Wireless Communication & Telecom Technologies

Chapter 4
Cellular Concept
 Key Components of Wireless Communication:

● Transmitter: Converts information into radio signals.

● Receiver: Decodes radio signals back into usable information.
● Channel: The medium (air, space) through which signals travel.
● Antennas: Transmit and receive electromagnetic waves.

Cellular networks divide a geographic area into small cells, each served by a base station (BS), to

enable efficient frequency reuse and support millions of users. This concept revolutionized wireless

communication by improving coverage, capacity, and spectral efficiency.

Key Benefits of Cellular Systems:

✔ Frequency Reuse → Same frequencies reused in non-adjacent cells.

✔ Scalability → More users per unit area.

✔ Handoff Support → Seamless mobility between cells.

1 Frequency Characteristics, Spectrum, and Bands

A.Frequency Spectrum in Cellular Networks

● Low Frequency (LF, <1 GHz) → Better coverage (e.g., 700 MHz for 4G LTE).
● High Frequency (HF, >3 GHz) → Higher bandwidth but shorter range (e.g., 5G
mmWave).

B.Cellular Frequency Bands

Generation Frequency Bands Applications

2G (GSM) 900 MHz, 1800 MHz Voice & SMS

3G (UMTS) 850 MHz, 2100 MHz Mobile internet

4G (LTE) 700 MHz, 2.5 GHz HD streaming, VoIP

5G (NR) Sub-6 GHz, mmWave (24–100 GHz) IoT, AR/VR, autonomous cars
C.Frequency Applications

● Lower Bands (e.g., 600–900 MHz) → Rural coverage.

● Mid Bands (e.g., 1.8–3.5 GHz) → Urban/suburban networks.
● mmWave (e.g., 28 GHz, 39 GHz) → Ultra-high-speed 5G hotspots.

2 Frequency Reuse

● Concept: The same frequency is reused in different cells to maximize efficiency.

Cell Clustering & Reuse Distance (D)

Trade-offs:

● Small N → Higher capacity but more interference.

● Large N → Lower interference but reduced capacity.

3 Propagation in Cellular Systems

Signal dissemination from source to destination, reflection, diffraction, scattering
 Reflection occurs when signals bounce off surfaces, Examples include buildings, earth, and
other large objects.
 Diffraction is the bending of signals around obstacles; Examples include hills, buildings, and
other obstacles that are smaller than the signal's wavelength.
 Scattering is the redirection of signals by small obstacles.
These mechanisms affect signal strength and can create multiple paths for the signal to reach the
destination.

A.Path Loss Models

Propagation path models are mathematical frameworks used to predict how radio waves travel

from a transmitter to a receiver in different environments. These models help engineers:

● Estimate signal strength at a given distance.

● Design cell coverage areas for cellular networks.
● Optimize antenna placement and transmit power.
● Analyze multipath effects (reflections, diffractions, scattering).
 B.Fading & Multipath Effects

Shadowing → Large-scale signal variation.

● Rayleigh Fading → Small-scale multipath fading.

4 Multiplexing & Modulation in Cellular Systems

A.Multiplexing Techniques

Technique Description Example

FDMA Divides spectrum into channels 1G (AMPS)

TDMA Assigns time slots to users 2G (GSM)

CDMA Uses unique codes for users 3G (CDMA2000)

OFDMA Divides bandwidth into subcarriers 4G/5G (LTE, NR)

B.Modulation Schemes

● QPSK → Robust but slow (used in 3G).

● 16-QAM/64-QAM → Higher data rates (4G/5G).
● 256-QAM → Used in 5G mmWave.

5 Antenna Systems in Cellular Networks

A.Types of Antennas

● Omnidirectional → Covers 360° (macro cells).

● Directional (Sectorized) → Focused beams (microcells).
● MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) → Improves capacity (4G/5G).

B.Beamforming (5G)

● Adaptive Antennas → Focus signals toward users.

● Massive MIMO → Uses dozens of antennas (e.g., 64T64R in 5G).
6 Handoff Strategies
Transfer communication during movement

A.Types of Handoffs

1. Hard Handoff → "Break before make" (used in GSM).

2. Soft Handoff → "Make before break" (used in CDMA).
3. Softer Handoff → Between sectors of the same cell.

B.Handoff Decision Parameters

● Signal Strength (RSSI)

● Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
● Distance from Base Station

7 Interference & System Capacity

A.Types of Interference

1. Co-Channel Interference (CCI) → Same frequency in nearby cells.

2. Adjacent-Channel Interference (ACI) → Leakage from neighboring frequencies.

B.Capacity Enhancement Techniques

● Cell Splitting → Smaller cells → More users.

