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Starting To Read ECGs The Basics Complete PDF Download

This book serves as a practical guide for beginners in ECG interpretation, covering essential techniques for recording and analyzing ECGs. It emphasizes a systematic approach, gradually introducing concepts while avoiding information overload, and includes quizzes for reflective learning. The text is designed to be accessible for medical students, nurses, and allied health professionals as both a starter resource and a bedside reference.
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© © All Rights Reserved
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100% found this document useful (15 votes)
225 views17 pages

Starting To Read ECGs The Basics Complete PDF Download

This book serves as a practical guide for beginners in ECG interpretation, covering essential techniques for recording and analyzing ECGs. It emphasizes a systematic approach, gradually introducing concepts while avoiding information overload, and includes quizzes for reflective learning. The text is designed to be accessible for medical students, nurses, and allied health professionals as both a starter resource and a bedside reference.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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Starting to Read ECGs The Basics

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This book is dedicated to the memory of:
Valerie Jane Davies
1955–2000
Foreword

There are several textbooks comprehensively covering the field of ECG interpreta-
tion and this book does not attempt to replicate these texts. The purpose of this book
is to provide a concise, practical and systematic guide to interpretation of ECGs for
the beginner. It not only covers how to perform an ECG but also basic interpretation
of a normal ECG before progressing onto the effects of anatomical abnormalities of
the heart on the ECG. More complex rhythm abnormalities are described and illus-
trated to ease understanding. The ECG should always be interpreted whilst consid-
ering the clinical presentation of the individual subject from whom it was recorded.
The ECG is part of diagnosis and management. Clinical scenarios affecting the
ECG are also described in the last two chapters. Each chapter concludes with a quiz
for reflective learning and a summary of key points from the chapter. The authors
should be congratulated for producing a well presented and easy to understand text
which will be useful to medical students, nurses and other allied professionals not
only as a starter text but also as an immediate bedside reference manual.

Cambridge, UK Sarah Clarke

vii
Preface

The ECG is one of the most widely available diagnostic tests used in clinical prac-
tice today. Since the first use of the ECG there has been a wealth of books available
on the subject, aimed at all sorts of different experience levels and healthcare prac-
titioners. With such a wealth of material already available you may ask yourself
what is special or different about this book.
The authors have tried very hard to write a book that is aimed at the absolute
beginner. Many make this claim, but we have really tried to strip everything back to
essential basics. We pick simple methods that can be used easily in clinical practice.
We do not assume any prior knowledge. Above all we wanted the book to be easy
to read and attractive, using many photos, images and diagrams to illustrate points
and aid in memory retention. We constantly revisit and remind the reader of infor-
mation already covered to reinforce knowledge. We gradually build on the informa-
tion given throughout the book, so as not to overload the reader with too much in
one go.
This book aims to give the beginner just what they need to know, including infor-
mation about how to record good quality ECGs. We hope to avoid information
overload, although extra information and points of interest are included in informa-
tion boxes.
We hope you will find this book easy to read, informative, and a useful aid in
building your ECG knowledge and confidence in interpretation, whatever your clin-
ical role may be.

Plymouth, UK Alan Davies

ix
Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the following for their help, support and encouragement in
the writing of this book:
Dr. Sarah C Clarke MA, MD, FRCP, FESC, FACC
Consultant Cardiologist and Clinical Director of Cardiac Services
Dr. Sandeep Basavarajaiah MBBS, MRCP, MD
Cardiology Specialist Registrar for your kind permission to let us use your ECGs.
Peter Lewis, for providing additional ECGs.
Bruce Davies, for the fantastic original book graphics.
Sheila Turner, lead for core and clinical education.
For her contribution to this book.
Sally Scott, for her endless patience of Alwyn’s laptop use.
Monika Golas, for all her support and encouragement.

xi
Contents

1 How to Record a 12-Lead ECG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1


Physiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Sinoatrial Node (SAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Interatrial/Internodal Tracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Atrioventricular Node (AV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Bundle of His . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Right Bundle Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Left Bundle Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
What Is an ECG and How Are They Recorded?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Patient Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Electrode Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Attaching the Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
What to Write on the ECG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 ECG Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
How Does the 12-Lead ECG Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
ECG Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Details Found on a Standard 12-Lead ECG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
12-Lead ECG Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Bipolar Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Unipolar Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The PQRST Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
The P Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The PR Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The QRS Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The T Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
The U Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

xiii
xiv Contents

The ST Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
The QT Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Quality Issues Pertaining to ECG Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The aVR Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
R Wave Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Calibration Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Artifact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Muscle/Somatic Tremor Artefact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
60-Cycle Interference/AC Mains Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Baseline Wander. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Other Forms of Artefact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
ECG Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4 Principles of ECG Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Basic Quality Control Checks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The P Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The PR Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The QRS Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The ST Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
The T Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
The QT Interval. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Electrical Axis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Additional Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The Normal ECG and Normal Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Bradycardia +/− Large R Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Leads aVR and V1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Sinus Arrhythmia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Q Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
T Wave Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Chamber Abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Physiology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Atrial Abnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Contents xv

