LESSON 3: DATA MANAGEMENT 4.

Observation
• It is development, execution, and supervision of • It is the technique in which data particularly
plans, policies, programs, and practices that control, thosepertaining to the behaviors of individuals or group of
protect, deliver, and enhance the value of data and individuals during the given situation.
information assets.
• To notice using a full range of appropriate senses.
• It is administrative process by which the required Tosee, hear, feel, taste, and smell.
data is acquired, validated, stored, protected, and
• This is also used when the respondents cannot
processed, and by which its accessibility, reliability and
readnor write.
timeliness is ensured to satisfy the needs of the data
users.
5. Experimental
statistics • It is a system used to gather data from the results
ofperformed series of experiments on some controlled
• The word statistics originated from the word
and experimental variables. This is commonly used in
“status” meaning “state”.
scientific inquiries.
• It is the science that deals with the collection,
classification, analysis, and interpretation of numerical • Independent variable (IV) – The independent
facts or data, in such a way that valid conclusions and variable in an experiment is the variable that is
meaningful predictions can be drawn from them. systematically manipulated by the investigator.

General purposes of statistics • Dependent variable (DV) – The dependent

1. Statistics are used to organize and summarize variable in an experiment is the variable that the
the information so that the researcher can see investigator measures to determine the effect of the
what happened in the research study and can independent variable.
communicate the results to others.
2. Statistics help the researcher to answer the • Scientific method – The data from the
questions that initiated the research by experiment force a conclusion consonant with reality.
determining exactly what general conclusions are Thus, scientific methodology has a built-in safeguard for
justified based on the specific results that were ensuring that truth assertions of any sort about reality
obtained. must conform to what is demonstrated to be objectively
true about the phenomena before the assertions are
METHODS OF Data Gathering
given the status of scientific truth.
1. Direct or interview
• It is a person-to- person encounter between the source DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
of information, the interviewee, and the one who gathers
information, the interviewer. • Descriptive statistics – involves the collection
and classification of data.
2. Indirect or questionnaire
• It is the technique in which a questionnaire is used to A bowler wants to find his bowling average for the
elicit the information or data needed. past 10 games.
A teacher wishes to determine the percentage of
3. Registration students who passed the examination.
• It obtains data from the records of government agency
authorized by law to keep such data or information and • Inferential statistics – involves the analysis and
made these available to researchers. interpretation of data.

• Examples: A manager would like to predict based on

previous years’ sales, the sales performance of a
Registration of birth
company for the next five years.
Registration of marriage
Registration of death
 A politician would like to estimate, based on an • Example:
opinion poll, his chance for winning in the
upcoming senatorial election.

Population and Sample

• A population is the set of measurements

corresponding to the entire collection of units about
which the information is sought. It is the group of
objects/subjects about which conclusions are to be
drawn.

• Example:
a. The scores of entire students of Senior High
School in EAC-Cavite.
b. All children of any age who have older or younger
siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin.

• A sample is a set of individuals selected from a

population, usually intended to represent the
population in a research study.

• Example:
a. The scores of 50 students of Senior High School
in EAC-Cavite.
b. The 40 children who actually participated in one
specific study about siblings in Barangay
Lucsuhin.

Sample Size
Data
• Slovin’s Formula:
• Data are measurements or observations. A data
N set is a collection of measurements or observations. A
n= 2 datum is a single measurement or observation and is
1+Ne commonly called a score or raw score.
Where: n = sample size • The measurements that are made on the subjects
N = population size
of anexperiment are also called data.
e = desired margin of error
• Usually data consist of the measurements of
thedependent variable or of other subject characteristics,
such as age, gender, number of subjects, and so on. The
data as originally measured are often referred to as raw
or original scores.
Parameter

• Parameter is a value, usually a numerical value that

describes a population. A parameter is usually derived
from measurements of the individuals in the population.
• Example: In the National Achievement Test of HigSchool develop a complete list of population members or
in SY 2011-2012, the mean percentage score in when the population elements are widely
Mathematics is 46.37. dispersed geographically.
Cluster sampling may increase sampling error
Statistic due to similarities among cluster members.

