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Visual and Non-Visual Effects of Light: Working Environment and Well-Being
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 Visual and Non-Visual
Effects of Light
Working Environment and Well-Being

Agnieszka Wolska, Dariusz Sawicki,

and Małgorzata Tafil-Klawe
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Wolska, Agnieszka, 1963- author. | Sawicki, Dariusz, 1957- author. |

Tafil-Klawe, Malgorzata, author.
Title: Visual and non-visual effects of light : working environment and
well-being / Malgorzata Tafil-Klawe, Agnieszka Wolska, Dariusz Sawicki.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2020. | Series:
Occupational safety, health, and ergonomics | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020023962 (print) | LCCN 2020023963 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367444198 (hbk) | ISBN 9780367529529 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003027249
(ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Lighting--Health aspects. | Light--Physiological effect.
Classification: LCC RC963.5.L54 W65 2020 (print) | LCC RC963.5.L54
(ebook) | DDC 615.8/31--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023962
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020023963

ISBN: 9780367444198 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781003027249 (ebk)

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by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... xiii
Authors...................................................................................................................... xv
Series Editor............................................................................................................xvii

Chapter 1 Introduction........................................................................................... 1
1.1 Common Definitions of Light.................................................... 1
1.2 Visual and Non-Visual Response to Light.................................1
1.3 Light and Circadian Rhythm......................................................3
1.4 LED Lighting and Potential Health Hazard...............................3
1.5 New Idea of Lighting Design – Human-Centric Lighting
(HCL)..........................................................................................4
1.6 What Is This Book About?.........................................................5

Chapter 2 The Biological Bases of Photoreception in the Process of Image

Vision....................................................................................................7
2.1 Optics of the Eye – From the Pupil to the Retina.......................7
2.2 Photoreceptors............................................................................ 9
2.3 Cellular Organization of the Visual Pathways......................... 11
2.3.1 Synaptic Connections – Photoreceptor Cells –
Bipolar Cells................................................................ 11
2.3.2 Synaptic Connections – Bipolar Cells –
Horizontal Cells (Ribbon Synapse)............................. 12
2.3.3 Synaptic Connections – Horizontal Cells................... 13
2.3.4 Synaptic Connections – The Cone Synapse................ 13
2.3.5 Synaptic Connections – The Role of
Amacrine Cells............................................................ 14
2.3.6 Synaptic Connections – From Rods and Cones to
Ganglion Cells............................................................. 14
2.4 Calculation of Color at the Level of Ganglion Cells................ 16
2.5 Higher Visual Processing......................................................... 17
2.6 The Role of Purinergic Signaling in the Retina....................... 19
2.7 Age-Related Changes in the Optics and Retina of the Eye......20
2.7.1 Loss of Lens Elasticity – Loss of Accommodation....20
2.7.2 Lens Yellowing – Changes of Perceived Colors.........20
2.7.3 Damage of Photoreceptor and Ganglion Cells............20
2.7.4 Structural Changes in the Optics................................20
2.7.5 Disturbed Rod Pigment Regeneration.........................20
2.8 Summary..................................................................................20

v
vi Contents

Chapter 3 The Biological Basis of Non-Image-Forming Vision......................... 23

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 23
3.2 The Discovery, Function, and Diversity of Intrinsically
Photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs); Some
Interactions with the Conventional Photoreceptors.................. 23
3.3 Brain Regions Innervated by ipRGCs......................................25
3.4 Phototransduction by ipRGCs, Physiological Role of
Melanopsin, Clinical Implications of Melanopsin
Pathways................................................................................... 27
3.5 The Neurobiology of Circadian Rhythms – Do We Need
Light?........................................................................................ 29
3.6 The Alerting Effects of Light................................................... 32
3.7 Summary.................................................................................. 33

Chapter 4 Lighting Quality and Well-Being........................................................ 35

4.1 What Do We Mean by Lighting Quality and Well-Being?...... 35
4.1.1 Well-Being................................................................... 35
4.1.2 Lighting Quality.......................................................... 35
4.1.3 Standardization Concerning Lighting Design............ 37
4.1.3.1 International/European Lighting
Standards..................................................... 37
4.1.3.2 Standard for Building Design...................... 38
4.2 Lighting Intensity..................................................................... 39
4.3 Spatial Distribution of Light..................................................... 43
4.3.1 Luminance Distribution.............................................. 43
4.3.2 Discomfort Glare at Indoor Workplaces.....................44
4.4 Color Aspects........................................................................... 48
4.4.1 Correlated Color Temperature (CCT) and
Illuminance Level....................................................... 49
4.4.2 Color Perception.......................................................... 51
4.5 Perception of Flicker and the Stroboscopic Effect................... 52
4.6 Summary.................................................................................. 52

