Chapter 2: Primitives and Integrals

1 Riemann integral

De…nition 1: A partition of the interval [a; b] is a …nite sequence of

numbers x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn such that a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ::: < xn = b: Each
[xi ; xi+1 ] is called a sub-interval of the partition.

Example:
1 1 1
Let [a; b] = [0; 1] ; then S = 0; ; ; ; 1 is the partition of the
5 3 2
interval [0; 1].

De…nition 2: Let = fa = x0 ; x1 ; x2 ::::; xn = bg be a apartition of

the interval [a; b] : The mesh or norm of a partition is de…ned to be the
length of the longest sub-interval, that is j j = max0 i n (xi+1 xi ) :

Observation:

1. An interval [a; b] can have a in…nity of partitions:

2. 8n 2 N ; there exists a unique partition S, of [a; b] that subdivided
b a
[a; b] into n sub-intervals having the same norm equals to :
n
S is called a regular partition of the interval [a; b] such that S =
b a b a b a
x0 = a; x1 = a + ; x2 = a + 2 ; :::; xk = a + k ; :::; xn = b
n n n
Example: Let [a; b] = [0; 1] and n = 6; then the regular partition S
of [a; b] is:
1 1 1 4 5
S = x0 = 0; ; ; ; ; ; x6 = 1
6 3 2 6 6
which products six sub-intervals.

1.1 Staircase function

De…nition: Let f : [a; b] ! R: f is called a staircase function over [a; b]
if there exists a partition S of [a; b] where S = fa = x0 ; x1 ; x2 ::::; xn = bg
such that f is constant over each sub-interval of [a; b] : S is said to be
the partition of [a; b] associated to the function f:
8
< 1 if x 2 [0; 1]
Example: Let f (x) = 3 if x 2 ]1; 2] ; f is a staircase function
:
1 if x 2 ]2; 4]
and S is the partition of [a; b] associated to f with S = fx0 = 0; x1 = 1; x2 = 2; x3 = 4g :

1
1.2 Integral of staircase function
Let f be a staircase function, S the partition of [a; b] associated to f
and hk the value of f on each sub-interval ]xi 1 ; xi [ for 1 i n: The
integral of f on the interval [a; b] is the number
Xn
I (f; S) = (xi+1 xi ) hk :
i=1
Example: The previous example I (f; S) = (x1 x0 ) :1+(x2 x1 ) :3+
(x3 x2 ) : ( 1) = 2:
1.2.1 Darboux sums
De…nition: Let f be a continuous function over [a; b], An lower (upper, respectively)
Darboux sum of f relative to the regular partition S on [a; b] is the!
num-
Xn Xn
ber S = (xi+1 xi ) mi S = (xi+1 xi ) Mi ; respectively where
i=1 i=1
mi = inf f (x) (Mi = sup f (x)) with x 2 ]xi 1 ; xi [ for 1 !i n: There-
b aX b aX
n n
fore, S = mi S = Mi ; respectively :
n i=1 n i=1
Observation: The number S (S ; respectively) represents the area
of all rectangles that are under (above, respectively) the curve of f:

1.3 Riemann integral

De…nition: A bounded function f is said to be Riemann integrable on
an interval [a; b] if
Zb
lim S = lim S = I (f ) ; where I (f ) = f (x) dx:
n!+1 n!+1
a
Observation: The letter x that occurs in the integral is called the
integral variable. The value of the integral does not depend on the
Zb Zb Zb
variable x; so f (x) dx = f (t) dt = f (y) dy:
a a a
1.3.1 Properties:
1. Every continuous function is Riemann integrable.

2. For every integrable functions f and g we have:

Zb Zb Zb
(f + g) (x) dx = f (x) dx + g (x) dx:
a a a

2
 Zb Zc Zb
3. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx for a < c < b:
a a c

Zb Za
4. f (x) dx = f (x) dx:
a b

Zb Zb
5. f (x) dx jf (x)j dx; the equality is achieved if f keeps a
a a
constant sign over [a; b] :
Zb
6. f (x) dx = 0:
a

Zb
7. If f is a continuous function over [a; b], jf (x)j dx = 0 , f 0
a
over [a; b] :

Example: Show that f (x) = x2 is Riemann integrable on [0; 1].

