4.

1 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

4.1.1 Definition and Notation

The Laplace transform of a function of t is written as {f(t)} and is given
by :

L { f (t )}   e  st f (t )dt  F ( s )
0
In connection with the above, the following points should be noted:

1. Since the integral above is a definite integral, t will not appear in

the evaluated integral. This integral will be a function of s only [F(s)].

2. The original variable need not be t ; the Laplace transform of a

is given by : 
function of x L { f ( x)}   e  sx f ( x)dx  F ( s )
0
t is most often used because the majority of Differential Equations have
time as the independent variable.

3. In the above, s is a parameter, ie., a constant of no particular given

value. However, because the definition involves an integral of an
exponential function (negative) to an infinite limit, it is assumed that s
is a positive whole number large enough to make the integral converge to a
definite value.

For example, if f(t) = e3t then s > 3

Because

 
1   3 s t   1
 st 3t
 e e dt   e(3 s )t dt   e   0  1
3 s 0 3 s
0 0
1

s 3

4.1.2 Transforms of Elementary Functions

1. f(t) = c = ct0 (c constant)


c
L { f (t )}  _{c}   e  st ct 0 dt  
s
0

 st c c
[e ]   [0  1]  ( s  0)
s s
0

2. f(t) = eat (a constant)

  
L  f (t )  L e   e 1   a  s t   1 1
at at
.e dt   e
 st a  s t
dt   e    0  1 
0 0
as 0 as sa

3. f(t) = tn (n is a positive integer)

i) Consider n = 1:

  
 1   1 1  1  1 1 1
L t   te dt    te st       e st dt  te st  0  2 e st  0  0  0  2 0  1  2
 st

0  s 0  s  0 s s s s s
ii) Consider n = 2:

   
 1   1
L t    t e dt    t 2e st       2te st dt  0  0   te st dt  0  * 2  3
2 2  st 1 2 2 1 2
0  s 0  s  0 s s0 s s s
Continuing this process we have, in general,

n!
L {t }   e  st t n dt 
n
n  0,1, 2,....
s n 1
0

In order to derive the Laplace transforms of:

4. sin at 5. cos at 6. sinh at 7. cosh at ;

we must consider the Linearity property of Laplace transforms.

If C1 and C2 are any constants, while f1(t) and f2(t) are functions with
Laplace transforms F1(s) and F2(s) respectively, then

L C1 f1 (t )  C2 f 2 (t )  C1 L  f1 (t )  C2 L  f 2 (t )  C1 * F1 ( s )  C2 * F2 ( s ) )

This result can be extended to more than two functions.

4. f(t) = sin at (a is real)

From previous work: cos at + j sin at = ejat ............ [1]

and cos(-at) + j sin(-at) = e-jat

 cos at - j sin at = e-jat ............ [2]

1   2  j 2sin at  e jat  e jat
1 jat  jat
 sin at  e  e 
j2 
 e jat  e  jat  1 1  1 1 
L sin at  L 
 j2

 j2
L e jat  e  jat  
1
j2

L e jat   L e  jat    
 
j 2  s  ja s  ja 
1  s  ja  s  ja  a
    2
j 2   s  ja  s  ja   s  a 2
5. f(t) = cos at (a is real)
s
From 4. add [1] + [2] and hence, L cosat} 
s  a2
2

6. f(t) = sinh at

 eat  e at  1 1 1 1  1  2a 
   L e   L e   
a
L sinh at  L  at  at
    2 2
 2
 2  2 2  s  a s  a  2  s  a  s  a2

7. f(t) = cosh at

 eat  e at  1 1 1 1  1  2s 
   L e + L e   
s
L cosh at  L  at  at
    2 2
 2
 2  2 2  s  a s  a  2  s  a  s  a2