• A statistic is a value, usually a numerical value • Non-probability sampling is defined as a

that describes a sample. sampling technique in which the researcher selects
samples based on the subjective judgement of the
• A statistic is usually derived from measurements
researcher rather than random sampling. It is a less
of theindividuals in the sample.
stringent method. This sampling method depends heavily
on the expertise of the researchers. It is carried out by
• Example: A recent survey of approximately observation, and researchers use it widely for qualitative
400,000 employers reported that the average starting research.
salary for marketing majors is Php23,000.
Quota sampling – is defined in which
Sampling Error
researchers create a sample involving individuals
• Sampling error is naturally occurring discrepancy, or that represent a population. They choose said
individuals according to specific traits or qualities.
error, that exists between a sample statistic and the
These samples can be generalized to the entire
corresponding population parameter.
population. The final subset will be decided only
Sampling Designs according to the researcher’s knowledge of the
population.
• A sampling plan is just a method or procedure
Purposive sampling – or judgmental, selective,
forspecifying how a sample will be taken from a
or subjective sampling, is where researchers rely
population.
on their own judgment when choosing members
of the population. This survey method requires
• Probability Sampling – refers to the selection of
researchers to have prior knowledge of their
a sample from a population, when this selection is based
studies so that they can properly choose and
on the principle of randomization, that is, random
approach eligible participants for surveys
selection or chance.
conducted using online survey platforms like
Alchemer.
Simple random sampling – selected in such a
way that every possible sample of the same size Convenience sampling – samples are selected
is equally likely to be chosen. from the population only because they are
conveniently available to the researcher.
Example: Drawing three names from a hat Researchers choose these samples because
containing all the names of the students in the they are easy to recruit, and the researcher did
class. not consider selecting a sample that represents
Systematic sampling – is where we follow some the entire population.
system of selection like “every 10th person” Consecutive sampling – is very similar to
Example: You want to know the favorite colors for convenience sampling, with a slight variation. The
people at your school, but don’t have time to ask researcher picks a single person or a group of a
everyone. Solution: Stand at the gate and choose sample, conducts research over a period,
“every 4th person to arrive” analyzes the results, and then moves on to
another subject or group if needed.
Stratified random sampling – is obtained by
separating the population into mutually exclusive Snowball sampling – helps researchers to find
sets, or stats, and then drawing simple random a sample when they are difficult to locate.
samples from each stratum. Researchers use this when the sample size is
small and not easily available.
Cluster Sampling – is a simple random sample This sampling works like a referral program. Once
of groups or clusters of elements (vs. a simple the researchers find subjects, he asks them for
random sample of individual objects). This assistance to seek similar subjects to form a good
method is useful when it is difficult or costly to sample size.
 Variable • Examples: in a marathon (1st, 2nd, 3rd), Survey about
consumer product satisfaction (very satisfied, somewhat
• It is any property or characteristic of some
satisfied, somewhat dissatisfied, very
event,object, or person that may have different values at
dissatisfied)
different times depending on the conditions.
• A qualitative variable describes an object or
3. INTERVAL – At this level of measurement, the
individual by placing the object or individual into a numbers tell the distances between the measurements
category or group. in addition to the classification and ordering.

• Examples are gender, nationality, color, types of • Examples: temperature, the distance between 380C is
personality, and product brand. and 400C is the same as the distance between 330C
and 350C.0C does not mean there is no temperature, it
• A quantitative variable has a value or numerical is just a freezing point.
measurement for which operation can be applied.
4. RATIO – Has an absolute zero that is meaningful
• Examples are age, height, and weight are
quantitative. • Examples: Can construct a meaningful ratio
(fraction), for example, number of clients in past six
Classification of Quantitative Variables: months.
1. Continuous Variables – It can assume any of an The Hierarchy of Levels
infinite number of values and can be associated
with points on a continuous line interval. • TOP TO LOWEST:
Example: Height, weight, volume
2. Discrete Variables – It results from either a finite Ratio – absolute zero
number of possible values or a countable number Interval – distance is meaningful
of possible values. Example: number of students, Ordinal – attributes can be ordered
number of books, and number of patients.
Nominal – attributes are only named; weakest.