Chapter 5 Visual Performance............................................................................. 53

5.1 Visual Performance: Definition and Recommendations.......... 53
5.2 Weber’s Fraction and Contrast................................................. 53
5.2.1 The Weber Fraction..................................................... 53
5.2.2 Luminance Contrast.................................................... 55
5.3 Contrast Sensitivity................................................................... 55
5.3.1 Contrast Sensitivity Function...................................... 55
5.3.2 Contrast Sensitivity and Suprathreshold Visibility..... 57
5.4 Visual Acuity............................................................................ 59
5.5 Relative Visual Performance (RVP).........................................60
Contents vii

5.6 The Lateral Inhibition Phenomenon......................................... 61

5.7 Flicker and Stroboscopic Effect as a Hazardous Problem
of Performance......................................................................... 63
5.7.1 Critical Fusion Frequency........................................... 65
5.8 Color Rendering.......................................................................66
5.8.1 Artificial Light Sources...............................................66
5.8.2 Color Space................................................................. 67
5.8.3 Color Rendering Index Ra........................................... 67
5.8.4 Color Fidelity Index Rf and Color Gamut Rg............... 68
5.9 Light Sources and Their Impact on Well-Being and
Visual Performance.................................................................. 70
5.9.1 Classification of Solid-State Light Sources................. 71
5.9.2 LEDs and Their Properties......................................... 72
5.9.2.1 LED Advantages.......................................... 72
5.9.2.2 LED Disadvantages..................................... 74
5.10 Summary.................................................................................. 75

Chapter 6 New Metrics for Circadian Lighting................................................... 77

6.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 77
6.2 α-Opic Metrics......................................................................... 77
6.3 Circadian Light and Circadian Stimulus.................................. 81
6.4 Equivalent Melanopic Lux....................................................... 86
6.5 Circadian Action Factor........................................................... 88
6.6 Circadian Efficiency................................................................. 89
6.7 Universal Illuminance.............................................................. 89
6.8 Relative Spectral Effectiveness (RSE)...................................... 91
6.9 Circadian Potency..................................................................... 91
6.10 Effective Watts and Melanopic-Photopic Ratios......................92
6.11 Summary..................................................................................94

Chapter 7 Lighting Design Taking into Account the Non-Visual Effects of

Light.................................................................................................... 95
7.1 Living in Biological Darkness.................................................. 95
7.2 What Do We Expect from Healthy Lighting?..........................96
7.3 Dynamic Lighting....................................................................96
7.3.1 Daylight Oriented – Horizontal Illuminance
Controlled....................................................................97
7.3.2 Supporting Occupants’ Activity – Horizontal
Illuminance Controlled............................................... 98
7.3.3 Diurnal Synchronization – Vertical (at the Eye)
Illuminance Controlled............................................. 102
7.4 Lighting Design with Circadian Metrics................................ 105
7.4.1 Circadian Stimulus (CLA Model) in Lighting
Design........................................................................ 106
viii Contents

7.4.1.1 Examples of Dynamic Lighting

Schedules................................................... 107
7.4.1.2 Desktop Lighting for Delivering
Circadian Stimulus.................................... 109
7.4.2 Equivalent Melanopic Lux in Lighting Design......... 109
7.4.3 Comparison of CS and EML..................................... 110
7.5 Summary................................................................................ 113

Chapter 8 The Biology of Shift Work and the Role of Lighting in the
Workplace.......................................................................................... 115
8.1 Shift Work and Health............................................................ 115
8.1.1 Shift Work Tolerance................................................ 115
8.1.2 Shift Work Disorder.................................................. 117
8.2 Shift Work Lighting................................................................ 119
8.2.1 Dealing with Conflicting Visual and Non-Visual
Needs......................................................................... 119
8.2.2 Lighting Protocols Supporting the Occupant’s
Activity...................................................................... 120
8.2.2.1 Short-Term (Rotating)
Night Shift Work........................................ 120
8.2.2.2 Rotating “Swing Shift” Night Work.......... 123
8.2.2.3 Long-Term (Permanent) Night Shift
Work.......................................................... 125
8.2.2.4 Circadian Stimulus in Designing
Lighting for Shift Work............................. 126
8.2.3 Practical Examples of Shift Work Lighting.............. 127
8.2.3.1 Desktop Luminaire.................................... 127
8.2.3.2 Localized Luminaire................................. 127
8.2.3.3 General Lighting........................................ 137
8.3 Summary................................................................................ 139