4.1.3 Laplace Transforms of Products

We have derived the Laplace transforms of the seven basic mathematical
functions, viz., c, tn, eat, sin at, cos at, sinh at and cosh at.
The transforms of these functions are also given in a table (1 - 7).
Products of eat with any of the above are also given in the table
(8 - 12).
However, products of t_ with any of the above may occur and the following
rule may be applied to determine their Laplace transform.
dn
PRODUCT THEOREM: If L { f (t )}  F ( s), then L {t n f (t )}  ( 1) n [ F ( s)]
ds n
f (t )
RECIPROCAL THEOREM: If L { f (t )}  F ( s), then L { }  ( 1)  F ( s)ds
t
d 2  1  d  1 
Find (a) L t 2 e 2t    1
2
Example :   
2
2   2
ds  s  2  ds   s  2    s  2 3

d  s 
(b) L t cosh 3t   1  2 
 s 2  9   2s3
ds  s  9   s2  9
2

e2t 1
(c) L{ }  (1)  ds   ln  s  2 
t s2

Exercise 4 .1: Find the Laplace transforms of the following functions:

1. ½(eat + e-at) 2. t e-at 3. eat sin kt

4. e-3t cos 2t 5. cos 2t - cosh 4t 6. e-t(cos t + 5 sin t)

7. sin 3t - 3t cos 3t 8. t4 e3t - e-2t sin t 9. sin(3t - π/6)

10. 1 + t3 11. t2 sin at 12. cosh at cos at

 sinht
13. 3e-4t (cos 4t - t sin 4t) 14. e-t(t2 - 2t + 7) 15.
t
et  e  t
16. 17. e-t cos2t 18. 5t e3t sin2t
t

4.2 Inverse Laplace Transforms

In the previous section we used Laplace transforms to change a function
f(t) into a new function L  f (t )  F ( s)
In this section we will be concerned in reversing the procedure. The
function f(t) is called the INVERSE TRANSFORM of F(s) and is denoted as
follows:

f  t   L 1 F ( s)

NOTE: The term "inverse transform" is similar in meaning to the inverse

of a function.
For example, if f(x) = ex, then the inverse, denoted by F-1[f(x)], is the
function F-1(ex) = ln x.

The inverse Laplace transforms may be obtained from the same table of
transforms.
Example :
1  1  3t
If L  f (t )  then f (t )  L 1  e
s3  s  3
Example :
3s  3s  1  s 
If L  y   y  L 1  2   3L  2   3cos 2t
s 4
2
s  4 s  4
2s  5  2s  5  1  2 s 5 
Example : If L  y  2  y  L 1  2 L  2  2 
s 9 s 9 s 9 s 9
 s  5 1  3  5
 2 L 1  2  L  2   2 cosh 3t  sinh 3t
s 9 3 s 9 3
s 1 A Bs  C
Example : L { y}  2   2
s( s  6s  13) s s  6s  13
 s - 1 = A(s2 + 6s + 13) + s(Bs + C)

put s = 0 : -1 = 13 A  A = -1/13

Equate coefficients of s : 1 = 6A + C  C = 19/13

" " " s2 : 0=A+B  B = 1/13

 1 1  s  19  1 1 1   s  3  16 
L { y}     2   *   
13s 13  s  6 s  13  13 s 13   s  32  4 

1 1  1  1 1   s  3  1  8 1  2  1 e 3t
y  L   L    L      cos 2t  8sin 2t 
13  s  13   s  3  4  13   s  3  4  13 13

Exercise 4.2: Find the inverse Laplace transforms of the following:

3 7 1
1. (s + 3)(s - 2) 2.
s2 - 5s + 6 3. (s + 3)2 + 9
s+5 7! 5
4. (s + 5)2 + 22 5. (s - 3)8 6. s
s 1 5 7s 7s2 + 2s
7. s2 - 4 + s2 + 49 8. s - 3 + s2 + 25 9. (s2 + 4)(s2 - 9)
3s - 4
10. (s2 + 9)(s - 2)

4.3 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives

The most important property of Laplace transforms for solving D.E's
concerns the transform of a derivative of a function, f(t).
dy
Let  f '(t ) ,
dx

then L  f '(t )   e st f '(t )dt
0
Integrating by part



L  f '(t )  e  st
f (t )    se  st f (t )dt   f (0)  s L  f (t )
0
0

ie., L {f(t)} = s L {f(t)} - f(0)

