, the
function read.csv2 should be used instead. For further detail of the read.csv and read.csv2
functions, please consult the R documentation.
Example: To import data from excel sheet
R-Code:
> help(read.csv)
>details=read.csv("C:/Users/admin/Desktop/Hegiht and Weight.csv")
> details
Highest=subset(details, Height>=160)
print(Highest)
Output:
Name Weight Height
1 X1 62.0 152
2 X2 63.4 176
3 X3 63.2 165
4 X4 65.0 164
5 X5 66.0 162
6 X6 64.2 153
7 X7 64.0 152
8 X8 50.3 150
9 X9 52.0 162
10 X10 56.3 167
11 X11 54.0 164
12 X12 55.0 156
13 X13 56.0 168
14 X14 65.0 174
15 X15 65.0 172
16 X16 68.0 171
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 17 X17 69.0 170
18 X18 67.0 160
19 X19 65.0 161
20 X20 68.2 162
21 X21 54.0 158
22 X22 70.0 159
23 X23 71.2 160
24 X24 65.0 152
25 X25 64.0 164
26 X26 62.0 162
27 X27 63.0 171
28 X28 61.0 172
29 X29 65.0 170
30 X30 54.0 156
Working Directory:
Finally, the code samples above assume the data files are located in the R working
directory, which can be found with the function getwd.
> getwd() # get current working directory
You can select a different working directory with the function setwd(), and thus avoid
entering the full path of the data files.
> setwd("<new path>") # set working directory
Note that the forward slash should be used as the path separator even on Windows
platform.
> setwd("C:/MyDoc")
Task:1
To import data from excel sheet from the following “Marks statement and to find who have
passed in test 1.
`Sl. No` Name Test.1 Test.2
1 A 25 41
2 B 26 28
3 D 28 36
4 E 29 37
5 F 30 40

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 6 G 35 28
7 H 35 29
8 I 34 38
9 J 29 32
10 K 36 34
11 L 33 36

Task:2
Create a data frame from the following details regarding babies frocks:
S.No. Size Season Material Decoration Pattern price
1 L Spring Silk Embroidery Dot 650
2 M Summer Chiffon Bow Print 275
3 M Summer Cotton Null Animal 380
4 M Winter Cotton Null Patchwork 450
5 L Autumn Lines Ruffles Animal 420

Viva voce Questions:

1. How would you extract the subsets of all student weight and height from the data frame
in task?
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 2. Mention some characteristics of a data frame?
3. What is a data frame?
4. How to import the data from excel file?
Marks Split up for Internal Marks
Experiment 10
Program 5
Output 5
Viva Voce 5
Total Marks / 25

Faculty Signature

Ex. No.: 2 Date:

Application of descriptive statistics – Mean, Median, Mode, Variance and Box

plot
Objective:
To find the arithmetic Mean, Median, Mode and standard deviation
Formula:
Mean:
The mean is calculated as the sum of all values Xi divided by the number of values n.

Median:
The median of an observation variable is the value at the middle when the data is sorted in
ascending order. It is an ordinal measure of the central location of the data values.
Standard deviation:
The standard deviations (also sd) is a measure of the spread of the data and is calculated:

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Variance:
The variance is a numerical measure of how the data values are dispersed around the
mean. In particular, the sample variance is defined as:

Box Plot:
The box plot of an observation variable is a graphical representation based on its
quartiles, as well as its smallest and largest values. It attempts to provide a visual shape of the
data distribution.
Example: 1
Find the box plot of the eruption duration in the data set faithful.
Solution
We apply the boxplot function to produce the box plot of eruptions.
> duration = faithful$eruptions # the eruption durations
> boxplot(duration, horizontal=TRUE) # horizontal box plot
Answer
The box plot of the eruption duration is:

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R-Code Program:
 To find the mean:
x=c(given data)
Mean = mean(x)
Mean
 To find the median:
x=c(given data)
Median = median(x)
Median
 To find the standard deviation:
x=c(given data)
Std Deviation = sd(x)
Std Deviation
 To find Variance:
x=c(given data)
Variance = var (x)
Variance
Example: 2
Find the Mean, median, standard deviation and variance of the data’s 55, 54, 53,56, 52,
58, 52, 49, 50, 51
R-Code:
x=c(55, 54, 53,56, 52, 58, 52, 49, 50, 51)
mean(x)
median(x)
sd(x)
var (x)
Output:
> mean(x)
[1] 53
> median(x)
[1] 52.5
> sd(x)
[1] 2.788867
> var (x)

