Sarah Margarette L.

Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

TCAP: DEVP – DAY 1 LECTURE 3. Normative & Nonnormative Influences

 Normative – Common life experiences.

The Study of Human Development o Age-Graded – Similar for a certain age
group (e.g., puberty, retirement)
Definition o History-Graded – Shared by a
generation (e.g., war, technology
 The scientific study of change and stability shifts).
across a lifespan.  Nonnormative – Unusual events that alter
development (e.g., accidents, early death of a
parent).
Life-Span Development Perspective

4. Timing of Influences
 Lifelong process from womb to tomb.
 Can be positive or negative.
 Goals:  Critical Period – A specific window where an
o Describe normal patterns of event (or absence of it) has a major impact.
development.  Sensitive Period – Best time for certain
o Explain how milestones are achieved experiences to occur for optimal development.
or delayed.  Imprinting – Early attachment to the first
o Predict future behaviors. moving object (common in animals).
o Intervene to modify development.  Plasticity – Ability to adapt to changes in life.

Domains of Development

1. Physical – Growth of body, brain, sensory Baltes’s Life-Span Developmental

skills, motor skills, health.
2. Cognitive – Learning, memory, language,
Approach
reasoning, creativity.
3. Psychosocial – Emotions, personality, social 1. Development is lifelong – No period is more
relationships. or less important, every stage affects the next.
2. Development is multidimensional –
Biological, psychological, and social factors
Periods of the Life-Span (Socially Constructed)
interact.
3. Development is multidirectional – Gains in
1. Prenatal – Conception to birth. some areas, losses in others.
2. Infancy & Toddlerhood – Birth to 3 years. 4. Development involves changing resource
3. Early Childhood – 3 to 6 years. allocations – Resources used for growth,
4. Middle Childhood – 6 to 11 years. maintenance, or loss management.
5. Adolescence – 11 to about 20 years. 5. Development shows plasticity – Abilities
6. Emerging & Young Adulthood – 20 to 40 can improve with training and practice.
years. 6. Development is influenced by historical
7. Middle Adulthood – 40 to 65 years. and cultural context – Experiences are
8. Late Adulthood – 65+ years. shaped by social and historical factors.

Influences on Development Theory & Research in Human

Development
1. Heredity, Environment, & Maturation
What is a Theory?
 Heredity (Nature) – Inborn biological traits
inherited from parents.
 Environment (Nurture) – Nonhereditary
 A set of assumptions that helps explain and
predict development.
influences from experience.
 Maturation – Natural progression of physical
 Generates research and forms testable
hypotheses.
and behavioral changes.

Basic Theoretical Issues

2. Context of Development

 Family
 Active vs. Reactive Development
o Nuclear – Parents & children.
o Mechanistic Model (John Locke) –
People react to external stimuli.
o Extended – Includes grandparents,
o Organismic Model (Jean-Jacques
aunts, cousins, etc.
Rousseau) – People actively shape their
 Socioeconomic Status (SES)
own development.
o Measured by income, education,
 Continuous vs. Discontinuous
occupation.
Development
o Lower SES linked to higher
o Continuous (Quantitative) – Gradual
developmental risks.
changes (e.g., vocabulary growth).
 Culture & Ethnicity
o Discontinuous (Qualitative) – Sudden,
o Culture – Shared behaviors, beliefs,
stage-like changes (e.g., puberty).
traditions passed across generations.
 Stable vs. Changing Development
o Ethnicity – Cultural heritage,
o Stability – Traits persist through life
nationality, race, language, religion.
(influenced by heredity).
 Historical Context
o Change – Development can be altered
o Events tied to time & place impact
by new experiences.
development.
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Development is continuous and reactive.

 Includes two major sub-theories: Behaviorism
and Social Learning Approach.
Major Theoretical Perspectives
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
1. Psychoanalytic Perspective (Freud & Erikson)
 Definition: Learning occurs when a neutral
Levels of Mental Life: stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with an
 Conscious: Current awareness. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) until it elicits
 Preconscious: Thoughts easily recalled. a conditioned response (CR).
 Unconscious: Hidden drives and instincts.  Key Terms:
o Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does
Personality Structure: not trigger a response.
o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
Triggers an automatic response.
 Id: Pleasure principle (instincts, desires).
o Unconditioned Response (UCR):
 Ego: Reality principle (rational thinking).
Automatic response to UCS.
 Superego: Moral principle (conscience, ideals).
o Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
Previously neutral stimulus that now
Defense Mechanisms (Ego's way of coping with triggers a response.
anxiety): o Conditioned Response (CR):
Learned response to CS.
 Repression: Pushing painful thoughts into
unconscious. Key Formula
 Denial: Refusing to accept reality.
 Projection: Attributing personal feelings to
others. UCS → UCR
 Reaction Formation: Acting opposite to one's NS + UCS → UCR
feelings. CS → CR
 Regression: Reverting to earlier behaviors.
 Rationalization: Justifying actions with logic. B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
 Identification: Copying behaviors of admired
figures.  Learning through reinforcement and
 Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a punishment.
substitute.  Key Concepts:
 Sublimation: Channeling impulses into o Reinforcement: Increases behavior.
acceptable actions.  Positive Reinforcement:
Adding something pleasant
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages (OAPhaLaGe) (e.g., praise, reward).
 Negative Reinforcement:
1. Oral Stage (0-1 year) – Mouth is the focus; Removing something
sucking, biting. unpleasant (e.g., stopping a
2. Anal Stage (1-3 years) – Toilet training, loud noise).
control over bodily functions. o Punishment: Decreases behavior.
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years) – Awareness of  Can suppress behavior, create
gender differences; Oedipus & Electra complex. negative feelings, and spread
4. Latency Stage (6-Puberty) – Sexual feelings negative effects.
dormant; focus on social/cultural learning.
5. Genital Stage (Puberty-Onward) – Mature
sexual relationships develop.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Extinction – Loss of a learned response due to a

lack of reinforcement.

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

 Learning happens through observation and

modeling.

Key Concepts

 Observational Learning: Learning by

watching others.
2. Learning Perspective  Modeling: Observing and imitating behavior.
 Enactive Learning: Learning through direct
 Development is the result of learning. experience and cognitive evaluation of
 Focuses on observable behavior, not the consequences.
inner workings of the mind.  Triadic Reciprocal Causation: Behavior is
 Views the mind as tabula rasa (blank slate). influenced by:
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

o Environment System Description

o Behavior (e.g., parent-teacher communication).
o Personal Factors (cognition, Indirect influences (e.g., parent’s
emotions, biology) Exosystem
workplace, community services).
Cultural influences (traditions, laws,
Macrosystem
Self-Efficacy values).
Life events and historical changes
Chronosystem
 Belief in one’s ability to influence events and (wars, economic shifts).
outcomes.
 Four Sources: 5. Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective
1. Mastery Experiences: Past success
boosts confidence.
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
2. Social Modeling: Seeing peers
succeed or fail affects self-belief.
3. Social Persuasion: Encouragement  "Survival of the fittest": Traits that help
from others. survival are passed down.
4. Physical & Emotional States: Stress
and anxiety lower self-efficacy. Key Principles
 Proxy Agency: Relying on others for support.
 Collective Efficacy: Group belief in shared
1. Organisms vary.
success.
2. Limited resources cause competition.
3. Some traits are inherited and provide
3. Cognitive Perspective advantages.