This equation may be applied repeatedly to obtain the Laplace transform of

higher order derivatives:

L {f(t)} = s L {f(t)} - f(0) = s[s L {f(t)} - f(0)] - f(0)

ie.,
L {f(t)} = s2 L {f(t)} - s f(0) - f(0)

similarly,
L {f’’’(t)} = s3 L {f(t)} - s2f(0) - s f(0) - f(0)

and
L {fiv(t)} = s4 L {f(t)} - s3f(0) - s2f(0) - s f(0) - f’’’(0)

We can now apply the results obtained thus far to solve a differential
equations having initial conditions for the function and its derivatives.
 d 2x
Example : Solve  9x  2 such that when t = 0, x = 0 and
dt 2
dx
 0.
dt

A differential equation like this could model the dynamics of a control

system, and as Laplace transforms are used mostly in the analysis of
control systems, the following terminology and notation will be applied:

The solution of the differential equation, x, is a function of t and can be

written as x(t). This is called the RESPONSE of the system while the term
on the right-hand side of the differential equation is called the FORCING
term.

The initial conditions given above would be written as x(0) = 0; x(0) = 0,

and {x(t)} is written as X(s).
Taking the Laplace transform of each term of the differential equation, we
have:
d 2x 
L  2   9 L  x  L 2
 dt 
2
  s 2 X ( s )  sx(0)  x ' (0)   9 X ( s ) 
s
  s 2  9  X (s)  0s  0 
2
s
2
 X ( s) 
s  s  9
2

 2 
 x(t )  L1  
 s  s  9  
2

2
ie., x(t) is the inverse Laplace transform of To obtain this in a
s  s  9
2

form which appears in the table of Laplace transforms, we use partial

fractions.
2 A Bs  C A( s 2  9)  s( Bs  C )
  
s( s 2  9) s s 2  9 s( s 2  9)
 2  A( s 2  9)  s  Bs  C 
2
put s = 0 : 2 = 9A  A =
9

equate coefficients of s: 0 = C  C = 0

2
" " " s2: 0 = A + B  B = -
9
  2
2 1  1 s  2
x(t )  L 1  2  L   2   1  cos 3t 
 s  s  9   9 s s  9 9
Example : Solve y - 4y = 0 where y(0) = 1 and y(0) = 2
L  y   4 L  y  0
''

 s 2Y ( s )  sy (0)  y ' (0)  4Y ( s)  0

  s 2  4  Y (s)  s  2

s2  s2  2t
 Y ( s)   y (t )  L 1  e
s 4   s  2  s  2  
2

Exercise 4.3: Solve each of the following using Laplace transforms:

1. y + 4y = 16t ; y(0) = 3 , y(0) = -6

2. y + 2y + 5y = 0 ; y(0) = 3 , y(0) = -7

3. y - 3y + 2y = 12e4t ; y(0) = 1 , y(0) = 0

4. y - 5y + 4y = e2t ; y(0) = 1 , y(0) = 0

5. y + 2y + 2y = t ; y(0) = y(0) = 1

6. (D + 4)y = 1 ; y = 2 at t = 0

7. (D2 + 5D + 6)y = 3 ; y = 2 and Dy = 0 at t = 0

8. (D + 1)2y = sin t ; y = 3 and Dy = 1 at t = 0

dy 4
9. (D2 + 5D + 6)y = 2x - 1 ; y = 0 and  at x = 0
dx 3

d 2x dx dx
10. 3 2
-2 - x = 2t - 1 ; x = 7 and = -2 at t = 0
dt dt dt

11. (D2 + 2D + 4)y = 1 + t2 ; y = 4 and Dy = 2 at t = 0

4.4 Inverse Laplace Transforms by Convolution

Convolution is to do with the inverse transforms of the product functions.