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 [1] 7.777778
 To find the mode:
x=c(given data)
mode=function(x)
+ ux=unique(x)
ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x,ux)))]
Example: 3
Find the Mode of the data’s 5, 2, 3, 3, 2, 5, 5, 1, 5, 1, 5, 6, 7.
R-Code:
ux=c(5,2,3,3,2,5,5,1,5,1,5,6,7)
mode=function(x)
ux=unique(x)
ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x,ux)))]
Output:
[1] 5

Task: 1
The following list gives the export quantity of raw material (in Million kg) for the seven
consecutive years 2010-11 to 2016-17: 195, 152, 174, 186.3, 158, 168, 170.5. Find the mean,
median and standard deviation.

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To import data from excel sheet and to find the mean of weight and summary of the details
To import data from Excel sheet “Hegiht and Weight”, first save the file as *.csv
(comma delimited) in the current working directory. Then execute the following command
> help(read.csv)
> details=read.csv("C:/Users/admin/Desktop/Hegiht and Weight.csv")
> details
Output:
Name Weight Height
1 X1 62.0 152
2 X2 63.4 176
3 X3 63.2 165
4 X4 65.0 164
5 X5 66.0 162
6 X6 64.2 153
7 X7 64.0 152
8 X8 50.3 150
9 X9 52.0 162
10 X10 56.3 167
11 X11 54.0 164
12 X12 55.0 156
13 X13 56.0 168
14 X14 65.0 174
15 X15 65.0 172
16 X16 68.0 171
17 X17 69.0 170
18 X18 67.0 160

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 19 X19 65.0 161
20 X20 68.2 162
21 X21 54.0 158
22 X22 70.0 159
23 X23 71.2 160
24 X24 65.0 152
25 X25 64.0 164
26 X26 62.0 162
27 X27 63.0 171
28 X28 61.0 172
29 X29 65.0 170
30 X30 54.0 156
> mean(details$Weight)
[1] 62.26
> summary(details)
Name Weight Height
X1 : 1 Min. :50.30 Min. :150.0
X10 : 1 1st Qu.:57.48 1st Qu.:158.2
X11 : 1 Median :64.00 Median :162.0
X12 : 1 Mean :62.26 Mean :162.8
X13 : 1 3rd Qu.:65.00 3rd Qu.:169.5
X14 : 1 Max. :71.20 Max. :176.0
(Other):24
Task: 2
Import the excel file “Height and weight” from your directory to create a data
frame. Also find the mean, median, mode for height and weight.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Weight 69 80 80 84 81 85 72 55 72 64 52 71 74 80 75
Height 152 176 166 168 161 174 153 154 161 162 154 156 171 162 167

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Viva voce Questions:
1. State the merits and demerits of mean.
2. State the merits and demerits of median.
3. Give the merits of mode.
4. What are the merits of standard deviation?
5. What is the box plot?
Marks Split up for Internal Marks
Experiment 10
Program 5
Output 5
Viva Voce 5
Total Marks / 25

Faculty Signature

Ex. No.:3 Date:

Applications of Correlation and Regression

Objective:
 To construct the scatter plot and to visualize the relationship between two quantitative
variables.
 To find the correlation between two variables in a data set.
 To find the coefficient of rank correlation between two variables in a data set by
Spearman’s method.
 To determine the equations of the regression lines for variables and to predict the value of
one variable when the value of the other variable is given.
Formula:

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Line of Regression:
The equation of line of Regression x on y

Where

The equation of line of Regression y on x

Where

Correlation coefficient:
R-Code Program:
1. To construct the scatter plot with the variables x and y
x=c(a,b,…)
y=c(l,m,…)
plot(x,y,xlab=’’… ”,ylab=”…”,xlim=c(0,10),ylim=c(0,25),col=c(“…”),main= “…”)

2. To find the correlation between x and y

x=c(a,b,…)
y=c(l,m,…)
r=cor(x,y)
r
3. To find the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient between x and y
x=c(a,b,…)
y=c(l,m,…)
r=cor(x,y,method= “spearman”)
r
4. To find the regression line of y on x

regyx=lm(y x) #lm stands for linear model

regyx
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 5. To find the regression line of x on y

regxy=lm(x y)

regxy
6. To construct the regression plot of y on x
plot(x,y)

abline(lm(y x),col= “---”)