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory Ethological Theory

 Cognitive development occurs through:  Behavior is biologically influenced and tied

1. Organization: Categorizing to evolution.
experiences.  Critical periods: Certain behaviors must be
2. Adaptation: Adjusting to new learned at specific times.
information.
 Assimilation: Integrating new Key Figures
info into existing knowledge.
 Accommodation: Changing
cognitive structures to fit new  Konrad Lorenz: Studied imprinting in geese.
info.  John Bowlby: Applied ethology to human
3. Equilibration: Balancing cognitive attachment.
structures and new experiences. o Secure Attachment → Positive
Development
Stages of Cognitive Development
o Insecure Attachment →
Developmental Challenges
o Three Stages of Separation
Anxiety:
1. Protest (crying, seeking
caregiver)
2. Apathy & Despair
(withdrawal, sadness)
3. Emotional Detachment
(reduced bonding with
caregiver)

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The

gap between what a learner can do alone vs.
Research Methods
with help.
 Scaffolding: Temporary support to help Types of Research
learners master a task.
A. Quantitative Research
Information-Processing Approach
 Focuses on numerical data and objective
 Thinking is like a computer system. measurements
 Brain = Hardware, Cognition = Software.  Follows the scientific method:
 Inputs = Sensory Impressions, Outputs = 1. Identify a problem
Behavior. 2. Formulate hypotheses
3. Collect data
4. Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory 4. Perform statistical analysis
5. Draw tentative conclusions
6. Disseminate findings
 Development occurs within overlapping
environmental systems.
B. Qualitative Research

Five Systems
 Explores the how and why of behavior

System Description
Sampling Methods
Immediate surroundings (family,
Microsystem
school, friends).
Mesosystem Interactions between microsystems
 Sample = Smaller group within the population
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Should represent the population adequately  Occurs when the ovum and sperm combine to
 Random selection ensures each person has form a zygote (single cell).
an equal & independent chance of being  Happens in the fallopian tube (pathway:
chosen sperm → vagina → cervix → fallopian tubes).
 If fertilization does not occur, the ovum and
Methods for Collecting Data sperm die:
o Sperm are absorbed by white blood
cells.
1. Self-Report (Diary, visual reports, interviews,
o They pass through the uterus and exit
questionnaires)
through the vagina.
o Participants describe their experiences
verbally or visually
o Can be structured or flexible Multiple Births
2. Naturalistic Observation
o Observing people in their normal Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins
setting
o No interference in behavior  Two separate eggs fertilized by two different
3. Laboratory Observation sperm.
o Conducted in a controlled lab setting  Genetically unique individuals.
o No manipulation of behavior  May have a genetic basis (passed from
4. Behavioral & Performance Measures mother).
o Testing participants' skills, knowledge,
or physical responses Monozygotic (Identical) Twins

Basic Research Designs  One fertilized egg splits into two.

 Genetically identical but may have physical
1. Case Study → In-depth study of one individual differences due to environmental influences.
2. Ethnographic Study → In-depth study of a
culture/subculture Twin-to-Twin Transfusion Syndrome (TTTS)
3. Correlational Study → Examines
relationships (positive/negative) between
variables  Placenta forms abnormally, causing
4. Experiment → Controlled study to determine unequal nutrient distribution.
cause & effect  Environmental differences between twins
o Independent variable is manipulated increase over time.
o Dependent variable is observed for
changes

Time Span of Research Mechanism of Heredity

1. Cross-Sectional → Data collected from people Genetic Code
of different ages at the same time
2. Longitudinal → Data collected from the same
people over time  Genes: Basic functional units of heredity.
3. Sequential → Data collected from multiple  DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
cross-sectional or longitudinal samples o Double-helix structure.
o Carries genetic instructions.
Conducting Ethical Research  Chromosomes:
o 23 pairs (46 total).
o 22 pairs are autosomes (non-sex
1. Informed Consent → Participants must be chromosomes).
fully aware of the study & potential risks o 1 pair is the sex chromosome:
2. Confidentiality → Personal data must remain
 XX = Female
private and, if possible, anonymous
 XY = Male
3. Debriefing → Participants must be informed
about the study’s purpose and methods
afterward Genetic Transmission
4. Deception & Debriefing → Any deception
must be harmless, and participants must be  Dominant Inheritance: Only one dominant
debriefed as soon as possible allele is needed for expression.
 Recessive Inheritance: Both recessive alleles
Ethical Principles for Resolving Dilemmas must be present.
 Homozygous: Identical alleles.
 Heterozygous: Different alleles.
1. Beneficence → Maximize benefits, minimize
 Polygenic Inheritance: Multiple genes
harm
interacting.
2. Respect → Ensure participant autonomy and
protect vulnerable individuals
3. Justice → Fair inclusion of diverse groups & Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities
awareness of special impacts
 Birth defects may result from:
o Dominant or recessive inheritance.
o Sex-linked inheritance.
o Chromosomal abnormalities.
TCAP: DEVP – DAY 2 LECTURE  Genetic counseling helps parents assess
risks.

CONCEIVING NEW LIFE

Behavioral Genetics

Fertilization (Conception)
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Studies heredity vs. environment in human Hazards to Prenatal Development

traits.
 Heritability: Estimate of genetic influence on  Teratogens: Harmful agents (drugs,
traits. infections, chemicals).
 Research methods:  Psychoactive drugs:
o Family studies o Caffeine: Low birth weight.
o Adoption studies o Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Spectrum
o Twin studies Disorders (FASD).
 Heredity and Environment Interactions: o Nicotine: Preterm birth, low birth
o Reaction Range: Potential variability weight, SIDS.
in traits due to environment. o Cocaine, Marijuana, Heroin:
o Canalization: Limits variation in Neurological and cognitive effects.
inherited traits.  Incompatible blood types (Rh factor issues).
o Genotype-Environment Interaction:  Environmental hazards (radiation, toxins).
Genetic differences influencing  Maternal infections can cross the placenta.
response to environment.
o Genotype-Environment
Prenatal Care
Correlation:
 Passive: Parents provide
genes and environment.  Screening tests: Ultrasound, amniocentesis,
 Reactive (Evocative): blood tests.
Environment responds to  Early care improves outcomes (reduces
inherited traits. mortality, birth defects).
 Active: Child seeks
environments matching genetic
tendencies.
o Nonshared Environmental Effects:
Differences between siblings due to Birth Process
unique environments.
 Parturition: Labor process starts 2 weeks
before delivery.
 False contractions (Braxton-Hicks):
Common in final months.
Prenatal Development
Stages of Childbirth
Gestational Age
1. Dilation (Longest stage, 12-14 hours)
 Measured from the first day of last o Contractions start 15-20 min apart → 2-
menstrual cycle. 5 min apart.
o Ends when cervix reaches 10 cm.
Stages of Prenatal Development 2. Descent and Emergence of Baby (Up to 1
hour)
o Baby moves through birth canal.
1. Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 weeks)
o Zygote forms, divides, and implants in o Ends when baby is fully out.
uterus. 3. Expulsion of Placenta (Afterbirth)
o Blastocyst attaches to uterine wall. o Placenta and umbilical cord are
o Three layers form: expelled.
 Ectoderm (nervous system,
skin, sensory organs).
 Mesoderm (circulatory, bones,
muscles, reproductive system).
 Endoderm (digestive, Neonatal Period (First 4 weeks of
respiratory systems). life)
2. Embryonic Stage (2 to 8 weeks)
o Organogenesis: Major body systems Physical Characteristics
develop.
o Amniotic sac: Protects embryo.
o Placenta: Transfers oxygen, nutrients,  Fontanels: Soft spots on the head.
and waste.
 Lanugo: Fine hair covering body.
o Critical Period: High vulnerability to  Vernix Caseosa: Protective waxy coating.
teratogens.
o Spontaneous Abortion Body Systems & Risks
(Miscarriage): Loss before 20 weeks.
3. Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth)  Breathing starts within 5 minutes (Risk:
o First bone cells appear. Anoxia/Hypoxia).
o Milestones:  Meconium: First stool.
 3rd month: Sex detectable.  Jaundice: Immature liver, temporary
 4th month: Quickening (fetal yellowing.
movements felt).
 5th month: Preference for a Complications of Childbirth
position.
 6th month: Viability possible.
 7th month: Fully developed  Low Birth Weight (LBW): Below 2,500 grams
(5 lbs).
reflexes.
 8th month: Fat layer forms. o Preterm (<37 weeks).
 9th month: Growth stops o Small-for-date (Full term but
before birth. underweight).
o Very-Low-Birthweight (Higher risk of
complications).
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Interventions:  Locomotor Reflexes: Pre-walking behaviors