Multiplication of transforms occurs frequently in ordinary differential
equations and integral equations. Remember L  f (t ) g (t )  L  f (t ) L  g (t )
and also L 1 F ( s)G ( s)  L 1 F ( s) L 1 G ( s) to find the correct answer we use
convolution theorem which state that:
t
If L  f (t )  F ( s) and L  g (t )  G ( s) then L 1 F ( s)G ( s)   f ( ) g (t   )d .
0

 4 
Example : Use convolution theorem to find L 1  
 s( s  1) 
 4  1  2 2  2 2
L 1  L     F ( s)   f (t )  2 and G( s)   g (t )  2et
 s( s  1)   s s  1 s s 1

 4 
t t

     et  d  4 et    4 1  et   4et  4
t  t
L 1   2 2e d  4
 s( s  1)  0 0
0

 9 
Example : Use convolution theorem to find L 1  2
 ( s  81) 
2

 9  1  1 9 
t
1
L 1  2
 L  2    sin 9 sin 9  t   d

 ( s  81)   s  81 s  81  0 9
2 2

t
1 1 
t
1
=  cos 18  9t   cos 9t d   sin 18  9t    cos 9t 
18 0 18 18 0
1 1  1
=
18  9
sin 9 t  t cos t  162  sin 9t  9t cos t 


Exercise 4.4:
Use convolution to evaluate:
 1   4   2s 
1. L 1  2
2. L 1   3. L 1  2
4.
 ( s  a)   s ( s  4)   ( s  1) 
2 2 2

 2 s 
L 1  2 2
 (s   ) 
2

1 9   1    e as 
1
5. L   6. L  2 2 2 
7. L   8.
 s ( s  3)   s (s   )   s( s  2) 
 40,5 
L 1  
 s ( s  9) 
 240   18s   se 6 s 
9. L 1   10. L 1   11. L 1  2 
12.
  s  1 ( s  25)   ( s  36)    s  5  
2 2 2
  4e3s    s  1 e  s   2e  s  4  
 2 s
1 1  1 
L   13. L   14. L   15.
 s( s  1)    s  4  s  2 s  1   ( s  5)
2 2 2 3
 

  s  5  e 3 s 
L 1  
 s  4 s  5 
2

4.5 Transforms of Special Functions

The Heaviside Unit Step Function

It is often necessary to solve linear D.E's with discontinuous
functions. Equations of this type are found in control system problems as
well as in mechanical vibration problems. To deal effectively with
functions having finite jump dis- continuities, it is helpful to introduce
the HEAVISIDE UNIT STEP FUNCTION.

0 t  a
The function is defined as U (t  a )   where a is a constant and
1 t  a
a0

The function can be represented graphically by:

a
Heaviside unit step function

Example : Sketch the graph of

f(t) = U(t - a) - U(t - b) ; a < b

0  0  0 0  t  a 
 
From the definition, f (t )  1  0  1 a  t  b 
1  1  0 t  b 
 

Hence,
f(t)

t
a b
Exercise 4.5: Sketch the following graphs for t > 0

1. f(t) = t2U(t) + (5 - t2) U(t - 3)

2. f(t) = U(t) - U(t - π) + sin t U(t-2π)

3. f(t) = t2 - (t - 2)2U(t - 2)

4. f(t) = g(t - 2 )U(t - 2), where g(t) = t2

5. f(t) = U(t - 1) + 2 U(t - 3) - 6 U(t - 4)

6. f(t) = t2 - t2U(t - 2)

4.6 Representation of an analytic Function in terms of the

Heaviside Step Function
Suppose we have a function f(t) that has non-zero values in the interval a
 f (t ), a  t  b
< t < b f (t )   1
only. That is , or, in terms of the
0, otherwise
Heaviside unit step function, we can write f(t) = f1(t) [U(t -
a) - U(t - b)]

 f1 (t ) 0  t  a 
 
In general, if f (t )   f 2 (t ) a  t  b  then in terms of the Heaviside
 f (t ) t  b 
 3 
function, we have f(t) = f1(t) [U(t - 0) - U(t - a)] + f2(t) [U(t -
a) - U(t - b)] + f3(t) U(t - b)
= f1(t) [1] + [f2(t) - f1(t)] U(t - a) + [f3(t) - f2(t)] U(t - b)
= f1(t) + [f2(t) - f1(t)] U(t - a) + [f3(t) - f2(t)] U(t - b)

t 2 0  t  2
Example : Express the function f (t )    in terms of the
3 t  2 
Heaviside function.