Note:

i. abline(lm(y x)) --- adds regression line to plot

ii. plot(y x) --- creates a scatter plot of y versus x

iii. regmodel=lm(y x) ---fit a regression model

Example:
Construct the scatter plot and also find the coefficient of correlation, Spearman’s correlation
coefficient between the ends per inch (X) and picks per inch (Y). Also find the two regression
lines. Estimate the value of y when x=26.
x 23 27 28 28 29 30 31 33 35 36
y 18 20 22 27 21 29 27 29 28 29

R code:
x=c(23,27,28,28,29,30,31,33,35,36)
y=c(18,20,22,27,21,29,27,29,28,29)
plot(x,y,xlim=c(0,50), ylim=c(0,40))
r=cor(x,y)
r
rank = cor(x,y, method="spearman")
rank
Output:
[1] 0.8176052 – Correlation coefficient
[1] 0.8426568 - Spearman Correlation coefficient

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Conclusion:
The correlation is strong positive between x and y.

Plot:

To find the regression line of y on x

R code:

regyx=lm(y x)

regyx
Output:
Call:
lm(formula = y ~ x)

Coefficients:
(Intercept) x
-1.7391 0.8913

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 Hence, the regression lion of y on x is y = -1.7391 + 0.8913 x.
To find the regression line of x on y
R code:

regxy=lm(x y)

regxy
Output:
Call:
lm(formula = x ~ y)

Coefficients:
(Intercept) y
11.25 0.75
Hence, the regression line of x on y is x = 11.25 + 0.75 y.
To find y when x=26
y1=-1.7391+0.8913*26
y1
[1]21.4347
Regression plot of y on x
R code:
plot(x,y)

abline(lm(y x),col= “dark green”)

Output:

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Task: 1
Compute the two equations of the regression lines for the following data:
A panel of judges A and B graded seven debaters and independently awarded the following
marks:
Marks by A: 40 34 28 30 44 38 31
Marks by B: 32 39 26 30 38 34 28
An eighth debater was awarded 36 marks by Judge A while Judge B was not present. If Judge B
was also present, how many marks would you expect him to award to eighth debater assuming
same degree of relationship exists in judgment?

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Task: 2
The following table gives the ages and blood pressure of 10 men.
Age(X): 56 42 36 47 49 42 60 72 63 55
Blood Pressure(Y): 147 125 118 128 145 140 155 160 149 150
Find
i. The two regression line equations.
ii. Estimate the blood pressure of men whose age is 45 years.
iii. Estimate the age of men whose blood pressure is 172.
iv. Construct the regression plot of blood pressure on age.

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Viva voce Questions:
1. Define correlation.
2. What are the various methods of studying correlation?
3. Explain scatter diagram.
4. Define regression.
5. What are regression lines? Write their equations.

Marks Split up for Internal Marks

Experiment 10
Program 5
Output 5
Viva Voce 5
Total Marks / 25

Faculty Signature

Ex. No.: 4 Date:

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 Application of Normal distribution
Objective
 To predict values and computing probabilities using normal distribution
Formula:

The normal distribution is defined by the following probability density function, where

is the population mean and is the variance.

If a random variable X follows the normal distribution, then we write:

The normal distribution with and is called the standard normal distribution,

and is denoted as N(0,1). Consider a normal distribution with mean and standard deviation .

R-Code Program:

1. To find

R-code:

pnorm(a, mean = , sd = )

2. To find

R-code:

pnorm(a, mean = , sd = , lower.tail = FALSE)

3. To find

R-code:

pnorm(b, mean = , sd = ) – pnorm(a, mean = , sd = )

Note:

31
 Use lower.tail=TRUE if you are, e.g., finding the probability at the lower tail of a
confidence interval or if you want to the probability of values no larger than z.
Use lower.tail=FALSE if you are, e.g., trying to calculate test value significance or at the
upper confidence limit, or you want the probability of values z or larger.
You should use pnorm(z, lower.tail=FALSE) instead of 1-pnorm(z)because the former
returns a more accurate answer for large z. This is really simple issue, and has no inherent
complexity associated with it.
Example:
A certain type of storage battery lasts on the average 3.0 years with standard deviation of 0.5
year. Assuming that the battery lives are normally distributed, find the probability that a given
battery will last (i) less than 2.3 years (ii) more than 3.1 years (iii) between 2.5 and 3.5 years.
Answer:
R-Code: pnorm(2.3,mean =3.0, sd =0.5)
Output: [1] 0.08075666
R-Code: pnorm(3.1,mean =3.0, sd =0.5, lower.tail=FALSE)
Output: [1] 0.4207403
R-Code: pnorm(3.5,mean =3.0, sd =0.5)-pnorm(2.5,mean =3.0, sd =0.5)
Output: [1] 0.6826895
Task:1
Suppose the heights of men of a certain country are normally distributed with average 68 inches
and standard deviation 2.5, find the percentage of men who are
(i) Between 66 inches and 71 inches in height
(ii) Approximately 6 feet tall(ie, between 71.5 inches and 72.5 inches)