Chapter 9 Human-Centric/Integrative Lighting Design.................................... 141

9.1 The Philosophy of Human-Centric Lighting.......................... 141
9.2 General Guidelines................................................................. 142
9.3 Visual Effects of Light........................................................... 143
9.3.1 Standard Lighting Code-Based Design..................... 143
9.3.2 Principles Beyond the Standard Lighting Codes...... 143
9.4 Non-Visual Effects of Light.................................................... 144
9.4.1 Circadian Lighting Guidelines.................................. 144
9.4.2 Cognitive and Creative Performance vs Some
Lighting Aspects....................................................... 145
9.5 Importance of Room Surface Reflectance and Color............. 146
9.6 Possible “Traps” in Lighting Assumptions............................. 147
9.6.1 CCT vs Spectral Power Distribution (SPD).............. 147
Contents ix

9.6.2 Cautious Exposure to Blue Light.............................. 149

9.6.3 Circadian Lighting and Glare.................................... 150
9.7 Estimated Benefits of Circadian Lighting for Employers...... 151
9.8 Summary................................................................................ 152

Chapter 10 Measurements and Assessment of Lighting Parameters and

Measures of Non-Visual Effects of Light.......................................... 153
10.1 Basic Classification................................................................. 153
10.2 Periodic Fast-Changing Light Intensity Over Time
(Temporal Distribution).......................................................... 153
10.2.1 Flicker Assessment.................................................... 153
10.2.2 Stroboscopic Effect Assessment............................... 155
10.3 Spatial Distribution of Luminance in the Field of View
(Luminance Map)................................................................... 157
10.4 Glare Assessment................................................................... 159
10.4.1 Subjective Assessment of Glare................................ 160
10.4.2 Simulation Assessment of Glare............................... 160
10.4.3 Objective Assessment of Glare at Indoor
Workplaces................................................................ 161
10.4.4 Uncertainty of UGR Determination.......................... 162
10.4.5 UGR Determination – the Problem of the
Angular Size of Glare Sources.................................. 163
10.5 Spectral Power Distribution of Light (SPD)........................... 164
10.5.1 Spectroradiometric Method...................................... 164
10.5.2 Radiometric/Dosimetric Method.............................. 165
10.6 Measurement of Psychophysiological Response to Light...... 167
10.6.1 Basic Assessment Methods....................................... 167
10.6.2 Brain Activity Recognition: EEG and fMRI............ 168
10.6.3 Light Impact on Alertness......................................... 169
10.6.4 Signals from Which Electrodes Should Be
Considered in the Alertness Assessment.................. 170
10.7 Summary................................................................................ 171
References.............................................................................................................. 175
Index....................................................................................................................... 197
Preface
Sunrise, sunset
Sunrise, sunset
Swiftly fly the years
One season following another
Laden with happiness and tears
Fiddler on the Roof

Jerry Bock, music, and Sheldon Harnick, lyrics

For ages, sunlight has participated in the development of all life forms on Earth.
The micro-world and the daily cycle of plants and animals all succumbed to the
light–dark rhythm. Over thousands of years human beings lived in accordance with
this pattern. It set a natural order which is the strongest of the circadian regulators.
The discovery and development of artificial light sources eliminated the workings
of this physiological clock. Today the external world is full of light pollution. We are
now looking for solutions which would integrate care for the natural environment,
energy-saving, and lighting efficiency. At the same time, we should pay attention
to the biological properties of our visual system, because the human eye does not
always function at its best in conditions which are thought to be optimal from the
point of view of technology.
The circumstances of modern life generated shift work, which has been legiti-
mized as a natural situation. We know the medical consequences for shift workers
(Shift Work Disorder (SWD)), but this does not mean we either can or want to give it
up; 24-hour operations are a practical necessity for the modern industrial economy.
At the societal level, SWD is associated with dramatically increased accident risk
and thus with financial and emotional costs borne both by workers and all of society,
by employers and the general public. This is why it is so important to keep look-
ing for solutions which would make it possible to build lighting sources that are as
friendly as possible to our eyes and to the higher levels of our central nervous system,
while minimizing the consequences of disrupting biological rhythms.
The authors look at lighting holistically, in recognition of its permanent and stable
role in our lives. Biology, physics, lighting engineering, and occupational safety and
health meet in this monograph in an interdisciplinary work. We hope that such an
approach will increase the number of readers who will find it of interest.