LEVELS of Measurements Classification of Numerical Data

• Nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio (Interval and
ratio aresometimes called continuous or scale). 1.
NOMINAL – At this level of measurement, the numbers
in the variable are used only to classify the data. Words,
letters, and alpha-numeric symbols can be used.

• Examples: Religious affiliation, School type, or

Course.

2. ORDINAL – At this level of measurement, the numbers

indicate an order.
• The steps for constructing a frequency distribution of
grouped scores are as follows:

Find the range of the scores.

–
Determine the tentative number of classes (K).
Sturges rule:

Determine the width of each class interval (i).

List the interval, placing the interval containing

the lowest score value at the bottom.
Tally the raw scores into the appropriate class
intervals.
Add the tallies for each interval to obtain
the interval frequency.

•
• – Displays data by using bars of equal
width on a grid. The bars may be vertical or horizontal.
Bar graphs are used for comparisons.

• Displays a bar for each category with the length of

each bar representing the frequency of that category.

• – a bar graph ordered from highest to

lowest frequency.

• From the Pareto graph, it is easy to see that the causes

of inventory shrinkage that should be addressed first are
employees’ theft and shoplifting.

• – Displays data using

a circle divided into sectors. We use a circle graph (also
called a pie chart) to show how data represent portions
of one whole or one group.

• In a pie chart, the central angle of each slice of the pie

is proportional to its value as compared to the total
value.

• Notice that each sector is represented by %.

From the pie chart, you can see that almost one-half
(48.3%) of the degrees conferred in 2011 were
bachelor’s degrees.
• Mode – the most–frequent
A graph score.
of data that is a set of
points.

• From the scatter plot, you can see that as the petal
length increases, the petal width also tends to increase.

• – also known as the “average” or “arithmetic

mean”

• – the middlemost score.

 are the values that are in the quarter
positions of data set.

Q1 Lower quartile/First quartile = P25

Q3 Upper quartile/Third quartile = P75

is the value that is in the halfway position

of a data set. It is the same as Q2

Median Second quartile = P50

are the values that are in positions that

• divided the data into 10 pieces.

D1 = P10
D2 =P20
D10 = P100

*Lesser = consistent

• – These are positional measures used

mainly in educational and health- related fields to
indicate the position of an individual in a group.

• It is denoted by and divide a set of data into 100 equal

parts.

• It is used as positional measures to indicate what

percent of the data set have a value

• Percentile is not the same as percentage

• If a student gets 72 correct answers out of 100 on a

test they earn 72%. If a score of 72 correct answers
corresponds to the 64th percentile, then they did better
than 64% of the students in the class, but still received a
score of 72%.
• A value that "lies outside" (is much smaller or larger
than) most of the other values in a set of data.

• One way to determine if a data point is an outlier is to

use the interquartile range (IQR) method.

• Lower Boundary: Q1 – 1.5 IQR

• Upper Boundary: Q3 + 1.5 IQR

•
•

• : x – scores

– mean

n – number of samples

• : x – scores

– mean

n – number of samples

Find the mean.

Subtract the mean from each of the five
samples/observations.
Squaring these deviations from the mean
Taking the average of these squared deviations.

•
• μ – mean of the population

σ – standard deviation

• and the sample counterpart is

s
• Where: z – z-score

x – value of the element

– mean

s – standard deviation

• Here is how to interpret z-scores:

A z-score less than 0 represents an element
less than the mean.
A z-score greater than 0 represents an element
greater than the mean.
A z-score equal to 0 represents an element
equal to the mean.
A z-score equal to 1 represents an element that
is 1 standard deviation greater than the mean; a
z-score equal to 2, 2 standard deviations greater
than the mean; etc.
A z-score equal to -1 represents an element is 1
standard deviation less than the mean; a z-score
equal to -2, 2 standard deviations less than the
mean; etc.