32
Task: 2
The mean yield for one acre plots is 662 kgs with S.D 32. Assuming normal distribution, how
many one acre plots in a batch of 1000 plots. Would you expect to yield.
Over 700 kgs
Below 650 kgs
(Note: Find the respective probabilities and multiply the probabilities by the number of
plots(=1000) to get the final answers)

Task:3
An intelligence test is administered to 1000 children. The average score is 42 and S.D is 24.
Assuming the test follows normal distribution
(i) Find the number of children exceeding the score 60.
(ii) Find the number of children with score lying between 20 and 40

33
Task: 4
The mean weight of 500 male students in a certain college is 151 lb and the standard deviation is
15 lb. Assuming the weights are normally distributed find how many students weight.
(i) Between 12 and 155 lb (ii) More than 185lb

Viva voce Questions:

1. What is the p.d.f of a normal distribution?
2. Define standard normal distribution.
3. Mention some properties of normal distribution.

Marks Split up for Internal Marks

Experiment 10
Program 5
Output 5
Viva Voce 5

34
 Total Marks / 25

Faculty Signature

Ex. No.: 5 Date :

Application of Student t - test
Objective:
 To apply t- test in testing of hypothesis about population mean.
 To apply t-test in testing of hypothesis about two mean.
 To apply paired t – test in testing of hypothesis about means of two dependent
samples.
Formula:
A t-test helps to compare whether two groups have different average values (for example,
whether men and women have different average heights).

Testing of Hypothesis about the population mean

The test statistic

follows t- distribution with n-1 degrees of freedom.

Where the sample mean, S is is the sample standard deviation of the sample, be the
population mean and n is the sample size.
Hypothesis:
The hypothesis that the estimate is based solely on chance is called the null hypothesis
(H0). Thus, the null hypothesis is true if the observed data (in the sample) do not differ from
what would be expected on the basis of chance alone. The complement of the null hypothesis is
called the alternative hypothesis (H1).
Types of errors:

Type I – H0 is rejected even though it is true .

Type II – H0 is not rejected even though it is false .

Assumptions of t-test for population mean

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  The parent population from which the sample of drawn is normal.
 The sample observations are independent.
 The population standard deviation is unknown.

Test of Hypothesis about the difference between two means

To test a hypothesis concerning the difference between the means of two normally
distributed populations, when the population variances are known, t-test is used.

The test statistic is where

or

The test statistic follows t-distribution with n1+n2-2 degrees of freedom.

Paired t-test for difference of means
If the two given samples are dependent. ie, each observation in one sample is associated
with a particular observation in the second sample, then we used paired t-test to test whether the
means differ significantly of not. Here both the samples will have same number of units.

The test statistic is where

The test statistic follows t-distribution with n - 1 degrees of freedom.

R-Code Program:

Test of Hypothesis about the population mean

x=c(Given data)
t.test(x, alternative = “two.sided”/ “less”/ “greater”. Mu = )
Test of Hypothesis about the difference between two means
x=c(Given data)
y=c(Given data)
t.test(x, y, alternative = “two.sided”/ “less”/ “greater”, var.equal = TRUE)
Paired t-test for difference of means
x=c(Given data)
36
 y=c(Given data)
t.test(x, y, alternative = “two.sided”/ “less”/ “greater”, paired = TRUE)

Example: 1 (Test of Hypothesis about the population mean)

A articles produced by a factory were chosen at random and their weights were found to be (kgs)
63, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 70, 71, 71, 71 resp. In the light of the above data, can we assume that
the mean weight of the articles produced by the factory in 66 kgs? (Critical value is 2.28)

Null hypothesis (H0): =66.

Alternative hypothesis (H1):
R-Code:
x=c(63,63,66,67,68,69,70,70,71,71,71)
t.test(x,alternative = "two.sided",mu=66)
Output:
data: x
t = 2.3, df = 10, p-value = 0.04425
alternative hypothesis: true mean is not equal to 66
95 percent confidence interval:
66.06533 70.11649
sample estimates:
mean of x
68.09091
Conclusion:
t-value = 2.3 > 2.28 (critical value)
Hence, Ho is rejected and we may conclude that the mean weight of the articles
produced by the factory is not 66.