o Kangaroo Care (Skin-to-skin contact). (e.g., stepping, swimming reflex).
o Gentle Massage (Stimulates growth).  Reflexes disappear within 6-12 months,
except protective ones (blinking, sneezing,
etc.).
Postmature & Stillbirth

Plasticity
 Postmature: Born after 42 weeks.
o Risks: Birth complications, cesarean
delivery.  Brain is malleable, shaped by experiences.
 Stillbirth: Death at or after 20 weeks.  Enriched environments aid development;
o Causes often unclear but linked to harmful ones cause damage.
malnutrition, abnormalities.
Sensory Development
INFANCY & TODDLERHOOD
 Touch: First sense to develop.
(BIRTH – AGE 3)  Smell & Taste: Develop in the womb.
 Hearing: Functional in third trimester.
o Loudness: Newborns struggle with
Physical Development soft sounds.
o Pitch: Prefer high-pitched sounds.
Growth Principles o Localization: Identifies sound
direction by 6 months.
 Cephalocaudal: Development from top to
 Vision: Least developed sense at birth.
bottom (head to feet).
o Newborns: Vision 20/240.
 Proximodistal: Development from inner to o 6 months: Vision improves to 40/60.
outer (core to extremities). o 8 months: Near 20/20 vision.
o Perceptual constancy aids object
recognition.
Growth Pattern
o Faces are key visual stimuli.
 Rapid growth during the first year, then slows
down. Motor Development
 Influenced by genes and environment
(nutrition, living conditions).  Develops in stages with milestones.
 Breastfeeding supports health, sensory, and  Systems of Action: Coordinated movements
cognitive benefits. improve interaction with the environment.
 Growth occurs in spurts, not continuously.  Denver Developmental Screening Test:
Assesses motor & language skills.
Brain Development
Key Motor Milestones
 At birth, the brain is 25% of its adult weight.
 Brain growth spurts happen in phases.  Head Control: Can turn head at birth.
 Hand Control:
Major Brain Parts o 3.5 months: Can grasp objects.
o 7-11 months: Uses pincer grasp.
o 15 months: Builds towers.
 Brain Stem: Basic functions (breathing, heart
o 3 years: Copies circles.
rate, sleep-wake cycle).
 Cerebellum: Balance and motor coordination.
 Locomotion:
 Cerebrum: Largest part, divided into left
o 3 months: Rolls over.
(language, logic) & right (visual, spatial) o 6 months: Sits without support.
hemispheres. o 6-10 months: Crawls.
 Corpus Callosum: Connects hemispheres, o 7 months: Stands with support.
grows until age 10. o 11.5 months: Stands alone.
 Cerebral Cortex: Controls sensory functions o 12+ months: Walks independently.
(vision, hearing, touch). o 2 years: Climbs stairs, jumps.
o 3.5 years: Balances, hops.
Brain Cells & Functions
Motor Development & Perception
 Neurons: Send & receive information.
 Glia Cells: Nourish and protect neurons.  Visual Guidance: Using eyes to guide
 Axons: Send signals. movements.
 Dendrites: Receive signals.  Depth Perception: Seeing objects in 3D.
 Synapses: Tiny gaps for neuron  Haptic Perception: Learning about objects
communication via neurotransmitters. through touch.
 Myelination: Coating neural pathways for
faster communication.
Theories of Motor & Perceptual Development
o Peaks 12-16 months; slows from 2-5
years.
o By 5 years, brain reaches 80% of  Gibson’s Ecological Theory: Interaction with
adult white matter volume. the environment shapes perception.
 Helen’s Dynamic Systems Theory: Motor
development is a coordinated process
Reflexes between body & environment.

 Primitive Reflexes: Survival instincts (e.g.,

sucking, grasping, Moro reflex).
 Postural Reflexes: Reaction to balance
changes. Cognitive Development
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

Six Approaches to Studying Cognitive  Analysis of Tasks: Researchers break down

Development complex tasks to identify required abilities and
their developmental stages.
1. Behaviorist Approach: Learning mechanics.  Habituation: Learning where repeated
2. Psychometric Approach: Intelligence exposure to a stimulus reduces attention (like
measurement. boredom).
3. Piagetian Approach: Cognitive development o Faster habituation = higher interest in
stages. new stimuli.
4. Information-Processing Approach: Memory o Indicator: Baby stops sucking when
& problem-solving. interested; resumes when novelty
5. Cognitive Neuroscience Approach: Brain fades.
structures in cognition.  Dishabituation: Increased responsiveness to
6. Social-Contextual Approach: Environmental a new stimulus.
influence.  Joint Attention: Two or more individuals focus
on the same object/event.
Behaviorist Approach
Tools for Infant Research
 Classical Conditioning: Learning by
association.  Visual Preference: Infants look longer at
 Operant Conditioning: Learning through certain stimuli.
consequences.  Visual Recognition Memory: Recognizing
familiar stimuli over unfamiliar ones.
Psychometric Approach
Cognitive Neuroscience Approach
 IQ Tests: Measure intelligence against
standardized norms.  Brain Structures & Cognition:
 Bayley Scales of Infant Development: o Implicit Memory: Unconscious,
o Measures cognitive, language, automatic memory.
motor, social-emotional, and o Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of
adaptive behavior. facts/events.
 HOME (Home Observation for o Hippocampus: Enables longer-lasting
Measurement of Environment): memories.
o Assesses home environment’s impact o Prefrontal Cortex (2nd half of 1st
on intelligence. year): Develops working memory.
 Early Intervention Programs:
o Provide education, healthcare, and Social Contextual Approach
family support.
 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Cultural
Piagetian Approach context influences cognitive competence.
 Guided Participation: Adults help structure
 Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Learning activities to enhance understanding.
through sensory & motor activity.  Educational Influence: Effective in classroom
 Circular Reactions: Repeating actions for learning through interaction and play.
results.
 Object Permanence: Understanding objects
exist when out of sight.

Sensorimotor Substages Language Development

1. Simple Reflexes (0-1 month): Reflexive  Language: System of communication using

responses. words and grammar.
2. First Habits & Primary Circular Reactions  Prelinguistic Speech: Babies express needs
(1-4 months): Repeating enjoyable actions. through sounds (crying → cooing → babbling →
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 imitation).
months): Repeating actions on objects.
4. Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8- Sequence of Development
12 months): Goal-directed behavior.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18
months): Experimenting with objects.  Early Vocalizations:
6. Internalization of Schemes (18-24 o Crying: First form of communication.
months): Mental problem-solving. o Cooing (6 wks-3 mos): Squeals,
vowel sounds ("ahhh").
o Babbling (6-10 mos): Repeated
 A-not-B Error: Infants look for an object in a
consonant-vowel strings ("ma-ma-ma").
familiar hiding place rather than a new one.
 Gestures (7-15 mos): Used before spoken
vocabulary develops.
Nature vs. Nurture in Perceptual Development  First Words: Receptive vocabulary
(understanding) develops before spoken
 Nativists: Perception is innate. vocabulary.
 Empiricists: Perception develops through  Holophrase: Single word conveying full
experience. thought.
 Modern View: Both nature & nurture shape  First Sentences (18-24 mos): Two-word
development. combinations.
 Telegraphic Speech: Short, essential-word
sentences.
Information Processing Approach
 Syntax: Rules for sentence formation.