f(t) = f1(t) [U(t) - U(t - a)] + f2(t) U(t - a)

= f1(t) + [f2(t) - f1(t)] U(t - a)
= t2 + (3 - t2) U(t - 2)

Exercise 4.6: Express each of the following functions in terms of the

Heaviside unit step function:
2 0  t  1 sin t 0  t  
1. f (t )   2. f (t )  
t t  1 0 t 
 t2 0  t 1
0 0  t  3 
3. f (t )    t 4. f (t )  3 1 t  4
e t  3 0 t4

 
 sin3t 0t 
 2
5. f (t )  
0 
t

 2

4.7 Laplace Transforms of Heaviside Unit Step Functions

The Laplace transform of the Heaviside unit step function is given by:
 a  a 
1 
L U (t  a )   e U (t  a )dt   e U (t  a )dt   e U (t  a )dt   e (0)dt   e  st (1)dt  0  e  st  a
 st  st  st  st

0 0 a 0 a
s
 as  as
0e e
 
s s
[See no. 13 in the table of Laplace transforms]
e as
L U (t  a)} 
s
The Heaviside unit step function is also useful in shifting a function to
the right a distance of a units. For example, the function y = f(t) is shown
below while the function y = f(t - a) U(t - a) also shown below represents a
shifting of f (t ) a distance a in the positive direction of t.

y = f(t) y = f(t - a) U(t -

a)
The Laplace transform of a shifted step function is given by:
 a 
L  f (t  a )U (t  a )   e  st
f (t  a )U (t  a )dt   e  st
f (t  a )U (t  a )dt   e  st f (t  a )U (t  a )dt
0 0 a
a  
=  e  st f (t  a)(0) dt   e  st f (t  a )(1)dt  0   e  st f (t  a )dt
0 a a

We now introduce the new variable x  t  a , ie., dx  dt d and the limits for
t from a to  change to limits for x from a to  .
  
 s x  a 
e
0
f ( x)dx   e sa e sx f ( x)dx  e  sa  e  sx f ( x)dx
0 0
But
 

e f ( x)dx   e st f (t )dt (area under curve is zero from 0 to a)

 sx

0 0

L { f (t  a)U (t  a)}  e  as L { f (t )}
[See no. 14 in the table of Laplace transforms]

t 0  t  2
Example : Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  
2 t  2
Writing the function in Heaviside form, we have

f (t )  t 2   3  t 2 U  t  2 
1 e2 s
 F ( s)  L t  e2 s L t  
s2 s2
t 2 0  t  2
Example : Find the Laplace transform of f (t )  
3 t  2
From the example in the previous section, f(t) = t2 + (3 - t2) U(t - 2)
Using transform no. 15,


F ( s)  L t 2   e2 s L 3   t  2 
2
  s2  e L t
3
2 s 2
 4t  1 
2
s 3
 1 4 1
 e 2 s  3  2  
s s s

Example : Find the inverse transform of

1  3e5 s
F (s) 
s2
From no. 14:
L 1 e  as F ( s)  f (t  a)U (t  a)
1  3e 5 s  1  1  1  e
5 s

 L 1    L  2  3 L  2 
s 
2
 s   s 
 f (t )  t  3(t  5)U (t  5)
 t, 0  t  5

or f (t )   
15  2t , t  5


Exercise 4.7:
1. Find the Laplace transforms for the Heaviside unit step
functions in the previous exercise.

2. Find the inverse Laplace transforms for the following:

5e3s  e s 3e2 s  1
a) F (s)  b) F ( s )  1
s s2
e3s s 1  e s 
c) F ( s )  2 d ) F (s) 
 s  2 s2  4
2
4.8 Solutions of Differential Equations using Laplace Transforms

Example : Solve the initial value D.E. y - y = f(t) ; y(0) = 0,

y(0) = 0
 
sin t 0  t  2 
where f (t )   
0  
t
 2 
This problem can be interpreted as a spring-mass system (no damping) that
is at rest until time t = 0 and then subject to the periodic forcing
function, or input function, sin t until time t = π/2. After this time the
forcing function is removed.