Example: 2 (Test of Hypothesis about the difference between two means)

In a test examination given to two groups of students, the marks obtained were as follows
I group : 18 20 36 50 49 36 34 49 41
II group: 29 28 26 35 30 44 46
Examine the significance of difference between the average marks secured by the students of the
above two groups.
Null hypothesis (H0): .
Alternative hypothesis (H1):
R-Code:
37
 x=c(18,20,36,50,49,36,34,49,41)
y=c(29,28,26,35,30,44,46)
t.test(x, y, alternative = “two.sided”, var.equal = TRUE)

Output:

Two Sample t-test

data: x and y
t = 0.57131, df = 14, p-value = 0.5768
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
95 percent confidence interval:
-8.262417 14.262417
sample estimates:
mean of x mean of y
37 34
Conclusion:
t-value = 0.57 < 2.145 (critical value)
Hence, Ho is accepted and we may conclude that there is no significance difference
between the given sample means.

Example: 3 (Paired t-test for difference of means)

A study was performed to test whether cars get better mileage on premium gas than on regular
gas. Each of 10 cars was first filled with either regular or premium gas, decided by a coin toss,
and the mileage for that tank was recorded. The mileage was recorded again for the same cars
using the other kind of gasoline. The relevant mileages: Regular: 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 22, 27, 25,
27, 28 Premium: 19, 22, 24, 24, 25, 25, 26, 26, 28, 32. Use a paired t test to determine whether
cars get significantly better mileage with premium gas.

Null hypothesis (H0): .

Alternative hypothesis (H1):
R-Code:
x=c(16,20,21,22,23,22,27,25,27,28)
y=c(19,22,24,24,25,25,26,26,28,32)
t.test(x, y, alternative = “greater”, paired = TRUE)
Output:
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 Paired t-test
data: x and y
t = -4.4721, df = 9, p-value = 0.9992
alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is greater than 0
95 percent confidence interval:
-2.819793 Inf
sample estimates:
mean of the differences
-2
Conclusion:
p-value = 0.9992 < 2.26
Hence, Ho is accepted and we may conclude that there is no significance difference
between the given sample means.
Task: 1
A random sample of 10 boys had the following I.Qs 70,120,110,101,88,83,95,98,107,100. Do
these data support the assumption of a population mean I.Q. of 100?

Task: 2

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Two horses A and B were tested according to time (in seconds) to run on a particular track with
the following results.
Horse A: 28 30 32 33 33 29 34
Horse B: 29 30 30 24 27 29
From the above data report, whether or not you can discriminate between the two horses. Test at
5% level.

Task: 3
The weight gain in pounds under two systems of feeding of calves of 10 pairs of
identical twins is given below.
Twin pair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Weight gain under system A 43 39 39 42 46 43 38 44 51 43
Weight gain under system B 37 35 34 41 39 37 37 40 48 36
Discuss whether the difference between the two systems of feeding is significant.

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Viva voce Questions:
1. Define types of error.
2. Define Null Hypothesis.
3. What is the test statistic for testing hypothesis about a population mean?
4. What is the test statistic for testing hypothesis about a difference between two mean?
5. Define level of significant.

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41
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Output 5
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Ex. No.: 6 Date:

Application of F test
Objective:
 To apply F-test to compare the variances of two samples from normal populations.
Formula:
The test statistic for F-distribution is

(OR)

Where

The degrees of freedom are and if

R-Code Program:
The null hypothesis is that the ratio of the variances of the populations from which x and
y were drawn, or in the data to which the linear models x and y were fitted, is equal to ratio.
R-Code for F-test:
var. test (x, y, ratio=1, alternative=c(“two. sided”, ”less”, ”greater”), Conf. level=0.95,
…)
Note:

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x, y - numeric vectors of data values, or fitted linear model objects (inheriting from
class “lm”).
Ratio - the hypothesized ratio of the population variances of x and y.
Alternative - a character string specifying the alternative hypothesis, must be one of ‘’two.
Sided” (default),”greater” or “less”. You can specify just the initial letter.
Conf. level - confidence level for the returned confidence interval.

Example:
Two samples of 6 and 7 items respectively have the following values for a variable
Sample 1 39 41 42 42 44 44
Sample 2 40 42 39 45 38 39 40
Do the sample variances differ significantly?