Note that since f is continuous over [0; 1] ; then f is Riemann integrable
on [0; 1].
Z1
We must show that I (f ) = x2 dx = lim S = lim S :
n!+1 n!+1
0
mi = inf f (x) with x 2 ]xi 1 ; xi [ for 1 i n; so mi = xi 1 :
Mi = sup f (x) with x 2 ]xi 1 ; xi [ for 1 i n; so mM i = xi :
1X 2 1X 2
n n
i i
)S = xi 1 and S = xi ) xi = 0 + =
n i=1 n i=1 n n
1X i 1 2 1X i 2
n n
)S = ( ) and S = ( )
n i=1 n n i=1 n
Xn
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
Note that k2 = :
i=1
6
1X i 1 2 1 X
n n
lim ( ) = lim 3 (i 1)2 : Let k = i 1
n!+1 n n n!+1 n i=1
i=1
1 X 2 1 X 2 (n 1) n (2n 1)
n 1 n 1
= lim 3 k = lim 3 k = :
n!+1 n
k=0
n!+1 n
k=1
6n3

3
 1X i 2 1 X 2 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
n n
S = ( ) = 3 i = :
n i=1 n n i=1 6n3
(n 1) n (2n 1) 1 n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
lim S = lim 3
= ; lim S = lim =
n!+1 n!+1 6n 3 n!+1 n!+1 6n3
1
:
3
Z1 1
x3
On the other hand, we have I (f ) = x2 dx =
3 0
0
Z1
1
= :Thus I (f ) = x2 dx = lim S = lim S :
3 n!+1 n!+1
0
We deduce that f is Riemann integrable on [0; 1].

2 Primitives
De…nition: Let f be a function de…ned on an interval I: A primitive
F of a function f is:
F : I ! R such that F 0 (x) = f (x) ; 8x 2 I:

Example: F (x) = x2 is the primitive of the function 2x since

F 0 (x) = 2x:
1 1
F (x) = ln x is the primitive of the function since F 0 (x) = :
x x
Observation: A function f has an in…nity of primitives. If F (x)
is a primitive of a function f; then F (x) + c (c a constant) is also a
primitive of the function f:

Proposition: Let f : [a; b] ! R: If f is a continuous function over

Zx
[a; b] ; then F (x) = f (t) dt is a primitive of f:
a
F (x) F (x0 )
Proof: Let x0 2 [a; b] : We should show that lim =
x!x0 x x0
F 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ) :
f is continuous at x0 , 8" > 0; 9 > 0; 8x 2 [a; b] ; jx x0 j < )
jf (x) f (x0 )j < ":

4
 Zx Zx0
f (t) dt f (t) dt
F (x) F (x0 ) a a
f (x0 ) = f (x0 )
x x0 x x0

Zx Za Zx Zx
f (t) dt + f (t) dt f (t) dt + f (x0 ) dt
a x0 x0 x0
= f (x0 ) =
x x0 x x0

Zx Zx Zx
f (t) f (x0 ) dt jf (t) f (x0 )j dt "dt
x0 x0 x0
= <
x x0 x x0 x x0

" (x x0 ) F (x) F (x0 )

= =") f (x0 ) < ":
(x x0 ) x x0
F (x) F (x0 )
So, lim = F 0 (x0 ) = f (x0 ) : We deduce that F (x) is
x!x0 x x0
a primitive of f:

Consequences:
Zb
If F (x) is a primitive of f , then f (x) dx = [F (x)]ba = F (b) F (a) :
a

3 General technics of integration:

I) Changement of variable:

Theorem: Let f be a continuous function over [a; b] and ' 2

1
C ([a; b]) such that ' ( ) = a
' ( ) = b; then the function f (' (t)) '0 (t) is integrable on [ ; ] and
we put x = ' (t) ) dx = '0 (t) dt:
Zb Z
So, f (x) dx = f (' (t)) '0 (t) dt:
a

5
 Example:
Z
I) Determine the following de…nite integrals: I1 = t (2t + 1)n dt;
0
Z3
2x + 1
I2 = dx;
x2 +x+1
2
Z1
dx
I3 = q :
2 2 2
0 (x + 1) + (x + 1) (ln (x + 1))
Z
I1 = t (2t + 1)n dt: Put y = 2t+1 ) dy = 2dt and if t = 0 ! y = 1;
0
t= !y =2 +1
2Z +1 2Z +1