     
Now, f (t )  f1  t  U (t  0)  U  t     f 2 (t )U  t  
  2   2
       
=sint U (t  0)  U  t     0U  t    sin t  sin tU  t  
  2   2  2

 s      
 L  f (t )  L sin t  e 2
L sin  t  U  t   
  2   2 
  
1  s    1  s 1  s s
=  e 2
L sin t cos  cos t sin    e 2
L cos t    e 2
s 1
2
 2 2  s 1
2
s 1
2
s 1
2

The differential equation is y - y = f(t), hence, L  y ''   Y ( s )  L  f (t )


1  s s
 s 2Y ( s )  sy (0)  y ' (0)  Y ( s)   e 2
s 1
2
s 1
2


  s 2  1 Y ( s )  sy (0)  0  2
1  s s
e 2 2
s 1 s 1

1  s s
 Y ( s)  2  e 2

 s  1 s 2  1  s 2  1 s 2  1
 1 
 s s 
 y (t )  L 1  2  e 2

  s  1 s  1  s 2  1 s 2  1 
2

Using partial fractions,

1  1  1  1  1    s  1    s 
y (t )   L 1  2   L 1  2   U  t   L 1  2   U  t   L 1  2 
2  s  1 2  s  1 2  2   s  1 2  2   s  1
1        
=  sinh t  sin t  U  t    cosh  t    cos  t    
2  2   2  2 
1      
  sinh t  sin t  U  t    cosh  t    sin t  
2  2   2 
Exercise 4.8: Solve the following:
0, 0  t  1
1. y + y = f(t) ; y(0) = 1, f (t )  
1, t 1
4t 0  t  1
2. y + 4y = f(t) ; y(0) = 1, y(0) = 0, f (t )   
4 t  1 
cos 4t , 0  t  
3. y + 4y = f(t) ; y(0) = 0, y(0) = 1, f (t )  
 0, t 
4. y - 5y + 6y = U(t - 1) ; y(0) = 0, y(0) = 1

5. y + 4y = sin t - sin(t - 2π) U(t - 2π) ; y(0) = 0, y(0) = 0

4.9 The Unit Impulse Function or the Dirac Delta Function

A force which is of relatively large magnitude and which acts on a system
for a relatively short period of time is called an IMPULSE.
It is defined as force times duration.
A sharp blow or a voltage surge are examples of impulses.

Although it is difficult to describe mathematically what happens to the

force during the time it is acting, we can think of the impulse as having a
constant value over a particular short interval. Furthermore, we can choose
this constant value in such a way that the total impulse is unity.

Let the short time interval be a - ε <

t < a + ε and the impulse be represented
by an impulse function denoted by
F(t).

Hence, from the figure alongside,

1
 ,a   t  a 
f (t )   2
0, otherwise

The physicist P. Dirac introduced the

Dirac delta function which has the
property of imparting a unit impulse
to the system at time t = a, but is
zero for all other values of t.


The delta function is defined as  (t  a)  0, t  a   (t  a )dt


The Laplace transform for the delta function is given in the table as no.
16, ie.,

L  (t  a)  e as
Example : Solve the initial value problem

y + 4y + 5y = δ(t - 1) ; y(0) = y(0) = 0

This equation could represent the damped motion of a mass on a spring which
is initially at rest, but which is set in motion at time t = 1 by a unit
impulse.

L  y ''  4 y '  5 y  L  (t  1)

 s2Y(s) - s y(0) - y(0) + 4{sY(s) - y(0)} + 5Y(s) = e-s
 (s2 + 4s + 5) Y(s) = e-s
e-s e-s 1
 Y(s) = ───────── = ────────── = e-s * ─────────
s2 + 4s + 5 (s + 2)2 + 1 (s + 2)2 + 1

= e-s * _-1{e-2t sin t} (no. 9)

 y(t) = e -2(t - 1) sin(t - 1) U(t - 1) (no. 14)

Exercise 4.9: Solve the following:

1. y + 3y = δ(t - 2) ; y(0) = 0
2. y - 3y = δ(t - 1) + 2U(t - 2) ; y(0) = 0
3. y + 9y = δ(t - π) - δ(t - 3π) ; y(0) = y(0) = 0
4. y + 2y + 2y = δ(t - π) ; y(0) = y(0) = 0
5. y + 2y + y = δ(t) + U(t - 2π) ; y(0) = 0, y(0) = 1

4.10 Applications of Laplace Transforms

4.10.1. Mechanical Systems

Consider the case in which a mass m is
attached to a spring mounted vertically
as shown in the figure alongside.