Characteristics of Early Speech

 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Simplification: Using shorter, easier words. Gender Development

 Overregularization: Misapplying grammar
rules.  Behavioral Differences: Toy/playmate
 Underextension/Overextension: Using preferences, play styles.
words too narrowly/broadly.  Gender Typing: Learning socially appropriate
gender roles.
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Developmental Issues in Infancy
 Learned Language (Skinner): Based on
experience, imitation, reinforcement.  Trust vs. Mistrust (Erikson, 0-18 mos):
 Inborn Language (Chomsky): Language Need balance between trust and mistrust.
Acquisition Device (LAD) aids rule discovery.  Attachment: Emotional bond between infant
 Intertwining Factors: Biological capacity + and caregiver.
experience. o The Strange Situation (Ainsworth):
Assesses attachment types.
Influences on Language Development o Attachment Patterns:
 Secure: Seeks comfort from
 Brain Development: Exposure shapes brain caregiver.
functions.  Avoidant: Minimal distress,
 Social Interaction: Live interaction enhances avoids contact.
learning.  Ambivalent: Anxious, both
 Child-Directed Speech (CDS): Exaggerated, seeks/resists contact.
engaging speech aids language learning.  Disorganized-Disoriented:
Confused, contradictory
behaviors.
 Stranger & Separation Anxiety:
o Stranger Anxiety (8-9 mos): Fear of
Psychosocial Development unfamiliar people.
o Separation Anxiety: Distress when
caregiver leaves.
Personality & Emotions  Emotional Communication:
o Mutual Regulation: Infant &
 Personality: Consistent blend of emotions, caregiver adjust emotional states.
thoughts, and behaviors. o Social Referencing: Using others’
 Emotions: Subjective reactions with cues to interpret situations.
physiological and behavioral responses.
 Crying & Smiling: First forms of emotional
Developmental Issues in Toddlerhood
communication.
 Types of Crying:
o Basic Cry: Rhythmic pattern; often  Sense of Self:
due to hunger. o Self-Concept: Awareness of personal
o Angry Cry: More forceful air release. abilities/traits.
o Pain Cry: Sudden loud cry, no pre- o Self-Coherence: Understanding self
warning. as a distinct entity.
o Frustration Cry: Drawn-out cries, no o Self-Awareness: Recognition of self.
breath-holding.  Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Erikson, 18
 Types of Smiling: mos-3 yrs):
o Reflexive (1st month): Not response- o Balance between self-determination
based. and external control.
o Social (2 mos): Response to  Moral Development:
caregivers. o Socialization: Learning societal
o Anticipatory (8-10 mos): Smile at habits, values, and behaviors.
object → look at adult. o Internalization: Adopting social
standards as one’s own.
 Self-Regulation: Independent behavioral
Development of Emotions
control.
 Committed Compliance & Conscience:
 Primary Emotions (0-6 mos): Surprise, joy, o Situational Compliance: Obedience
anger, sadness, fear, disgust. under parental presence.
 Self-Conscious Emotions (15-24 mos): o Committed Compliance: Obedience
Embarrassment, empathy, envy. without reminders.
 Self-Evaluative Emotions (2.5-3 yrs): Pride, o Receptive Cooperation: Willingness
shame, guilt. to cooperate with caregivers.
 Altruism & Empathy: Recognizing others'
emotions, offering help.

Temperament
TCAP: DEVP – DAY 3 LECTURE
 Easy (40%): Happy, adaptable, rhythmic.
 Difficult (10%): Irritable, intense, irregular EARLY CHILDHOOD (3-6 Y/O)
routines.
 Slow-to-Warm-Up (15%): Mild but slow
adaptation. Physical Development
 Goodness of Fit: Match between child’s
temperament and environment. Bodily Growth and Changes
 Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition: How
boldly/cautiously children approach new
situations.  Rapid growth continues but at a slower rate.
 At around age 3, children develop a more
slender, athletic appearance.
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Boys generally have a slight edge in height and  Cardinality Principle: Recognizing total
weight until puberty. quantity, regardless of arrangement (develops
 Muscular and skeletal growth advances. by age 3½).

Sleep Patterns and Problems Limitations of Preoperational Thought

 Sleep occurs in one long nighttime period.  Centration: Focusing on one aspect &
 Common but temporary sleep issues include: neglecting others.
o Night terrors  Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing others'
o Sleepwalking & talking perspectives.
o Nightmares  Conservation: Struggle to understand that
o Enuresis (bedwetting) quantities remain the same despite changes in
appearance.
 Irreversibility: Cannot mentally reverse
Brain Development actions.

 The most rapid brain growth occurs in the Theory of Mind

frontal areas (regulating planning & goal
setting).
 Age 3-5: Develop awareness of different
mental states.
Motor Development  Age 5-6: Understand false beliefs & the
distinction between appearance and reality.
 Gross motor skills: Improve large muscle
movement (e.g., running, jumping). Memory Development (Information-Processing
 Fine motor skills: Improve small muscle Approach)
control & eye-hand coordination.
 System of action: Skills combine into more
complex actions.  Three memory processes:
 Handedness: Evident by age 3 (debated as o Encoding (processing for storage)
genetic or environmental). o Storage (retaining information)
o Retrieval (recalling stored information)
Health and Safety  Types of memory:
o Sensory memory (brief)
o Working memory (actively processed)
 Obesity: A growing concern. o Long-term memory (large capacity,
 Undernutrition: Linked to poverty; stunted
long-term storage)
growth is a risk.
 Memory forms:
 Food allergies: Increasing in children; many
o Recognition (identifying seen items)
outgrow them.
 Dental health: Primary teeth fully in place by
o Recall (reproducing from memory)
age 3; permanent teeth develop by age 6. o Generic memory (scripts for routine
 Environmental risks: Exposure to poverty, events)
pollution, smoking, pesticides, and lead o Episodic memory (specific events, time
poisoning can cause physical and cognitive & place)
issues. o Autobiographical memory (personal
experiences, develops by 3-4 years old)

Language Development

Cognitive Development  Vocabulary Growth:

o Age 3: 900-1,000 words
Piagetian Approach: Preoperational Stage (2-7 o Age 6: 2,600 words (expressive),
years) understands 20,000+
 Fast mapping: Learning words quickly after
 Symbolic thought develops: Children use minimal exposure.
mental representations for meaning.  Grammar & Syntax Progression:
 Key abilities: o Age 3: Basic plurals, possessives, past
o Deferred imitation (copying actions tense.
later) o Age 5-7: Adult-like speech.
o Pretend play (fantasy, imaginative  Private Speech: Talking to oneself; viewed by
play) Vygotsky as aiding learning.
o Understanding spatial relationships  Delayed Language Development: More
(pictures, maps, scale models) common in boys; some catch up, but early
delays can have long-term effects.
Understanding of Causality
Early Literacy Development
 Transduction: Mentally linking events, even
without logical connections.  Emergent literacy: Early skills, knowledge, &
attitudes leading to reading & writing.
 Media influence: Age-appropriate
Understanding of Identities & Categorization programming supports cognitive development.