) I1 = (y 1)y n dy = (y n+1 y n )dy

1 1
n+2 n+1 2 +1
y y
) I1 =
n+2 n+1 1
(2 +1)n+2 (2 +1)n+1 1 1
= n+2 n+1
+ :
n+2 n+1
Z3
2x + 1
I2 = dx: Put y = x2 + x + 1 ) dy = (2x + 1)dx
x2 +x+1
2
Z13
dy
x = 2 ) y = 7 and x = 3 ) y = 13 ) I2 = = [ln y]13
7 =
y
7
13
ln 13 ln 7 = ln :
7
1
II) Determine the primitives of the following functions: 1) p ;
1 x2 arcsin x
shx x5
2) ; 3) :
1 + 4ch2 x 1 + x12
dx
1) Put y = arcsin x ) dy = p
Z Z 1 x2
dx dy
So p = = ln jyj + c = ln jarcsin xj + c; c 2 R
1 x2 arcsin x y Z Z
shx dy
2) Put y = chx ) dy = shxdx ) dx =
1 + 4ch2 x 1 + 4y 2
Z Z dt
dy 2
= : Put t = 2y ) dt = 2dy )
1 + (2y)2 1 + t2

6
 Z
dt
1 1 1
= 2 2
= arctan t + c = arctan (2chx) + c; c 2 R:
1+t 2 2
Z dy
6 5
R x5 6
3) Put y = x ) dy = 6x dx ) dx =
1 + x12 1 + y2
R dy 1 1
= 61 2
= arctan y + c = arctan x6 + c; c 2 R:
1+y 6 6

II) Integration by parts:

Proposition: Let f and g be two functions of class C 1 ([a; b]) ; then

Zb Zb
0
f (x) g (x) dx = f (x) g (x) f 0 (x) g (x) dx.
a a
Proof: Since f and g 2 C 1 ([a; b]) ; (f g)0 (x) = f 0 (x) g (x)+f (x) g 0 (x) :
Zb Zb Zb
) (f g)0 (x) dx = f 0 (x) g (x) dx + f (x) g 0 (x) dx:
a a a
Zb Zb Zb
0 0
) f (x) g (x) dx = (f:g) (x) dx f 0 (x) g (x) dx
a a a
Zb Zb
) f (x) g 0 (x) dx = [(f:g) (x)]ba f 0 (x) g (x) dx:
a a
Z
Example: Integrate by parts the following integrals: 1) ex cos x

Ze 2
dx; 2) cos (ln x) dx:
1
x 0 0 x
1) Let
Z f (x) = e and g (x) = cos x ) f (x) = e and g (x) = sin x
R
so, ex cos x dx = ex sin x ex sin xdx = e sin x I: Let’s determine
I by integrating by parts:
Put u (x) = ex and v 0 (x) 0 x
Z = sin x ) u (x)Z = e and v (x) = cos x
so, I = ex cos x + ex cos x dx ) ex cos x dx = ex sin x
Z
e cos x + ex cos xdx
x

Z Z Z
ex cos x dx = ex (sin x + cos x) e cos x dx ) 2 ex cos x dx =
x

ex (sin
Z x + cos x)
ex cos x dx = 12 ex (sin x + cos x) + c; c 2 R:

7
 Ze 2
2) cos (ln x) dx: Put f (x) = cos (ln x) and g 0 (x) = 1 ) f 0 (x) =
1
1
x
sin (ln x) and g (x) = x
Ze 2 Ze 2
cos (ln x) dx = [x cos (ln x)]1 + sin (ln x) dx = [x cos (ln x)]e1 +
e2 2

1 1
J
1
Put u (x) = sin (ln x) and v 0 (x) = 1 ) u0 (x) = x
cos (ln x) and
v (x) = x
Ze 2
J = [x sin (ln x)]e1
2
cos (ln x) dx
1
Ze 2 Ze 2
e2 e2
) cos (ln x) dx = [x cos (ln x)]1 + [x sin (ln x)]1 cos (ln x) dx
1 1
Ze 2 Ze 2
e2 1
)2 cos (ln x) dx = 1 + e2 ) cos (ln x) dx = 2
:
1 1

III) Primitive of a rational function:

Let P and Q be two polynoms with Q 6= 0 and deg (P ) deg (Q) ;

then there exists two polynoms S and R (deg (R) < deg (Q)) such that
P (x) = S (x) Q (x) + R (x) this is called the Euclidean division of P by
Q:
P (x) R (x)
So, = S (x) + where P is the devidend, Q is the divisor,
Q (x) Q (x)
S is the quotient and R is the remainder.