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in sample variances.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant difference in sample variances.
R- Code:
x=c(40,42,39,45,38,39,40)
y=c(39,41,42,42,44,40)
var.test (x, y, ratio=1, alternative = “two.sided”, conf.level = 0.95)
Output:
F test to compare two variances

data: x and y
F = 1.8323, num df = 6, denom df = 5, p-value = 0.523
alternative hypothesis: true ratio of variances is not equal to 1
95 percent confidence interval:
0.2625934 10.9710044
sample estimates:
ratio of variances
1.832298
Conclusion:
Since F < F0.05 , we accept the null hypothesis and we may conclude that there is no
significant difference in the sample variances.

Task 1:

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A group of 10 rats fed on diet A and another group of 8 rats on a different diet B, recorded the following
increase in weight (gms).
Diet A : 5 6 8 1 12 4 3 9 6 10
Diet B: 2 3 6 8 10 1 2 8
Find if the variances are significantly different.

Task 2:
The nicotine content in 2 random sample of tobacco are given below:
Sample 1: 21 24 25 26 27
Sample 2: 22 27 28 30 31 36
Test whether the populations have the same variances.

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Task 3:
Two horses A and B were tested according to the time (in seconds) to run a particular track with
the following results:
Horse A: 28 30 32 33 33 29 34
Horse B: 29 30 30 24 27 29
Test whether the two horses have the same running capacity.

Viva voce Questions:

1. What is the use of F-distribution?
2. State the important properties of F-distribution?
3. What is the difference between F-test and t-test?
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Ex. No.: 7 Date:

Application of Chi-square test

Objective
 To apply chi square test for goodness of fit
 To apply chi square test for independence of attributes

Formula:

Conditions for the validity of - test

 The sample observations must be independent of one another.

 The sample size must be reasonably large, say 50.
 No individual frequency should be less than 5. If any frequency is less than 5, then it is
pooled with the preceding or succeeding frequency so that the pooled frequency is more
than 5. Finally adjust for the d.f lost in pooling.
 The number of classes k must be neither too small nor too large, ie.,

- Test of goodness of fit

Tests of goodness of fit are used when we want to determine whether an actual sample
distribution matches a known theoretical distribution. It enables us to find if the deviation
of the experiment from theory is just by chance or it is due to the inadequacy of the
theory to fit the date.

Null Hypothesis: :

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 The difference between the observed and expected frequencies is not significant. ie, the
theory fits well into the given data.

Regular method:

Let be a set of observed frequencies and be the

corresponding set of expected frequencies. Then follows Chi-square

Distribution with n-1 d.f.

Compare the calculated - value with the tabulated - value (with n-1 d.f) and form
the conclusion.

- Test of Independence of Attributes

–Test is used for testing the null hypothesis that two criteria of classification are

independent. Let the two attributes be A and B, where A has r categories and B has s categories.
Thus the members of the population and hence, those of the sample are divided into rs classes.
Let the total number of observations be N. The observations are arranged in the form of a matrix,
called contingency table.

The attributes A and B are independent.

Regular method:

The expected frequencies for various cells are calculated using the formula:

Test statistic is

which follows -distribution with n=(r-1)(s-1) d.f

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Note: For a contingency table with cell frequencies a, b, c, d the - value is given by

Degrees of freedom = 1.
R-Code Program:

- Test of goodness of fit

f = vector of observed frequencies

p = vector of expected ratios(probabilities)
a = chisq.test (f,p=c(p1,p2,…))

- Test of Independence of Attributes

a = vector of elements in first row of contingency table

b = vector of elements in second row of contingency table
c=…
contingency = as.data.frame(rbind(a,b,c,…)) # to create the table
contingency
chisq.test(contingency, simulate.p.value=T)
Example: 1
The following table gives the number of aircraft accidents that occurred during the various days of the
week. Test whether the accidents are uniformly distributed over the week.
Days Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Total
No of accidents 14 18 12 11 15 14 84

Null Hypothesis: The accidents are uniformly distributed over the week
Alternative Hypothesis: The accidents are not uniformly distributed over the week
Level of significance: 95%
R-code:
accident=c(14,18,12,11,15,14)
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 p=c(1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6)
a=chisq.test(accident,p=c(1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6,1/6))
a
Output:
Chi-squared test for given probabilities

data: accident
X-squared = 2.1429, df = 5, p-value = 0.829
Conclusion:
-value = 2.1429 < 11.07 (Table value)
Hence, Ho is accepted and we may conclude that the accidents occur uniformly over the
week.