 Identities: Recognizing consistency in people

& objects.
 Classification: By age 4, can sort objects by
two criteria. Psychosocial Development
 Animism: Attributing life to inanimate objects.
Self-Concept & Self-Esteem
Understanding of Numbers
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Self-concept: Understanding of self, 2. Permissive: Lax rules, child-driven.

influenced by culture. 3. Authoritative: Balanced, firm but nurturing.
 Self-esteem: Young children often 4. Neglectful: Little involvement.
overestimate their abilities.
 Learned helplessness: Some children
become demoralized when they fail.

Emotional Regulation & Social Emotions SPECIAL BEHAVIORAL CONCERNS

 Emotional awareness improves by age 5-9. Prosocial Behavior & Altruism

 Social emotions (e.g., guilt, shame,
pride): Develop by age 3.  Acts of kindness without expecting rewards.

Aggression

 Instrumental: Goal-driven.
 Overt (direct): Openly directed.
Erikson’s Initiative vs. Guilt Stage (3-6 years)  Relational: Aimed at harming relationships.

 Children balance independence with social Fearfulness

norms.
 Common due to active imagination & difficulty
Gender Development distinguishing reality.

 Gender identity: Awareness of being male or

female (develops early). MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6-11 Y/O)
 Theories of gender development:
o Biological
o Evolutionary Physical Development
o Psychoanalytic (Freud)
o Cognitive (Kohlberg)  Growth slows considerably.
o Gender-schema (Bem)  Children grow 2 to 3 inches per year and
o Social Learning (Bandura, Mischel) nearly double their weight between ages 6
and 11.
 Permanent teeth start to emerge.
 Sleep needs decrease from 12.5 hours/day
(ages 3-5) to 10 hours/day (ages 6-13).
PLAY & SOCIALIZATION  Brain development: Gray matter volume
peaks at different times in different lobes.
Cognitive Levels of Play (Smilansky)  Motor skills improve with recess activities
and organized sports.
 Body image awareness begins early in
1. Functional Play: Repetitive muscle movements. middle childhood.
2. Constructive Play: Creating things.
3. Dramatic Play: Role-playing, imagination.
4. Formal Games with Rules: Organized play.

Social Levels of Play Cognitive Development

 Solitary play: Independent. Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-12)
 Parallel play: Playing near but not with
others.
 Associative play: Sharing toys but no
 Logical but not abstract thinking
develops.
organized goals.
 Cooperative play: Structured group activities.
 Key cognitive skills:
o Spatial relationships (understanding
maps, estimating distances,
recognizing landmarks)
o Causality (understanding cause and
PARENTING & DISCIPLINE effect relationships)
o Categorization:
 Seriation (arranging items by
Forms of Discipline
size, number, or other
dimensions)
 Inductive techniques: Teach reasoning &  Transitive inference
fairness. (understanding relationships
 Power assertion: Enforce control. between objects via a third
 Withdrawal of love: Ignoring or isolating (can object)
be harmful).  Class inclusion
 Reinforcement & punishment: (understanding the relationship
o External: Tangible rewards. between a whole and its parts)
o Internal: Sense of accomplishment.  Reasoning Skills:
o Punishment should be immediate, o Inductive reasoning (from specific
consistent, & tied to the offense. observations to general conclusions)
o Deductive reasoning (from general
Parenting Styles (Baumrind & Others) principles to specific conclusions)
 Conservation (understanding identity,
reversibility, and decentering)
1. Authoritarian: Strict & controlling.
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Mathematical abilities develop.  Erikson’s Industry vs. Inferiority Stage

(Ages 7-13):
Information-Processing Approach o Developing productive skills vs. feeling
incompetent.
o Parental influence is crucial in
 Executive Functioning (control of thoughts,
shaping self-confidence.
emotions, and actions)
 Selective Attention (focusing on relevant
information while ignoring distractions) Family and Social Influences
 Working Memory (holding and manipulating
information for short-term use)  Coregulation: Parents provide general
 Memory Strategies: guidance while children self-regulate.
o Mnemonic devices (memory aids)  Family conflict increases risk of
o External memory aids (using behavioral issues.
external tools, e.g., notes)  Effects of different family structures:
o Rehearsal (repeating information) o Divorce: Stressful, but joint custody
o Organization (grouping information) benefits children.
o Elaboration (linking new information o Single-parent families: Challenges
with existing knowledge) mostly tied to socioeconomic factors.
 Metamemory (understanding how memory o Cohabiting families: Similar to
works) married families but often more
disadvantaged.
Intelligence Assessment o Stepfamilies: Adjusting can be
difficult due to loyalty conflicts.
o Adoptive families: Some adjustment
 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
challenges, but most children develop
(WISC-IV): Individual intelligence test.
normally.
 Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT8):
Group intelligence test.
 Psychometric tests are controversial due Peer Relationships and Social Development
to cultural and socio-economic biases.
 Peer groups help children learn cooperation
Theories of Intelligence but can also encourage negative behaviors.
 Friendship Stages (Selman):
1. Momentary Playmateship (3-7) –
 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences:
Based on physical/material attributes.
o Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, 2. One-Way Assistance (4-9) – Friends
Spatial, Musical, Bodily- must meet personal needs.
Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, 3. Two-Way Fair-Weather
Intrapersonal, Naturalist Cooperation (6-12) – Reciprocal but
 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: still self-centered.
o Componential (analytical), 4. Intimate, Mutually Shared
Experiential (creative), Contextual Relationships (9-15) – Commitment
(practical) and exclusivity.
5. Autonomous Interdependence
Language and Literacy (12+) – Balance of dependency and
independence.
 Vocabulary, grammar, and syntax become  Bullying and Aggression:
more sophisticated.
 Pragmatics (social language skills) o Hostile aggression increases while
develop. instrumental aggression declines.
 Second-language learning methods: o Hostile attribution bias: Perceiving
English immersion, bilingual education, dual- others as threats leads to retaliation.
language learning. o Media exposure (especially violent
 Early phonetic training is key to reading video games) can increase aggression.
proficiency.
Emotional and Behavioral Issues
Special Education Needs
 Disruptive Conduct Disorders:
 Learning Disabilities: o Oppositional Defiant Disorder
o Dyslexia: Difficulty in reading. (ODD): Persistent negativity and
o Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity defiance.
Disorder (ADHD): Persistent o Conduct Disorder: Aggressive,
inattention, impulsivity, and antisocial behavior violating social
overactivity. norms.
 Support for children with disabilities:  Anxiety Disorders:
Inclusion programs, specialized instruction. o School Phobia, Separation Anxiety,
 Gifted children: IQ 130+. Benefit from Social Phobia, Generalized Anxiety,
enrichment and acceleration programs. OCD.
 Childhood Depression:
o Symptoms include social withdrawal,
lack of concentration, low self-
worth, fatigue, and suicidal
Psychosocial Development thoughts.

Self-Concept and Identity Treatment Approaches

 Representational Systems (integration of  Psychotherapy: One-on-one sessions with a

multiple self-concepts) therapist.
 Real self vs. Ideal self  Family Therapy: Analyzing family dynamics.
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Behavior Therapy: Encouraging positive Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)
behaviors (behavior modification).
 Art Therapy: Expressing emotions through  Highest level of cognitive development.
creative activities.  Abilities include:
 Play Therapy: Using play to process o Abstract thinking.
emotions. o Symbolic reasoning.
 Drug Therapy: Medications for emotional
o Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
disorders.
(forming/testing hypotheses).
o Understanding deeper meanings in
literature.