Right Atrial Abnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65


Left Atrial Abnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Bilateral Atrial Abnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Ventricular Abnormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy (LVH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Right Ventricular Hypertrophy (RVH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Biventricular Hypertrophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Normal Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6 Arrhythmias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Ectopic Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Compensatory and Non-compensatory Pauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Atrial Premature Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Junctional Premature Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Ventricular Premature Beats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Pathological Ventricular Premature Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Multiple Focus Ventricular Premature Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
R on T Phenomenon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Bigeminy and Trigemany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Escape Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Atrial Arrhythmias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Atrial Tachycardia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Atrial Fibrillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Atrial Flutter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia (MAT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Wandering Atrial Pacemaker (WAP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Junctional Arrhythmias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Junctional Escape Rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Junctional Tachycardia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
AV Nodal Re-entry Tachycardia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome WPW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Lown-Ganong-Levine Syndrome (LGL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Re-entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Ventricular Arrhythmias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Arrest Rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Ventricular Tachycardia (VT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Ventricular Flutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Ventricular Fibrillation (VF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Asystole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Pulseless Electrical Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Ideoventricular Rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
xvi Contents

7 Conduction Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109


Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Bundle Branch Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Left Bundle Branch Block (LBBB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Incomplete Bundle Branch Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Atrioventricular Blocks (AV Blocks) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1st Degree AV Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2nd Degree AV Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Type I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Type II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3rd Degree AV Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3rd Degree AV Block and Atrial Fibrillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Sinoatrial Blocks (SA Blocks) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Incomplete SA Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Complete SA Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Sick Sinus Syndrome (SSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8 Miscellaneous Cardiac Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Paced Rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Types of Permanent Pacemaker (PPM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
ECG Identification of Pacemakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Problems with Pacemakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Failure to Sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Failure to Capture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Failure to Pace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Over-Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Differentiating Pericarditis from Acute Myocardial Infarction . . . . . . 133
What Is ST Segment Elevation?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Other Causes of ST Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Long QT Syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9 Non Cardiac Conditions Identifiable on the ECG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Electrolyte Imbalances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Hyperkalemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Hypokalemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Hypercalcaemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Hypocalcaemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Contents xvii

Hypothermia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Digoxin Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Pulmonary Embolism (PE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10 Acute Coronary Syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Atherosclerosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Modifiable and Non-modifiable Risk Factors for CHD . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Angina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
STEMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Evolution of STEMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
NSTEMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Left Bundle Branch Block (LBBB) and Chest Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Summary of Key Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

The Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Online Figures

Fig. 2.3 ECG showing various additional information, including the machines
attempt to derive a diagnosis
Fig. 3.2 Normal 12-lead ECG recorded with standard lead positioning
Fig. 3.3 Same ECG with limb leads swapped over. Note: positive aVR while
lead I, II and aVL are now negatively deflected
Fig. 3.6 Misplaced chest leads causing a change in R wave progression
Fig. 3.11 Somatic muscle tremor in multiple leads, seen predominantly in leads
II and III
Fig. 3.12 60-cycle interference/AC mains interference
Fig. 3.13 Baseline wander
Fig. 3.14 Artefact mimicking atrial flutter
Fig. 4.12 A normal ECG
Quiz 4.7
Quiz 4.8
Quiz 4.9
Fig. 5.10 Increased QRS voltage
Fig. 5.13 RVH with associated ST-T wave abnormalities (strain), and right axis
deviation. ECG taken from a 32 year old female with congenital pul-
monary stenosis
Fig. 5.14 Biventricular hypertrophy. Voltage criteria for LVH found in frontal
plane with tall R waves in lead V1
Fig. 5.15 ‘Athletes heart’, physiological LVH
Quiz 5.7
Quiz 5.8
Fig. 6.20 Atrial Fibrillation as seen in lead II
Fig. 6.21 12 lead ECG showing Atrial Fibrillation
Fig. 6.23 Atrial Flutter, as seen in lead II
Fig. 6.27 WPW syndrome type A
Fig. 6.28 LGL syndrome
Fig. 6.31 VT
Fig. 6.37 Ideoventricular rhythm

xix
xx Online Figures

Quiz 6.7
Quiz 6.8
Quiz 6.9
Quiz 6.10
Quiz 6.11
Fig. 7.3 LBBB
Fig. 7.5 RBBB
Fig. 7.8 1st degree AV block
Fig. 7.12 3rd degree AV block and atrial fibrillation
Quiz 7.7
Quiz 8.7
Fig. 9.5 Digitalis effect
Fig. 10.9 Anterior lateral STEMI
Fig. 10.10 Anterior STEMI
Fig. 10.11 Inferior STEMI
Quiz 10.7
Quiz 10.8

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