● Sectorization → Directional antennas → Less interference.
● Power Control → Adjusts transmit power dynamically.

8 Trunking & Grade of Service (GOS)

A.Trunking Theory

● Concept: Shared channels among multiple users.

B.Grade of Service (GOS)

● Definition: Probability of call blocking (e.g., 2% GOS = 2% calls blocked).

● Typical Target: <5% for voice networks.
 9 Improving Coverage & Capacity

A.Coverage Enhancement

● Repeaters → Extend signal range.

● Small Cells → Femtocells, picocells.

B.Capacity Enhancement

● Carrier Aggregation (CA) → Combines multiple frequency bands.

● Network Densification → More base stations per area.

Chapter Summary

Concept Key Takeaway

Frequency Reuse Enables efficient spectrum utilization.

Handoff Strategies Ensures seamless mobility (hard/soft handoffs).

Interference Sectorization, power control, and MIMO help reduce

Mitigati interference.
on
Trunking & GOS Determines call-blocking probability.

Chapter 4: Cellular Network

Wireless communication systems enable data and voice transmission without physical cables, using

radio waves, microwaves, and infrared signals. These systems have evolved from 1G (analog

voice) to 5G (ultra-fast internet & IoT), with various network types (WPAN, WLAN, WMAN,

WWAN) serving different coverage needs.

This chapter covers:

✔ Evolution of cellular networks (1G → 5G)

✔ Key wireless standards (GSM, CDMA, LTE, 5G NR)

✔ Types of wireless networks (WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, WWAN)

1 First Generation (1G) Cellular Networks (1980s)

Key Features:

● Analog transmission (Frequency Modulation – FM).

● Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) – Each call used a separate
frequency.
● Limited to voice calls (no data).

Technologies:

● AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) – Used in North America.

● NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) – Used in Europe.

Limitations:

❌ No encryption (calls were easily intercepted).

❌ Poor battery life & call quality.
❌ Incompatible across regions.

2 Second Generation (2G) Cellular Networks (1990s)

Key Improvements:

✔ Digital transmission (better voice quality & security).

✔ SMS (Short Message Service) introduced.

✔ Basic data services (9.6 Kbps).

2.1 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

 ● Most widely used 2G standard.
● Used SIM cards for user identification.
● TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) – Divided frequency into time slots.

2.2 2.5G (GPRS & EDGE)

Technology Speed Use Case

GPRS 56–114 Kbps Basic internet (WAP, email)

EDGE Up to 384 Kbps Faster mobile browsing

Limitations:

❌ Still too slow for video streaming.

3 Third Generation (3G) Wireless Networks (2000s)

Key Features:

✔ Mobile broadband (2 Mbps peak speed).

✔ Video calling & internet access.

Technologies:

● UMTS (WCDMA) – Used in Europe.

● CDMA2000 – Used in North America.

Applications:

● Skype, mobile YouTube, GPS navigation.

Limitations:

❌ High latency (~100 ms).

4 Fourth Generation (4G) Wireless Networks (2010s)

Key Features:

✔ All-IP network (VoLTE – Voice over LTE).

✔ 100 Mbps – 1 Gbps speeds.

✔ Low latency (~30 ms).

Technologies:

● LTE (Long-Term Evolution) – Most widely adopted.

● WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) – Alternative for rural areas.

Applications:

● HD video streaming (Netflix, Zoom).

● Online gaming & cloud services.

5 Fifth Generation (5G) Wireless Networks (2020s)

Key Features:

✔ Ultra-fast speeds (1–10 Gbps).

✔ Ultra-low latency (<1 ms).

✔ Massive IoT connectivity (1M devices/km²).

Technologies:

● mmWave (24–100 GHz) – Extreme speeds but short range.

● Sub-6 GHz (1–6 GHz) – Balanced speed & coverage.

Applications:

● Autonomous vehicles.
 ● Augmented Reality (AR) & Virtual Reality (VR).

2.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Mobile computing refers to the use of portable computing devices to access and process data

while on the move. It enables users to interact with information systems without being tied

to a fixed physical location.