Example: 2
From the following data, test whether there is any association between intelligency and economic
conditions
Intelligency
Excellent Good Medium Dull Total
Economic Good 48 200 150 80 478
Conditions Not good 52 180 190 100 522
Total 100 380 340 180

R-code:
good = c(48,200,150,80)
notgood = c(52,180,190,100)
economicconditions = as.data.frame(rbind(good, notgood))
chisq.test(economicconditions,simulate.p.value = TRUE)
Output:
Pearson's Chi-squared test with simulated p-value (based on 2000
replicates)

data: economicconditions
X-squared = 6.2168, df = NA, p-value = 0.1034
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Conclusion:
-value = 6.2168 < 7.815 (Table value)
Hence, Ho is accepted and we may conclude that there is no significance difference
between intelligency and economic conditions.

Task: 1
The following table shows the distribution of digits in the numbers choosen at random from a
telephone directory:
Digits : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
Frequency: 1026 1107 997 966 1075 933 1107 972 964 853 10000
Test whether the digits may be taken to occur equally frequency in the directory.

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Task: 2
Two researchers adopted different sampling techniques while investigating the same group of
students to find the number of students falling into different intelligence level. The results are as
follows.
Researcher Below average Average Above average Excellent Total
X 86 60 44 10 200
Y 40 33 25 2 100
Total 126 93 69 12 300
Would you say that the sampling techniques adopted by the researches are significantly
different?

Viva voce Questions:

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 1. What is the conditions for the - test?

2. What is the - value of a contingency table with cell frequencies a, b, c, d.

3. Define the - Test of goodness of fit

4. What is the test statistic for testing hypothesis about the - test?

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Ex. No.: 8 Date:

ANOVA – one way classification
Objective:
 To perform analysis of variance for a completely randomized design
Formula:
The ANOVA table for one way classifications :
S.V S.S d.f M.S. F

Between
Q1(SSR) h-1 Q1/(h-1)
rows

Residual Q3(SSE)
N-h Q2/(N-h)

Total Q(TSS) N-1 - -

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Where

and SSE = TSS – SSC

The term one way classification refers to the fact that a single variable factor of interest is
controlled and the effects on the other elementary units is observed.
Three types of variation present in a data
1. Treatments
2. Environmental
3. Residual or Error
Assumptions for ANOVA test
1. The observations are independent.
2. The parent population is normal
3. Various treatment and environmental effects are additive in nature.
4. The samples have been randomly selected from the population
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the mean of each samples.
Alternative Hypothesis: There is significant difference between the mean of each samples.

Three important designs of experiments:

1. Completely Randomised Design (CRD) – One-way classification
2. Randomised Block Design (RBD) – Two-way classification
3. Latin Square Design (LSD) – Three way classification.
R-Code Program
Aov(response~factor, data=data_name)
Example:
A drug company tested three formulations of a pain relief medicine for migraine headache
sufferers. For the experiment 27 volunteers were selected and 9 were randomly assigned to one
of three drug formulations. The subjects were instructed to take the drug during their next
migraine headache episode and to report their pain on a scale of 1 to 10 (10 being maximum
pain)
Drug A: 4 5 4 3 2 4 3 4 4
Drug B: 6 8 4 5 4 6 5 8 6

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 Drug C: 6 7 6 6 7 5 6 5 5
R-code:
pain=c(4,5,4,3,2,4,3,4,4,6,8,4,5,4,6,5,8,6,6,7,6,6,7,5,6,5,5)
drug=c(rep("A",9),rep("B",9),rep("C",9))
data=data.frame(pain,drug)
data
results=aov(pain~drug,data=data)
summary(results)
Output:
pain drug
14A
25A
34A
43A
52A
64A
73A
84A
94A
10 6 B
11 8 B
12 4 B
13 5 B
14 4 B
15 6 B
16 5 B
17 8 B
18 6 B
19 6 C
20 7 C
21 6 C
22 6 C
23 7 C
24 5 C
25 6 C
26 5 C
27 5 C

Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

drug 2 28.22 14.111 11.91 0.000256 ***
Residuals 24 28.44 1.185
---
Signif. codes: 0 „***‟ 0.001 „**‟ 0.01 „*‟ 0.05 „.‟ 0.1 „ ‟ 1

54
Conclusion:
, F> , so we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the means of the
three drug groups are different.
Task:1
A completely randomized design experiment with 10 plots and 3 treatments gave the following
result .
Plot no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Treatme A B C A C C A B A B
nt
Yield 5 4 3 7 5 1 3 4 1 7
Analysis the result for treatment effects.