Elkind’s Adolescent Egocentrism

TCAP: DEVP – DAY 4 LECTURE
ADOLESCENTS (11-19/20 Y/O)  Egocentrism: Seeing the world only from their
own perspective.
 Imaginary Audience: Belief that everyone is
Adolescence: Developmental transition between watching them.
childhood and adulthood involving major physical,  Personal Fable: Belief that their experiences
cognitive, and psychosocial changes. are unique and they are invincible.
Puberty: Process of reaching sexual maturity and the
ability to reproduce.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development

 Heinz Dilemma: Ethical test of morality.

 Levels of Moral Reasoning:
Physical Development o Preconventional (4-10): External
control (avoiding punishment, self-
interest).
Puberty and Sexual Maturity o Conventional (10-13+): Social
approval and rule-following.
 Begins around age 8 (girls) and age 9 (boys); o Postconventional (adolescence or
lasts about 3-4 years. adulthood, if ever): Moral principles
 Primary Sex Characteristics (reproductive and justice-based reasoning.
organs):
o Females: Ovaries, fallopian tubes,
uterus, clitoris, vagina.
o Males: Testes, penis, scrotum, seminal
vesicles, prostate gland. Psychosocial Development
 Secondary Sex Characteristics (non-
reproductive traits): Development of body hair,
voice deepening, breast development, etc. Erikson’s Identity vs. Identity Confusion (12-19
 Growth Spurt: Rapid increase in height and years)
weight before sexual maturity.
o Girls: Growth spurt starts earlier  Identity: Coherent sense of self (values,
(around 2 years before boys), full beliefs, goals).
height by 15.  Key questions:
o Boys: Full height by 17. 1. What occupation to choose?
2. What values to live by?
3. What is my sexual identity?
The Adolescent Brain

Marcia’s Identity Statuses

 Immature brain leads to impulsivity and risk-
taking.
 Limbic system (emotion/reward center)  Identity Achievement: Commitment after
develops faster than the prefrontal cortex exploring options.
(logic, decision-making).  Foreclosure: Commitment without
 Susceptible to positive (learning) and negative exploration.
(substance abuse) environmental influences.  Moratorium: Exploration without
commitment.
 Identity Diffusion: No exploration or
Physical and Mental Health
commitment.

 Sleep deprivation due to late melatonin release

Sexuality
and early school schedules.
 Body Image Issues: Can lead to eating
disorders:  Sexual orientation typically becomes clearer
o Anorexia nervosa: Self-starvation. during adolescence.
o Bulimia nervosa: Binge eating +  Terms:
purging. o Heterosexual: Attraction to the
o Binge Eating Disorder: Loss of opposite sex.
control over eating. o Homosexual: Attraction to the same
 Substance Abuse & Depression: More sex.
common during adolescence. o Bisexual: Attraction to both sexes.
 Leading causes of death: Vehicle accidents, o Transgender: Gender identity differs
firearms, suicide. from biological sex.
o Transsexual: Permanent transition to
preferred gender.
o Genderqueer: Non-binary gender
identity.
Cognitive Development  Factors influencing early sexual activity:
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

o Early puberty, poverty, school  Postformal Thought: Combines logic with

struggles, history of abuse, family experience and intuition, allowing for ambiguity
influence. and uncertainty
 Concerns:
o Sexually Transmitted Infections Schaie’s Life-Span Model of Cognitive
(STIs) Development
o Teen Pregnancy
1. Acquisitive Stage (childhood-adolescence):
Relationships with Family, Peers, and Society Acquiring knowledge for future use
2. Achieving Stage (late teens-early 30s):
 Adolescent Rebellion: Emotional turmoil Applying knowledge to achieve life goals
(rare, usually linked to poor parenting). (career, family)
 Individuation: Struggle for autonomy and 3. Responsible Stage (late 30s-60s): Solving
identity. problems related to social responsibilities
 Parenting Influence: 4. Executive Stage (30s-40s to middle age):
o Authoritative parenting fosters Managing societal systems or movements
healthy development. 5. Reorganizational Stage (late middle age-
o Teens tend to disclose more early old age): Redirecting intellect into
meaningful post-work activities
information to parents.
6. Reintegrative Stage (late adulthood):
 Sibling Relationships: Become more equal
Prioritizing meaningful tasks due to cognitive
but less close.
changes
 Peer Influence:
7. Legacy-Creating Stage (advanced old age):
o Cliques: Small, structured friend
Preserving memories and life lessons
groups.
o Crowds: Larger groups based on
reputation/identity. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
o Peer influence peaks at 12-13 and
declines later.  Componential intelligence: Analytical
 Friendships: More intense and significant problem-solving
than at any other life stage.  Experiential intelligence: Applying
 Romantic Relationships: By 16, central to knowledge creatively
social life.  Contextual intelligence: Practical, real-world
adaptability
 Tacit knowledge: Unspoken knowledge
crucial for success
o Self-management: Motivation, time,
EMERGING ADULT (20-40 Y/O) and energy organization
o Task management: Completing
Definition and Characteristics projects efficiently
o People management: Knowing how
to guide or critique others
 Transition from adolescence to adulthood
(approx. 18-25 years old)
 Marked by experimentation and exploration Emotional Intelligence (Salovey & Mayer)

 Understanding and regulating emotions

 Skills include:
o Perceiving emotions
Physical Development o Using emotions effectively
o Understanding emotions
 Young adults are generally in good physical o Managing emotions
condition
 Peak performance occurs between 19-26 Moral Reasoning (Kohlberg)
years old
 Physical decline starts around 30 years old
 Sexual and reproductive activities are
 Becomes more complex in adulthood,
influenced by experience and abstract thinking
prominent
 Sexual double standard persists (sexual
script) Education & Work
 Casual sex is more common than in late
twenties (e.g., FWB - Friends with Benefits)  College can enhance intellectual growth and
 Health concerns: personal development
o Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)  Substantive Complexity: Work requiring
o Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) independent judgment
o Infertility (Women’s fertility declines in  Spillover Hypothesis: Cognitive skills from
late 20s; substantial decrease in 30s. work carry over to personal life
Men’s fertility declines in late 30s)

Psychosocial Development
Cognitive Development

Neo-Piagetian Approach
Patterns & Tasks
 Reflective Thinking (John Dewey):
Thoughtful, evidence-based decision-making  Traditional markers of adulthood: leaving
home, marriage, children, career
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Emerging adulthood: A period of exploration Marital & Nonmarital Lifestyles

before full responsibilities
 Recentering Process:  Increasing number of people postpone or avoid
1. Stage 1: Embedded in family but marriage
increasing independence  Reasons for staying single:
2. Stage 2: Connected to family but o Career
experimenting with independence o Personal freedom
(college, jobs, relationships)
o Financial constraints
3. Stage 3: Full independence,
commitment to career, relationships, o Fear of divorce
and possibly children  Cohabitation is rising as a marriage
alternative
 Marriage:
Personality Development o Universal across cultures
o Meets economic, emotional, sexual,
 Normative-Stage Models (Erikson’s social, and parenting needs
Intimacy vs. Isolation, 19-40 y/o) o Varying mate selection & expectations
o Developing deep, lasting relationships across cultures
o Resolution leads to love (mutual o Differing expectations impact marital
devotion, partnership, potential satisfaction
parenthood)
 Timing-of-Events Model: Life experiences
Parenthood
based on expected vs. unexpected events
o Social Clock: Cultural expectations of
life milestones (marriage, parenthood,  Women are having fewer children later in
career) life
 Trait Models (Five-Factor Theory, Costa &  Fathers are more involved than before
McCrae):  Marital satisfaction declines during child-
o Openness to Experience: Inventive rearing years
vs. cautious  Dual-earner couples face more stress, often
o Conscientiousness: Organized vs. affecting women more
careless  Family-friendly workplaces can alleviate
o Extroversion: Outgoing vs. reserved stress
o Agreeableness: Compassionate vs.
unkind When Marriage Ends
o Neuroticism: Sensitive vs. secure
 Typological Models  Divorce rates have declined (due to later
o Ego-resilient: Well-adjusted marriages, higher education, and increased
o Overcontrolled: Shy, anxious, cohabitation)
dependent  Key to adjusting to divorce: Emotional
o Undercontrolled: Impulsive, distance from ex-partner
distractible  Many remarry, but second marriages are
o Ego-resiliency: Ability to adapt to less stable
environmental influences  Stepfamilies go through various adjustment
o Ego-control: Self-regulation of stages
impulses