• These are unit-less and are used when one wishes to

compare the scatter of one distribution with another
distribution.

• – It measures how many

standard deviations is above or below the mean. •

• Not really a measure of relative dispersion but

related

• It is computed as:

• Where: z – z-score

x – value of the element

 • It is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.

• use deductive reasoning to make a

conjecture.

• Consider the following procedure:

a. Pick a number.
– It is a type of reasoning b. Multiply the number by 10.
that uses specific examples to reach a general c. Add 8 to the product.
conclusion. d. Divide the sum by 2, and subtract 4 from the
quotient.
• The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is
called a . • can be solved by using deductive
reasoning and a chart that enables us to display the
• A is an idea that may or may not given information in a visual manner.
be correct.
• Each one – Ann, Enya, Alvin and Johnny
• Use inductive reasoning to predict the have different favorite color among red, blue, green, and
next number of the pattern below. orange. No person’s name contains the same number of
letters as his/her favorite color. Alvin and the boy who
A. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, _____. likes blue live in different parts of town. Red is the
B. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, _____. favorite color of one of the girls. What is each person’s
favorite color?
• Use the data in the table and answer
the following questions. To find each person’s favorite color, we need to look for
some clues:

No person’s name contains the same number of

letters as his/her favorite color.

a. If the earthquake magnitude is 8.5, how high (in Alvin and the boy who likes blue live in different parts
meters) can the tsunami be? of town.
b. Can a tsunami occur when the earthquake
magnitude is less than 7?

• – It is a method that disproving

a conjecture.

• give a counterexample of the following

equation:

Red is the favorite color of one of the girls.

a.

b.

– It is a type of
reasoning that uses general procedures and principles to
reach a conclusion.
Inductive vs Deductive
 visualize the problem situation which may successfully
lead to the desired solution.

Make a table or an organized list

• In this strategy, data or information are organized by

listing them or recording them systematically in tables.

•The data are then analyzed to discover relationships

and patterns and to draw out generalizations or solutions
to the problem.

• In a medical study, patients are classified according to

whether they have blood type A, B, AB or O, and also
according to whether their blood pressure is low, normal,
or high. In how many different ways can a patient thus
be classified.

Strategy 1: Draw a diagram, picture or model

 Strategy 4: Act it out!
• Acting out the Problem is a strategy in which
peoplephysically act out what is taking place in a word
problem.

• One may use people or objects exactly as described

inthe problem, or you might use items that represent the
people or objects.

• Using this strategy, people visualize and stimulate

theactions described in the problem.

A plumber has to connect a pipe from a storage tank at

Strategy 3: GUESS AND CHECK the corner, S, of the roof to a tap at the diagonally
• To use the guess-check strategy, one follows opposite corner, T, in the figure below. Find the number of
thesesteps: paths for the pipe if the pipe can only run along the edges
of walls A, B, or roof C.
• Making a logical guess at the answer. The studentlearns
more about the problem.

• Checking the guess.

• It is important that computation is accurate to

avoidwastage of time and effort by making more
guesses when in fact, the solution might have found
some guesses before.
Strategy 5: Work backwards
• The “Work Backward” method works well for
• To use the guess-check strategy, one follows
problems where a series of operations is done on an
thesesteps:
unknown number and you’re only given the result.
Using the information obtained in checking to
• To use this method, start with the result and
make another guess if necessary. The student is
apply the operations in reverse order until you find the
left to make his guess skip around so he can
starting number.
bracket the right answer.
As to whether the next guess would be a smaller • In a dancing competition all the contestants
or a bigger number depends on how good the skill starteddancing together. After three minutes half the
of the learner is in estimating and logical thinking. people were eliminated. During the next ten minutes half
Continuing the procedure until the correct answer of the remaining were eliminated. At the 15-minute mark,
is obtained. half again were eliminated, and at the 20 minute mark,
half of those still remaining were eliminated. In the last
• Note: Use logical reasoning to minimize the number of two minutes one more contestant was eliminated leaving
trials. a winner of the competition. How many dancers were
there in the beginning?