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Task:2
The following table shows the lives in hours of four brands of electric lamps: Brand
A: 1610, 1610, 1650, 1680, 1700, 1720, 1800
B: 1580, 1640, 1640, 1700, 1750
C: 1460, 1550, 1600, 1620, 1640, 1660, 1740, 1820
D: 1510, 1520, 1530, 1570, 1600, 1680
Perform an analysis of variance and test the homogeneity of the mean lives of the four brands of
lamps.

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Viva voce Questions:
1. What are the basic principles of experimental design?
2. Mention the important design of experiments.
3. Explain one way classification
4. What is the purpose of ANOVA?
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Ex. No.: 9 Date:

ANOVA - Two way classification
Objective:
 To perform analysis of variance for a Randomized Block Design.
Formula:
The ANOVA table for two factors of classifications :
S.V S.S d.f M.S. F

Between
Q1(SSR) h-1 Q1/(h-1)
rows

Between
Q2(SSC) k-1 Q2/(k-1)
columns

Residual Q3(SSE) (h-1)(k-1) Q3/(h-1)(k-1) -

Total Q(TSS) hk-1 - -

57
Where

SSE = TSS – SSC - SSR

The data collected from experiments with randomized block design form a two-way
classification, classified according to two factors – blocks (rows ) and treatments (columns). The
two-way table has h rows and k columns so that N=hk.
For randomized block designs, there are several factors. The factors are those that may
affect the measured result, but are not of primary interest. For example in an experiment on the
effects of four levels of newspaper advertising saturation on sales volume, the experimental unit
is a city and 16 cities are available for the study. Size of the city usually is highly correlated
with the response variable, sales volume. Hence, it is desirable to block the 16 cities into four
groups of four cities each, according to population size. Note that in these designs, each
treatment is included once in each block. So the design is called the randomized complete block
design.
H01 : There is no significant difference between the columns (Variety).
H02 : There is no significant difference between the rows (Treatment).
R-Code Program:
a=c( ) (entries entered column wise)

f=c(“row1”, “row2”, “row3”,“row4”, “row5”)

k=5
r=4
A= gl(k, l, r*k, factor(f))
A
B=gl(r, k, k*r)
B
av = aov (a A+B)

58
 summary (av)
Example:
The following data represent the number of units of production per day turned out by 5 different
workers using 4 different types of machines.
workers Machine Type
A B C D
1 44 38 47 36
2 46 40 52 43
3 34 36 44 32
4 43 38 46 33
5 38 42 49 39
(a) Test whether the mean production is the same for the different machine types.
(b) Test whether the 5 men differ with means productivity.
R-code:
a=c(42,44,32,41,36,36,38,34,36,40,45,50,42,44,47,34,41,30,31,37)
f=c("w1","w2","w3","w4","w5")
h=5
k=4
worker=gl(h,1,k*h,factor(f))
worker
machine=gl(k,h,h*k)
machine
av = aov(a ~ worker+machine)
summary(av)
Output:
> a=c(42,44,32,41,36,36,38,34,36,40,45,50,42,44,47,34,41,30,31,37)
> f=c("w1","w2","w3","w4","w5")
> h=5
> k=4
> worker=gl(h,1,k*h,factor(f))
> worker
[1] w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w1 w2 w3 w4 w5
Levels: w1 w2 w3 w4 w5
> machine=gl(k,h,h*k)
> machine
[1] 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4
Levels: 1 2 3 4
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 > av = aov(a ~ worker+machine)
> summary(av)
Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
worker 4 161.5 40.37 6.574 0.00485 **
machine 3 338.8 112.93 18.388 8.78e-05 ***
Residuals 12 73.7 6.14
---
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1

Conclusion:
From F-table, F0.05 (4,12)=3.26 < F1 = 6.54, hence we reject H 01 and conclude that the 5
workers differ with respect to mean productivity.
F0.05 (3,12)=3.49 < F 2 = 18.388, hence we reject H02 and conclude that the 4 machines
differ with respect to mean productivity.
Task: 1
A company appoints 4 salesmen A, B, C, D and observes their sales in 3 seasons: summer,
winter and monsoon. The figures (in lakhs of Rs.) are given in the following table:
SALES MEN
SEASON
A B C D
SUMMER 45 40 38 37
WINTER 43 41 45 38
MONSOON 39 39 41 41

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Viva voce Questions:
1. When do you apply the analysis of variance technique?
2. Write any two advantages of RBD over CRD.
3. What is meant be two way classifications?
4. Write the differences between one way and two way classification?
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61