x3 x
Example: =x :
x2 + 1 x2 +1
Simple elements:
1. The …rst species simple element designed every rational function
written as
(x x0 )n
where ( ; x0 ) 2 R R and n 2 N :

2. The second species simple element designed every rational function

written as

8
 x+
where ; ; and 2 R; 2 R ; n 2 N : The
( x2+ x + )n
second degree polynom x2 + x + has a negative discriminant
( < 0) :
1
Example: is a …rst species simple element.
(x 1)3
x+2 2
and are second species simple elements.
x2 x+1 (x + 1)2
2

Theorem: Let Q be a polynom having real coe¢ cients such that:

Q (x) = a0 +a1 x+:::+axn with an 6= 0: The real numbers x1 ; x2 ; :::; xk
are zeros of Q (x) of multiplicity m1 ; m2 :::; mk respectively. The complex
numbers c1 = 1 + i 1 ; c2 = 2 + i 2 ; ...cs = s + i s are zeros of Q (x)
with j 6= 0 and conjugates c1 ; c2 ; :::; cs of multiplicity 1 ; 2 ; :::; s
respectively. So, we Q can be uniquely written as follows:
Q (x) = (x x1 )m1 (x x2 )m2 :::: (x xk )mk (x2 + p1 x + q1 ) 1
(x2 + p2 x + q2 ) 2 ::: (x2 + ps x + qs ) s
such that pj = cj cj = 2 Re (cj ) and qj = cj cj = jcj j2 :
Moreover m1 + m2 + ::: + mk + 1 + 2 + ::: + s = n:

Proposition: Every polynom Q of order n can be uniquely decom-

posed as the product of polynoms of
…rst and second species simple elements.

Decomposition in simple elements

If deg (P ) deg (Q) ; then
P (x) A1m1 A
Q(x)
= (xA11x1 ) + (x Ax12 )2 + :: + (x x1 )m1
+ (xA21x2 ) + :: + (x x1m2 )2m2 + :::: +
1
Ak1 A M1 1 x+N1 1
(x xk )
+ :: + (x xkmk )kmk + xM2 11 x+N11
+p1 x+q1
+ (xM 12 x+N12
2 +p x+q )2 + :: + (x2 +p x+q ) 1
1 1 1 1
M1 2 x+N1 2 M1 s x+N1 s
+ xM2 12 x+N12
+p2 x+q1
+ :: + (x2 +p2 x+q2 ) 2
+ ::: + Ms1 x+Ns1
x2 +ps x+qs
+ ::: + (x2 +ps x+qs ) s
;
where Aij ; Mij 2 R and Nij 2 R:

Example 1:
2
1) Let Q (x) = x5 + 2x3 + x = x (x4 + 2x2 + 1) = x (x2 + 1) :
The polynom Q (x) has …ve zeros, one real zero x = 0 and two double
complex zeros z1 = i and z2 = i:
2) Q (x) = x6 x2 = x2 (x4 1) = x (x2 + 1) (x2 1) : Q (x) has
six zeros, one double real zero x1 = 0 and two simple real zeros x2 = 1,
x3 = 1 and two simple complex zeros z = i:

Example 2: Decompose in simple elements the following rational

x+3
function: 2 :
x 3x + 2

9
 First of all, the polynom Q (x) has two simple real zeros x = 1 and
x = 2; so Q (x) = (x 1) (x 2) :
x+3 x+3 a b
It follows that 2 = = + :
x 3x + 2 (x 1) (x 2) x 1 x 2
x+3
Now let us …nd the coe¢ cients a and b: F (x) = 2 :
x 3x + 2
In order to determine a we should multiple F (x) by (x 1) and after
that we put x = 1:
x+3 b
(x 1) F (x) = (x 1) 2 = a + (x 1)
x 3x + 2 x 2
x+3 b
) = a + (x 1) : For x = 1 ) a = 4:
(x 2) x 2
Likewise with b; we multiple F (x) by (x 2) and after that we put
x = 2:
x+3 a
(x 2) F (x) = (x 2) 2 = (x 2) +b
x 3x + 2 x 1
x+3 a
) = (x 2) + b: For x = 2 ) b = 5:
(x 1) x 1
x+3 4 5
So, 2 = + :
x 3x + 2 x 1 x 2
Integration of the …rst species simple element
Z
dx
Let where x0 2 R and n 2 N :
(x x0 )n
Let’s calculate the
8 integral of …rst species simple element.
Z < ln jx x0 j + c; c 2 R if n = 1
dx
= (x x0 ) n+1
(x x0 )n : + c; c 2 R if n 6= 1
n+1
Z
dx
Example: = ln jx 2j + c; c 2 R:
x 2
Z
dx (x + 1) n+1 1
3
= +c= + c; c 2 R:
(x + 1) n+1 (1 n) xn 1