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40-65 Y/O)

INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS Middle Age: An Overview

 Key factors for relationships:  Defined as the years between 40 and 65 but
o Self-awareness varies among individuals.
o Empathy  Life path diversity: Can be a time of growth
o Communication skills and competence or decline and loss.
o Conflict resolution  Marked by individual differences in
o Commitment experiences and challenges.
 Expressions of intimacy:  Middle age is influenced by personal choices,
o Friendship: Largest social networks, cultural expectations, and societal roles.
but often unstable  This period is often characterized by a greater
o Love (Sternberg’s Triangular Theory): sense of self-awareness and
reassessment of priorities.
 Intimacy (emotional
connection)
 Passion (physical attraction,
desire)
 Commitment (decision to love
and stay together) Physical Development
 Types of Love:
o Liking: Only intimacy Physical Changes
o Infatuation: Only passion
o Empty Love: Only commitment  Vision:
o Romantic Love: Intimacy + Passion o Presbyopia – difficulty focusing on
o Companionate Love: Intimacy + near objects.
Commitment o Myopia – nearsightedness.
o Fatuous Love: Passion + Commitment o Reduced dynamic vision, light
o Consummate Love: All three sensitivity, and processing speed.
components  Hearing:
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

o Presbycusis – age-related hearing loss o Meaning-focused rather than just

(accelerates after 55, especially for factual.
high frequencies).
 Taste & Smell: Work & Education
o Decline in taste bud sensitivity and
olfactory cells.
 Muscles & Metabolism:  Retirement Transitions:
o Muscle loss noticeable by age 45 o Phased retirement – gradually
(replaced by fat). reducing work hours.
o Basal metabolism decreases, o Bridge retirement – shifting to a new
reducing energy needs. career.
 Brain Function:  Why Work Continues:
o Slower processing, difficulty o Financial stability, social engagement,
multitasking. mental stimulation.
 Appearance:
o Meaningful work enhances cognitive
o More noticeable changes in skin, hair, function.
and body shape.

Sexuality & Reproduction

Psychosocial Development
 Women:
o Menopause (ages 45-55) – cessation
Personality & Developmental Theories
of menstruation and fertility.
o Perimenopause – decline in ovulation
and estrogen, irregular periods.  Five-Factor Theory (Costa & McCrae):
 Men: Personality traits can change.
o Testosterone decline begins around  Erikson’s Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-
age 30. 65 years):
o Erectile dysfunction may occur. o Generativity: Leaving a legacy,
 Sexuality remains significant for both guiding the next generation.
genders. o Stagnation: Self-absorption, lack of
purpose.
o Virtue: Care – nurturing concern for
Health & Wellness others.

 Major Health Concerns: Midlife Transition & Identity

o Hypertension, cancer, diabetes
increase.
o Postmenopausal risks: Heart  The Social Clock: Development is influenced
disease, osteoporosis, breast cancer. by life events, not just age.
o Hormone therapy – effective but has  Midlife Crisis – Myth or Reality?
o Often exaggerated; more commonly a
risks.
 Lifestyle & Health: turning point.
o Diet, exercise, smoking, and o Midlife review – reassessing values,
alcohol impact health. priorities, and identity.
o Low income correlates with poorer o Ego-resiliency – adapting to stress
health. and change.
 Stress & Mental Health:  Identity Development (Whitbourne’s
o Chronic stress weakens the immune Theory):
o Identity schemas – evolving self-
system.
o Resilience and positive emotions perception.
o Identity assimilation – fitting
promote well-being.
experiences into current identity.
o Identity accommodation – adjusting
identity to new experiences.
o Narrative Psychology: Identity
shaped by life stories.
Cognitive Development
Social Relationships & Support
Intelligence & Learning

Social Contact Theories

 Seattle Longitudinal Study (Schaie):
o Middle-aged adults are at their
cognitive peak.  Social Convoy Theory (Kahn & Antonucci):
 Horn & Cattell’s Intelligence Theory: o Individuals have evolving social
o Fluid Intelligence – problem-solving; support networks.
peaks in young adulthood.  Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
o Crystallized Intelligence – (Carstensen):
accumulated knowledge; grows o Prioritization of meaningful social
through middle age. connections with age.

Adult Thought Processes Marriage, Divorce, & Relationships

 Expertise & Problem-Solving:  Midlife divorce – financial/emotional

o Specialized knowledge compensates consequences.
for slower processing.  Marital capital – investments in long-term
o Encapsulation – expertise helps relationships.
process information efficiently.  LGBTQ+ relationships – may form later in
 Integrative Thinking: life.
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

Parenting & Family Roles  Life Expectancy: Statistical prediction of

lifespan based on population trends, influenced
 Empty Nest Syndrome: by healthcare, genetics, and lifestyle factors.
o Transition when children leave home.  Life Span: Maximum potential years a species
o Some experience Revolving Door can live, with humans estimated to reach
around 120 years.
Syndrome (children returning home).
 Declining mortality rates contribute to
 Caring for Aging Parents:
increased life expectancy, particularly in
o Filial crisis – balancing care for
developed nations.
parents while maintaining
 Centenarians: People who live past 100
independence.
years, often studied for insights into longevity
o Sandwich generation – supporting and health.
both children and aging parents.
o Caregiver burnout – exhaustion from
caregiving duties. Why People Age?
o Respite care – temporary relief via
professional caregiving. 1. Genetic-Programming Theories (Biological
 Grandparenthood: aging is pre-determined)
o Kinship care – raising grandchildren o Programmed Senescence Theory:
due to absent parents. Genes switch on/off at different life
o Can bring emotional and financial stages, leading to aging-related
challenges. changes.
o Endocrine Theory: Hormones
regulate aging, with changes in
hormonal levels contributing to decline.
LATE ADULTHOOD (65 Y/O & ABOVE) o Immunological Theory: Immune
system weakens over time, increasing
vulnerability to infections and chronic
AGEISM AND AGING
diseases.
o Evolutionary Theory: Natural
 Ageism – Prejudice or discrimination based on selection prioritizes reproductive
age, leading to negative stereotypes and social success over longevity, limiting genetic
exclusion of older adults. investment in late-life maintenance.
 Types of Aging: 2. Variable-Rate Theories (Aging due to
o Primary Aging – Natural, inevitable environmental and personal factors)
bodily deterioration that occurs o Wear-and-Tear Theory: Repeated
regardless of health habits or medical use and environmental damage
advancements. contribute to cellular breakdown over
o Secondary Aging – Aging due to time.
disease, lifestyle, or disuse, often o Free-Radical Theory: Oxidative
preventable through proactive health stress damages cells, leading to age-
measures and interventions. related deterioration.
 Three Groups of Older Adults: o Mitochondrial Theory: Dysfunction in
o Young-old (65–74 years) – Generally mitochondria accelerates aging,
active and independent, often still impacting energy production and
engaged in work or hobbies. cellular function.
o Old-old (75–84 years) – May o Rate-of-Living Theory: Faster
experience more physical limitations metabolism leads to a shorter life, with
but can maintain independence with species-specific differences observed.
support. o Autoimmune Theory: Immune
o Oldest-old (85+ years) – Highest risk system mistakenly attacks healthy
of frailty, often requiring assistance for cells, contributing to age-related
daily living. illnesses.
 Key Concepts:
o Activities of Daily Living (ADLs):
Physical Changes
Basic survival tasks such as eating,
dressing, and bathing, which may
require assistance as aging progresses.  Body systems function well but decline with
o Instrumental Activities of Daily disease, disuse, and lifestyle factors.
Living (IADLs): More complex tasks  Brain: Shrinkage of neurons, slower responses,
like managing finances, cooking, and but plasticity allows for new connections to
transportation that impact independent form with mental stimulation.
living.  Vision: Cataracts and glaucoma are common,
o Functional Age: Measures ability to impacting independence and quality of life.
function rather than chronological age,  Hearing: Declines but can often be corrected
as some older adults remain highly with hearing aids and other assistive devices.
capable despite advanced age.  Taste & Smell: Loss can lead to poor nutrition
o Gerontology: Study of aging and the and diminished enjoyment of food.
aged, including biological,  Exercise remains a critical factor in
psychological, and social aspects. maintaining strength, balance, and
o Geriatrics: Medical field focused on mobility, reducing fall risk and promoting
aging and age-related health independence.
conditions, addressing chronic illnesses
and functional decline. Health & Wellness