The system is in equilibrium. If the

mass is slightly displaced, vertical
oscillations will occur when the mass
is released. If y(t) is taken as the
immediate displacement of mass m at
time t, then the equation of motion of
the system is given by

d2y dy
m 2  c  ky  F (t )
dt dt
 dy
where c = damping force proportional to the velocity of m,
dt
ky = restoring force and F(t) = an external force exerted vertically on m.
dy
When there is no damping or external force present, c  0 and/or F(t) = 0.
dt

Example : A system oscillates with the following equation of

motion:
d2y
 2 y  6sin t
dt 2
dy 
If y = 0 at t = 0 and  1 at t  , determine the displacement of
dt 2
the mass at any time.

Applying Laplace transforms to both sides of the equation,

L  y ''   2Y ( s )  L 6sin t
6
 s 2Y ( s )  sy (0)  y '  2Y ( s) 
s 12

If y ' (0)  A   s 2  2  Y ( s)  2
6
A
s 1
6  As 2  A
 Y ( s)  2
 s  1 s 2  2 
By using partial fraction we get
6 A6
Y (s)   2
s 1 s  2
2

 1  A 1  2  6 1  2  A 6
 y (t )  6 L 1  2  L  2  L  2   6sin t  sin 2t  sin 2t
s  2 2  s  2  2  s  2  2 2

Since y(t) = 1 when t  , differentiate the above equation with respect
2
to t

    
 y(t) = 6 cos + A cos 2   - 6 cos 2   = 1
2 2 2

   
 A cos 2   - 6 cos 2   = 1  A = 4,35
2 2

 y(t) = 6 sin t + 3,075 sin 2t - 4,243 sin 2t = 6 sin t - 1,17 sin 2t

4.10.2. Electrical Circuits

As we saw in section 1.3,
d 2q dq q
L 2
R   E is the differential equation representing the circuit
dt dt C
dq
alongside and i 
dt
L
S

AC E

Example : A series circuit consists of a 6 Ω

resistor, a 0,1 F capacitor, a 1 H inductance and voltage
source of 20 sin 2t. The charge and current are zero at t = 0.
Determine the charge and current at any time
t > 0.

d 2q dq
Now, 2
 6  10q  20sin 2t and the initial conditions are q(0) = q(0) =
dt dt
0.
Applying Laplace transforms, we get
40
s 2 q ( s )  sq (0)  q ' (0)  6 sq ( s )  6q (0)  10q ( s ) 
s 4
2

  s 2  6 s  10  q ( s ) 
40
s 4
2

40
 q( s) 
 s  4  s 2  6s  10 
2

Using partial fractions to find the inverse Laplace transform, we get

4  s 1  4  s  5 
q( s)    2   
3  s  4  3  s 2  6 s  10 
4  s  1  4 1  s  5 
 q (t )   L 1  2  L  2 
3 s  4 3  s  6 s  10 
3
4  s  2 1  2  4 1   s  3  2 
  L 1  2  L  2  L  2 
3 s  4 3 s  4 3  s  6s  9  1 
4 2 4
  cos 2t  sin 2t  e 3t  cos t  2sin t 
3 3 3
dq 8 4 4 28 
Now i   sin 2t  cos 2t  e3t  cos t  sin t  when
dt 3 3 3 3 
8 4
t  , i  sin 2t  cos 2t
3 3
 Exercise 4.10:
d 2x
1. The equation of motion of a pendulum is given as  25 x  0 .
dt 2

Calculate the amplitude and frequency of the oscillations

if the initial velocity is zero and the initial
displacement is 20 cm.