xi
Acknowledgments
Wishing a special thank you to Marzenna Rączkowska for proofreading this book.

xiii
Authors

Agnieszka Wolska, Ph.D., D.Sc. (Eng), was born in 1963. She graduated from the
Faculty of Electrical Engineering (specialization: Lighting Engineering) at the Warsaw
University of Technology (Poland) in 1988. In 1997 she earned her Ph.D., and in 2014
her D.Sc. (habilitation) degree from the Technical University of Białystok, Poland in the
field of lighting engineering.
Since 1989, she has been working at the Central Institute for Labour Protection –
National Research Institute (CIOP–PIB) in Warsaw, Poland, where she has held
the position of Associate Professor since 2014. She has been head of the Optical
Radiation Laboratory at CIOP–PIB since 1999.
Her current work involves activities in the area of lighting engineering, especially
as related to the influence of lighting on well-being and health (experimental studies
concerning evaluation of visual fatigue, visual comfort, glare assessment and mea-
surement, psychomotor performance, and alertness related to lighting of different
parameters) and visual ergonomics, as well as hazards arising from optical radiation.
Her scientific achievements include more than 90 scientific publications, such as
monographs, chapters in monographs, and scientific articles.
She is a member and the Polish representative of Division 1 “Colour and vision”
of the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) (since 1994), a member of the
Polish Ergonomics Society (since 2005), a member of the Presidium of the Polish
Committee on Illumination (1994–2002, and from 2014 until now), and a member of
the European network of specialists in the field of occupational safety and protection
EUROSHNET (since 2001).

xv
xvi Authors

Dariusz Sawicki, Ph.D., D.Sc. (Eng), was born in 1957. He earned his M.S. in
Electrical Engineering in 1981, his Ph.D. in 1986, and his D.Sc. (habilitation) degree
in 2008, all from the Warsaw University of Technology, Poland.
From 1986 to 2011, he was Research Assistant and Assistant Professor at the
Warsaw University of Technology, and since 2011 he has been Associate Professor
there. Since 2017, he has been Head of the Measurement and Information Systems
Division at the Institute of the Theory of Electrical Engineering, Measurement and
Information Systems of the Warsaw University of Technology. His main interests
include visual perception, measurement, and simulation in lighting technology, HCI,
and computer graphics. For almost ten years he has been involved in glare measure-
ment in indoor and outdoor workplaces. Currently, he conducts research on fatigue
detection using signals from various sensors and EEG analysis. His scientific hobby
is examining perceptual problems concerning geometric and color illusion in art,
computer graphics, and photography.
He is the author of more than 100 scientific publications: journal articles, chapters
in monographs, and conference papers. Dr Sawicki has served as the representative
of Poland in the 8th Division of CIE (International Commission on Illumination,
Division 8: Image Technology) in the years 2014–2017 and 2018–2022. He has been
a member of IEEE since 1992 (Senior Member since 2012), a member of ACM
since 2001 (Senior Member since 2011), and a member of the Polish Information
Processing Society since 1987.

Małgorzata Tafil-Klawe, Ph.D., Med.Sc., Professor of Medicine, is a graduate of

the Faculty of Medicine (specialization: human physiology) at the Medical University
in Warsaw (Poland), she is head of the Human Physiology Department of Ludwik
Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in
Toruń (Poland). In 1982 she defended her dissertation for the Ph.D., Med.Sc. degree,
and in 1991 her D.Sc., Med.Sc dissertation at the Medical University of Warsaw. In
2006 she was awarded the scientific title of Professor.
Currently she carries out research in the areas of human physiology, i.e. chronobi-
ology with elements of chronomedicine, sleep physiology, cardiovascular regulation,
respiratory medicine as well as in clinical physiology, e.g. in regulatory mechanisms
in sleep apnea syndrome and the function of the autonomic nervous system in CFS/
ME (Chronic Fatigue Syndrome). She was also involved in studies related to shift
work disorder and the influence of different colors of light on acute alertness.
She is a member of the Polish Physiological Society and President of the Polish
Society of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) Research.