 Most older adults have manageable chronic

conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, and
arthritis.
Physical Development  Healthy lifestyle (diet, exercise, mental
stimulation) is key to successful aging.
Longevity and Aging
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

 Alzheimer’s Disease: Progressive cognitive o Problem-focused coping: Addressing

decline influenced by genetics, lifestyle, and the issue directly to find solutions.
environmental factors, with research focused o Emotion-focused coping: Managing
on early detection and treatment. emotional response, often through
 Cognitive Reserve: Brain’s ability to reframing or support networks.
compensate for aging-related decline through
lifelong learning and engagement in complex Theories of Successful Aging
activities.

 Disengagement Theory: Aging involves

gradual withdrawal from society, though
modern perspectives challenge this idea.
Cognitive Development  Activity Theory: Staying engaged leads to
successful aging, supporting physical and
mental well-being.
Intelligence & Processing Abilities  Continuity Theory (Atchley): Emphasizes
balancing continuity and change to maintain
 WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale): identity and life satisfaction.
Measures intelligence; older adults excel in  Selective Optimization with Compensation
verbal tasks while experiencing declines in (SOC):
processing speed. o Select meaningful activities to focus
 Seattle Longitudinal Study: Demonstrates on.
that cognitive abilities vary widely among older o Optimize abilities to maximize
adults, influenced by lifestyle, education, and performance.
health status. o Compensate for losses by adapting
 Practical problem-solving improves with strategies and using assistive tools.
age, particularly in areas requiring
wisdom and life experience. Relationships in Late Life

Memory & Aging  Social Convoy Theory: Close relationships

provide emotional and practical support.
 Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage  Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: Older
(e.g., digit span test), may show mild decline. adults prioritize emotionally meaningful
 Long-Term Memory Types: relationships, seeking quality over quantity.
o Episodic Memory: Personal
experiences (declines most with age,
impacting recall of recent events).
o Semantic Memory: General
knowledge (relatively stable, may even Dealing with Death & Bereavement
improve with experience).
o Procedural Memory: Skills & habits
Death is not only a biological fact but also a social,
(remains strong, often unaffected by cultural, historical, religious, legal, psychological,
age). developmental, medical, and ethical phenomenon.
 Word retrieval and grammar may decline,
leading to increased word-finding
difficulties. Customs related to death—such as burial practices,
 Wisdom (Baltes): Involves expert knowledge, inheritance, and mourning—vary across cultures and
emotional regulation, and perspective-taking, are often guided by religious and legal traditions.
not necessarily age-dependent but often
associated with experience. CARE OF THE DYING

Hospice Care

Psychosocial Development  Focuses on patient- and family-centered care

for individuals with terminal illnesses.
 Aims to provide comfort rather than cure.
Personality & Adaptation
Palliative Care
 Erikson’s Ego Integrity vs. Despair:
o Accepting life’s journey leads to
 Seeks to relieve pain and suffering while
wisdom and contentment. ensuring dignity and peace in a patient’s final
o Regret and unresolved conflicts may days.
result in despair and distress.
 Five-Factor Model:
o Personality stability follows an inverted
U-shape (high in mid-adulthood, slight
decline in late adulthood). FACING DEATH AND LOSS

Coping & Mental Health Physical and Cognitive Changes

 Cognitive-Appraisal Model (Lazarus &  Terminal Drop: Rapid cognitive decline

Folkman): shortly before death.
1. Primary Appraisal: Assessing if a  Near-Death Experience: Sensations such as
situation is a threat or challenge. floating out of the body, moving through a
2. Secondary Appraisal: Deciding how tunnel, or encountering bright lights and
to cope with the situation effectively. spiritual visions.
 Coping Strategies:
Kübler-Ross' Five Stages of Grief
 Sarah Margarette L. Paglinawan BS PSYCH 4-Y2-5

1. Denial: Refusing to accept reality. Advance Directives

2. Anger: Frustration and resentment.
3. Bargaining: Trying to negotiate for more time.  Living Will: Specifies the type of medical care
4. Depression: Deep sadness and preparatory a person wants in case of incapacitation.
grief.  Durable Power of Attorney: Appoints
5. Acceptance: Peace and readiness to face someone to make healthcare decisions on
death. one’s behalf.

PATTERNS OF GRIEVING FINDING MEANING IN LIFE AND DEATH

Key Terms Life Review

 Grief: Emotional response to loss.  Reflecting on past experiences to find meaning

 Bereavement: The process of adjusting to the and resolution.
death of a loved one.  Helps individuals prepare for death and
complete unfinished matters.
Classic Grief Work Model  More significant in old age but can happen at
any life stage.
1. Shock & Disbelief: Initial confusion and
numbness.
2. Preoccupation with the Deceased:
Persistent longing and memories, lasting from
months to years.
3. Resolution: Acceptance and gradual return to
daily activities with fond but less painful
memories.

Alternative Grieving Patterns

 Recovery Pattern: Gradual reduction of grief

over time.
 Delayed Grief: Symptoms intensify after an
initial period.
 Chronic Grief: Extended and unresolved
mourning.
 Resilience Pattern: Low initial distress that
gradually fades.

MEDICAL, ETHICAL, AND LEGAL ISSUES

Suicide

 Suicide rates increase with age, particularly

among men.
 The right to die is debated, especially in cases
of chronic illness.

Euthanasia & Assisted Suicide

 Euthanasia: Ending a life to relieve suffering.

o Passive Euthanasia: Withholding life-
sustaining treatment.
o Active Euthanasia: Deliberate action
to end life (also called mercy killing).
 Assisted Suicide: Providing means for a
person to end their own life.

Arguments For and Against Assisted Suicide

For:

 Respects autonomy and self-determination.

 Ensures relief from suffering.
 Legalization allows for regulation.

Against:

 Moral concerns about taking a life.

 Risk of coercion or misdiagnosis.
 Ethical conflicts with a doctor’s role.