Key Characteristics:

✔ Mobility: Devices can move freely within networks

✔ Portability: Small, lightweight form factors

✔ Wireless Connectivity: Relies on cellular/Wi-Fi/Bluetooth

✔ Location Awareness: GPS-enabled services

✔ Ubiquitous Access: Information available anytime, anywhere

2 Evolution of Mobile Computing

Generation Key Developments Example Devices

1980s Portable computers Luggables (Osborne 1)

1990s PDAs, early Palm Pilot, Nokia

smartphones Communicator

2000s Feature phones, 3G BlackBerry, early iPhone

2010s Smartphone revolution Android/iOS devices

2020s 5G, wearables, IoT Foldables, smartwatches

3 Mobile Computing Architecture

Three-Tier Architecture:
 1. Presentation Tier: Mobile device interface
2. Application Tier: Middleware and business logic
3. Data Tier: Cloud/enterprise databases

Key Components:

● Mobile Devices: Smartphones, tablets, wearables

● Wireless Networks: 4G/5G, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth
● Cloud Infrastructure: Storage and processing backend
● Middleware: Connects devices to enterprise systems

4 Mobile Operating Systems

OS Market Share Key Features

Android ~70% Open-source, Google ecosystem

iOS ~28% Closed ecosystem, premium UX

Others <2% HarmonyOS, KaiOS

5 Mobile Applications

Types of Mobile Apps:

1. Native Apps: Platform-specific (Swift for iOS, Kotlin for Android)

2. Web Apps: Browser-based (HTML5, JavaScript)
3. Hybrid Apps: Combine native and web technologies (React Native, Flutter)

Development Considerations:

● Screen size variations

● Battery/power optimization
● Security requirements
● Offline functionality
6 Mobile Cloud Computing
 Key Concepts:

● Offloading: Moving processing to cloud servers

● Elastic Resources: Scalable compute/storage
● Mobile Backend as a Service (MBaaS): Pre-built cloud services

Benefits:

✔ Extends device capabilities

✔ Enables data synchronization

✔ Reduces local storage needs

7 Challenges in Mobile Computing

1. Power Consumption: Battery life limitations

2. Security Vulnerabilities: Data leakage, malware
3. Heterogeneous Networks: Seamless handoffs between Wi-Fi/cellular
4. Small Interfaces: Limited input/output capabilities
5. Connectivity Issues: Dead zones, bandwidth fluctuations

8 Emerging Trends

1. 5G Networks: Ultra-low latency applications

2. Edge Computing: Processing data closer to source
3. Foldable Devices: New form factors
4. AI Integration: On-device machine learning
5. AR/VR Applications: Mobile-powered immersive experiences

9 Mobile Computing in Industry

Enterprise Applications:

● Field service management

● Sales force automation
● Inventory tracking
 Consumer Applications:

● Mobile banking
● Ride-sharing apps
● Social media platforms

Healthcare Applications:

● Remote patient monitoring

● Telemedicine consultations
● Wearable health trackers

Chapter Summary

Generation Speed Key Tech Use Case

1G 2.4 Kbps Analog (AMPS) Voice calls

2G 9.6–384 Kbps GSM, CDMA SMS, basic internet

3G 2 Mbps UMTS, CDMA2000 Video calls, mobile web

4G 100Mbps–1 Gbps LTE, WiMAX HD streaming, VoIP

5G 1–10 Gbps mmWave, Sub-6 IoT, AR/VR, autonomous cars

GHz

Key Takeaways:

✔ Mobile computing enables ubiquitous access to information

✔ Relies on portable devices and wireless networks

✔ Faces unique challenges around power and connectivity

✔ Continues to evolve with 5G and edge computing

Chapter 5: Mobile Radio Propagation

1. Large-Scale Path Loss

1.1 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation

Radio wave propagation refers to how electromagnetic waves travel from a transmitter to

receiver through different environments.

Mobile radio propagation models are essential for network planning, coverage optimization,

and interference mitigation. Future trends include AI-driven propagation prediction and

real-time ray tracing for 6G. The next chapter covers modulation and coding techniques.

Key concepts:

● Large-scale effects: Average signal power over large distances (km)

● Small-scale effects: Rapid fluctuations over short distances (m)

● Frequency dependence: Higher frequencies attenuate faster

● Environment impact: Urban, suburban, rural, indoor scenarios

1.2 Free Space Propagation Model

Predicts signal attenuation in unobstructed environments:

Free Space Path Loss (FSPL) Equation:

PL(dB) = 20log₁₀(d) + 20log₁₀(f) + 20log₁₀(4π/c)

= 32.44 + 20log₁₀(d_km) + 20log₁₀(f_MHz)

Example: 1 GHz signal at 1 km → 92.44 dB path loss

Limitations:

● Only valid for line-of-sight (LoS) conditions

● Doesn't account for reflections/diffractions

1.3 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

1. Reflection:

○ Occurs at smooth surfaces (buildings, ground)