2. A damped spring-mass system at rest is given a sharp blow

at time
t = 0. Determine the equation for the displacement of the
system if the mass is 1 kg, the spring constant k is 4
N/m, the damping constant c is 5 N/m/s and the blow
is 10 Ns.

3. The current i in a certain circuit is given by the D.E.

d 2q dq dq
2
 16  30q  250 where i 
dt dt dt

Find q and i after time t if q (0) = q(0) = 0.

4.11. Input and output function

Suppose we are given a system which is initially at rest with input u (t )

and output x (t ) is define by the diagram below

u (t ) PROCESSOR x(t )

The process depends on the rate at which the input is used up to give the
output. The rate includes the acceleration, velocity and displacement if
each function. All this components are related and described by the
differential equation
ax '' bx ' cx  du ' fu
The equation for the input has the lower degree to indicate the productive
system. If both equations have the same degree, the system is not
productive. If take the Laplace transforms of the differential equation we
will get the processor and we will called it as a transfer factor. The
symbol use for the transfer factor is 𝑮(𝒔) or𝑻(𝒔).
Example
Consider input – output system of differential equation which is initially
at rest

x '' 4 x ' 4 x  4u ' 8u; x '(0)  x(0)  u (0)

 1 2t
Determine x (t ) if u (t )  e
4

Solution
L  x '' 4 x ' 4 x  L 4u ' 8u
s 2 X ( s)  sx(0)  x(0)  4  sX ( s)  x(0)   4 X ( s)  4  sU ( s)  u (0)   8U ( s)
s 2
 4s  4  X ( s )   4s  8 U ( s )
X ( s) 4s  8 4  s  2 4
 2  
U ( s) s  4s  4  s  2  2
s2
1 2t 1 
then U ( s )  L u (t )  L  e 2t  
1
Since u (t )  e
4 4  4  s  2
 4  
 4 1   1  1 1 
x(t )  L 1  U ( s)   L 1  . L  . 
s  2   s  2 4  s  2 
  s  2 s  2
By applying convolution theorem

t
t
2 t  
t
 e4 2t  e2t  e2t
x(t )   e e 2
 
d  e 4  2 t
d    
0 0  4 0 4
Example 2
Find the output function x (t ) of the differential equation
3 x ''' x '' 4 x '  6u '' 2u ' 8u
if the input function is
u (t )  2sin t , x ''(0)  x '(0)  x(0)  u '(0)  u (0)  0

Solution
X ( s ) 6 s 2  2 s  8 2  3s  s  4  2
2

  
U ( s ) 3s 3  s 2  4 s s  s 2  s  4  s
2
X ( s)  U ( s)
s
But
2
U ( s)  L 2sin t
s 1
2

𝟐
𝑼(𝒔) = 𝓛[𝒖(𝒕)] = 𝓛[𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕] =
𝒔𝟐 +𝟏
Therefore
2 2 
t t
x(t )  L 1  . 2    2.2sin(t   )d  4  sin t.cos   sin  .cos t d  4 sin t.sin   cos  .sin t o
t

 s s  1 0 0

x(t )  4  sin 2 t  cos 2 t  cos t   4  4 cos t

Exercise 4.11

Find the transfer factor in each of the following input-output differential

equations.
1.
x '' 4 x ' 7 x  5u ' 3u; x '(0)  u (0)  0

2. x '' 2 x ' 2 x  u ' 3u; x '(0)  x(0)  u (0)  0

3. x ''' 2 x '' x ' 2 x  u ' u; x ''(0)  x '(0)  x(0)  u (0)  0

4. x '' 4 x ' 4 x  4u ' 8u; x '(0)  x(0)  u (0)  0

5. 3 x ''' x '' 4 x '  6u '' 2u ' 8u; x ''(0)  x '(0)  x(0)  u (0)  0

6. Find the 𝑥(𝑡) in the following system which are initially at rest
1
t
a. x '' 6 x ' 13x  2u ' u if u (t )  e 2

b. x '' 4 x ' 3 x  2u ' u if u (t )  e

2t