Integration of the second species simple element

Particular case:
Z Z
dx dx
Let In = 2 n
; n 2 N : For n = 1; I1 = 2
:
(x + 1) x +1
I1 = arctan x + c; Zc 2 R:
dx
For n > 1; In = ; we …nd a recurrent relation between
(x + 1)n
2
In+1 and In :
We proceed an integration by parts of In :

10
 dx
Let f (x) = and g 0 (x) = 1
(x2+ 1)n
2nx
) f 0 (x) = 2 n+1
and g (x) = x:
Z (x + 1) Z 2
dx x x + 1 1 dx
) In = = + 2n
(x2 + 1)n Z (x2 + 1)n Z (x + 1)
2 n+1
2
x x + 1 dx dx
In = 2 n
+ 2n( 2 n+1
)
(x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 1)n+1
2
x
) In = 2 + 2n (In In+1 )
(x + 1)n
2n 1 1 x
) In+1 = In + + c; c 2 R:
2n 8 2n (x + 1)n 2

< I1 = arctan x + c; c 2 R if n = 1
This implies that 2n 1 1 x
: In+1 = In + 2 n
+ c; c 2 R if n > 1
2n 2n (x
Z + 1)
dx
Example: Calculate the integral I2 = ; by recurrent
(x2 + 1)2
relation we have:
1 1 x
I2 = I1 + +c
2 2 x2 + 1
1 x
) I2 = arctan x + 2
+ c:
2 2(x + 1)

General case:
Z
x+
Jn = dx; with ; ; p; q 2 R:
(x2 + px + q)n
Observation:
Z Z Z
dx dx 1 dx
= n = n n
(x2 + a)n an x2
+1 a 2
a px +1
a

x dx
Let y = p ) dy = p :
Z a p Za p
dx a dx a
) 2 n = n 2 n
= n In
(x + a) a (y + 1) a
where In is the integral of …rst species simple element.
We calculate Jn , x2 + px + q is a polynom of a second degree with a
negative discriminant = p2 4q.
p
We have x + = 2 (2x + p) Z 2
+ : Z
p 2x + p dx
Let = 2
+ ) Jn = 2 2 n
dx +
(x + px + q) (x Z+ px + q)n
2
2x + p
Jn = 2 Kn + Hn : First let’s determine the integral Kn = dx
(x + px + q)n
2

11
 8
Z
dy <
ln jyj + c; c 2 R if n = 1
n+1
Notice that Kn = = (y)
yn : + c; c 2 R if n 6= 1
n+1
where y = x2 + px + q:
Now, we calculate Hn , we should write x2 + px + q in a canonical
form.
2 p2 2 p2 +4q
That is x2 + px + q = x + 2 4
+ q = x + 2! 4
2
2 2 x+ p2
x + px + q = x + 2 4
= 4
p +1
2

x+ p2
We put t = p + 1 ) dt = p2 dx:
2
p
Z
2 2 4 n dt
Since x + px + q = 4
(t + 1) so Hn = 2
Z (t2 + 1)n
dt
and the calculating of comes to determine the integral of
(t2 + 1)n
…rst species simple element. Z
5x + 1
Example: Determine the following integral I = dx:
x2 + x + 1
5x + 1 = 52Z(2x + 1) 25 + 1 = Z52 (2x + 1) 23 : Z
5x + 1 5 2x + 1 3 dx
Then I = 2
dx = 2
dx 2
x +x+1 2 x +x+1 2 x +x+1
5 2 3
= 2 ln (x + x + 1) 2 J; let’s calculate J: Since the discriminant of
the second degree polynom
is negative. First, we write x2 + x + 1 in a canonical form, that is
!
2
2 1 2 1 1 2 3 3 x+ 12
x +x+1= x+ 2 4
+1= x+ 2
+ 4
= 4
p
3
+1
2
Z p
p dy 2 3
x+ 21 3
Let y = p ) dy = p2 dx )J = = arctan(y)+
3 3 2 3
2 4
(y 2 + 1) 3
c (c 2 R)
p
So I = 52 ln (x2 + x + 1) 3 arctan p2
3
x+ 1
2
+ c:

VI) Primitive of functions in sin and cos

Case 1:
Z
1. If I = f (cos x) sin x dx; then put y = cos x ) dy = sin x dx:
Z
2. If I = f (sin x) cos x dx; then put y = sin x ) dy = cos x dx:

12
 Z
1 1
3. I = f (tan x) cos2 x
dx; then we put y = tan x ) dy = cos2 x
dx:

Z
cos x
Example: Determine I = dx:
sin x (2 +Z sin x)
dy
Put y = sin x ) dy = cos x dx ) I =
y (2 + y)
that give us an integral of a rational function which sould be decom-
posed into simple elements.

Case 2: Primitives of polynomial functions in sin and cos

Z
Eg: Let I = (cos x cos (2x) + sin x sin (3x))dx
In order to linearize this polynom function we need to use Euler’s
formula.
eix + e ix eix e ix
and cos x = and sin x =
2 2i
ei( x) + e i( x) ei( x) + e i( x)
Likewise cos( x) = and sin ( x) = :
Z 2 2i
eix + e ix ei(2x) + e i(2x ) eix e ix ei(3x) + e i(3x)
I= + dx
2 2 2i 2i
Z i(3x)
1 e + e i(3x ) eix + e ix
=2 ( + )dx
Z i(4x) 2 i(4x 2
1 e +e ) ei(2x) + e i(2x)
2
( )dx
Z 2 2
1
= 2
[(cos (3x) + cos x cos(4x) + cos (2x)] dx
1 1 1
= 2 3
sin (3x) + sin x 4
sin (4x) + 21 sin (2x) + c:

Case 3:
Z
I= sinp x cosq x dx; where p; q 2 N : We consider three situations:

1. If q is odd, then q = 2k + 1; k 2 N and we put y = sin x ) dy =

cos x dx:Z Z
p k k
So, I = sin x (cos x) cos x dx = y p (1 y 2 ) dy:
2

2. If p is odd, then p = 2k + 1; k 2 N and we put y = cos x ) dy =

sin x dx:
Z
k
So, I = (1 y 2 ) y q dx:

13
 1
3. Neither p nor q is odd, then we put y = tan x ) dy = dx =
cos2 x
2
(1 + tan x)dx

1 2 tan2 x
) cos2 x = 2
and sin x = ;
1+Z tan 2x 1 + tan2Zx
y 1 dy y2
therefore I = ) I = dy,
1 + y2 1 + y2 1 + y2 (1 + y 2 )3
this leads us to an integration of second species simple element.

Case 4: Primitives of rational functions in sin and cos

Z
x 1 dx
I = R (cos x; sin x) dx: We put y = tan 2
) dy = 2 cos2 ( x2 )
=
1 x
2
1 + tan2 2
dx
2 tan x2 1 tan2 ( x2 )
We have sin x = and cos x =
tan2 x2 + 1 tan2 x2 + 1
2y 1 y2
) sin x = 2 and cos x = :
y +1 1 + y2
Z
dx
Examples: Determine I =
4 cos x + 3 sin x
2dy
Let’s y = tan x2 ) dy = 21 1 + tan2 x2 dx ) dx = 2
y +1
Z 2dy
y 2 +1
)I= 2
4 11+yy2 + 3 y22y+1
Z
dy
)I = : We proceed to a decomposition into simple
2 + 3y 2y 2
dy
elements of :
2 + 3y 2y 2
1 2
1 1 5 5
= 2y+1 = + :
2 + 3y 2y 2 2 (y 2) y 2 2y + 1
Z Z 2
1 dy 2 dy
So I = 5 +
y 2 5 2y + 1
) I = 51 ln jy 2j + 52 ln j2y + 1j + c; c 2 R
) I = 51 ln tan x2 2 + 52 ln 2 tan x2 + 1 + c:

V) Primitive of rational function in ex

Z
Let I = R (ex ) dx: we put y = ex ) dy = ex dx
dy dy
) dx = ex
= y
:

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 Z Z dy
dx x y
Example: Calculate I = Let y = e ) I =
1+ex
: 1+y
Z Z
dy
I = y(y+1) = ( y1 y+1 1
)dy
Z Z
I = ( dy
y
dy
y+1
= ln jyj ln jy + 1j + c; c 2 R
y ex
I = ln y+1
+ c = ln ex +1
+ c:

VI) Primitive of rational function in sh and ch

There is two cases:

Z
1. If I = f (shx) chx dx; then put y = shx ) dy = chx dx:
Z
2. If I = f (chx) shx dx; then put y = chx ) dy = shx dx:

Observation: We can replace shx and chx by their values, that is

x x x x
shx = e 2e and chx = e +e
2
and after we put y = ex :

Z
p
Example: Determine I = chx shx dx: Let y = chx ) dy = shx
dx: Z
p 1
y 2 +1
I= ydy = 1
+1
+ c; c 2 R
2
3 3
) I = 32 y 2 + c = 32 (chx) 2 + c:

VII) Abelien integrals

Z q
ax+b
Primitive of rational functions in form R x; n
cx+d
dx
Z q
Let I = R x; n ax+b
cx+d
with a; b; c; d 2 R and n 2 N :
q
We put y = n ax+b
cx+d
) y n = ax+b
cx+d
dy n b
)x= a cy n
:
Z
Example: Determine I = x+pdxx 1 :
p 2
Let y =Z x 1 ) x = Z y + 1 ) dx = 2ydy:
2y
So I = y2 +1+y dy = y2y+1 1
2 +y+1 dy

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 Z Z
2y+1 1
I= y 2 +y+1
dy y 2 +y+1
dy
I = ln (y 2 + y + 1) J: To determine J we put it 2in a canonic form
3
!2
1
2 2 y+2
y2 + y + 1 = y + 1
2
1
4
+ 1 = y + 21 + 34 = 34 4 p + 15 :
3
2
p
Z
y+ 12 dt 3
Let t = p ) dt = p2 dy )J =
3 3 2 3
2 (t2 + 1) 4
2
J = p3 arctan(t) + c (c 2 R) = p3 arctan( p23 y + 21 ) + c
2

I = ln (y 2 + y + 1) p23 arctan( p23 y + 12 ) + c

p p
I = ln x + x 1 p2 arctan( p2 x 1 + 12 ) + c:
3 3
Z
p
Primitive of rational functions in form R x; ax2 + bx + c dx
Z
p
Let I = R x; ax2 + bx + c dx: We consider two cases:

p p
1. If a > 0; then we put ax2 + bx + c = ax + y:

2. If a < 0; then ax2 + bx + c has a real zero x0 and in this case we

put ax2 + bx + c = (x x0 ) y:

Z
dx p
Example: Calculate I = p : It follows that x2 + 3x + 2 =
x2 + 3x + 2
x+y
y2 2 2 (y 1) (y 2)
)x= ) dx = 2 dy
3
Z 2y (3 2y)
2
)I= dy = ln j3 2yj + c; c 2 R
3 2yp
I = ln 3 2 x2 + 3x + 2 x + c:
Z
Primitive of function in form x Ax + B dx
Z
Let I = x Ax + B dx; where A; B 2 R and ; ; 2 Q: we
consider three cases:

1. If is an integer, then put x = y n where n is the commun denom-

inator between and :

2. If +1 is an integer, then put y p = Ax + B where p is the denom-

inator of :

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 3. If +1 + is an integer, then put y p = A + Bx ; where p is the
denominator of :

Z p
x
Example: Determine I = p 4
dx:
3
Z p Z x +1
x 1 1
Indeed, I = p 4
dx = x 2 x3 + 1 4 dx
x3 + 1
1
) = 2 ; = 3 and = 1: So we are in the …rst case then let
x = y4 Z Z
3 4y 3 y 2 y5
) dx = 4y dy; this implies that I = dy = 4 dy
y3 + 1 y3 + 1
y5 y2
we have 3 = y2 3
Zy + 1 Z y 2+ 1
y y3
) I = 4 y 2 dy 4 dy = 4 4J
y3 + 1 3
y2 1 3y 2 1
3
= 3
; so J = ln y 3 + 1
y +1 3y +1 3
) I = 34 (y 3 ln jy 3 + 1j) + c; c 2 R
3 3
) I = 34 (x 4 ln x 4 + 1 + c:

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