○ Fresnel reflection coefficients determine reflection magnitude

2. Diffraction:

○ Wave bending around obstacles (knife-edge effect)

○ Enables signal reception in shadowed regions

3. Scattering:

○ Caused by rough surfaces (foliage, signs)

○ Rayleigh criterion determines surface roughness effect

1.4 Outdoor Propagation Models

Empirical Models:

● Log-Distance Path Loss:

● PL(d) = PL₀ + 10n·log₁₀(d/d₀) + Xσ

○ n = path loss exponent (2-6)

○ Xσ = shadow fading (log-normal)

● Hata-Okumura Model:

○ Frequency: 150-1500 MHz

○ Accounts for urban/suburban/rural differences

● COST-231 Extension:

○ Extends Hata to 2 GHz for urban microcells

Deterministic Models:

● Longley-Rice: Terrain-aware model

● ITU-R P.1546: Point-to-area predictions

1.5 Indoor Propagation Models

Key Characteristics:

● Waveguide effects in corridors

● Floor/wall penetration losses

● Dense multipath environment

Common Models:

● Log-Distance Path Loss (n=1.6-6)

● ITU Indoor Model (includes floor loss)

● Motley-Keenan: Wall attenuation factor model

1.6 Signal Penetration into Buildings

Penetration Loss by Material:

Material Loss (dB) Frequency

Drywall 2-4 2.4 GHz

Concrete 10-20 5 GHz

Glass 3-6 3.5 GHz

Frequency Dependence:

● Lower frequencies (sub-1GHz) penetrate better

● mmWave (24+ GHz) severely attenuated

 1.7 Ray Tracing and Site-Specific Modeling

Ray Tracing Approaches:

1. Geometric Optics (GO): Simple reflection/diffraction

2. Shooting-and-Bouncing Rays (SBR): High accuracy

Implementation:

● Requires 3D building databases

● Accounts for:

○ Material properties

○ Antenna patterns

○ Polarization effects

Applications:

● 5G mmWave planning

● Indoor Wi-Fi optimization

2. Small-Scale Fading and Multipath

2.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation

Characteristics:

● Caused by constructive/destructive interference

● Rapid signal fluctuations over λ/2 distances

● Time dispersion (delay spread)

● Frequency dispersion (Doppler spread)

2.2 Impulse Response Model

Channel Impulse Response:

h(τ,t) = Σa (t)e^(-jθ (t))δ(τ-τ (t))

● a◻ = amplitude

● θ◻ = phase

● τ◻ = time delay

2.2.1 Small-Scale Measurements

● Direct RF Pulse: Simple but low resolution

● Spread Spectrum Correlator: Better multipath resolution

● Frequency Domain: Channel sounders

2.2.2 Multipath Channel Parameters

1. Time Dispersion:

○ Mean excess delay

○ RMS delay spread

○ Coherence bandwidth

2. Frequency Dispersion:

○ Doppler spread

○ Coherence time

2.2.3 Types of Small-Scale Fading

Fading Type Condition Effect

Flat Bw < Coherence Bw All frequencies fade equally

Frequency Selective Bw > Coherence Bw Different frequencies fade differently

Fast T◻ > Coherence Channel changes within symbol
Time period

Slow T◻ < Coherence Channel constant over symbol

Time period

2.2.4 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions

● Rayleigh: No dominant LoS component

● f(r) = (r/σ²)exp(-r²/2σ²)

● Ricean: Dominant LoS plus scatterers

● f(r) = (r/σ²)exp(-(r²+A²)/2σ²)I₀(rA/σ²)

○ K = A²/2σ² (Rice factor)

2.2.5 Statistical Fading Models

1. Clarke's Model: 2D isotropic scattering

2. Jakes' Simulator: Efficient implementation

3. 3GPP/ITU Models: Standardized for system testing

2.2.6 Multipath Shape Factors Theory

Characterizes fading channels using:

● Angular spread

● Directional spread

● Azimuthal distribution

Applications:

● MIMO system design

● Spatial channel modeling

Chapter Summary

Key Concepts:

● Large-scale models predict average signal strength over distance

● Small-scale models characterize rapid signal fluctuations

● Propagation mechanisms include reflection, diffraction, scattering

● Modern planning uses ray tracing and 3D modeling

Practical Implications:

● Cell planning requires appropriate path loss models

● System design must account for fading characteristics

● Material properties significantly impact indoor coverage

● mmWave systems need site-specific modeling