BEEE ASSIGNMENT

Bipolar junction transistor

By Parav Sharma
IT SECTION II
UE248066

Submitted to

MS. AMANPREET

1 Parav Sharma
1. Introduction
From 1904-1947, vacuum tubes dominated electronics, starting with Fleming’s diode (1904)
and De Forest’s triode amplifier (1906). Radio/TV demand surged tube production to
100 million by 1937, with tetrodes and pentodes enhancing performance. On December 23,
1947, Brattain and Bardeen at Bell Labs unveiled the first transistor, revolutionizing
electronics. Unlike bulky, power-hungry tubes, transistors were smaller, lightweight, energy-
efficient, instant-on, and rugged. This three-terminal solid-state device enabled modern
electronics by offering lower voltages, no heater loss, and higher efficiency. The transistor’s
advent marked a paradigm shift, replacing tubes and paving the way for compact, reliable
amplifiers and digital technology.

2. Transistor Construction and Operation

Transistor Construction
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device that forms the
backbone of modern electronics. It consists of three distinct semiconductor layers arranged in
either an npn or pnp configuration.
0.150 in. 0.150 in.
0.001 in. 0.001 in.

E C E C
p n p n p n
n
B B

Figure 1. pnp transistor Figure 2. npn transitor

Layer Structure Doping:

Emitter (E):

• Heavily doped (e.g., with arsenic for npn or boron for pnp) to maximize charge carrier
injection.
• Acts as the source of majority carriers (electrons in npn, holes in pnp).

Base (B):

• Very thin (typically less than 1 micron) and lightly doped to minimize carrier
recombination.
• Controls the flow of carriers from emitter to collector.

Collector (C):

• Moderately doped and physically larger than the emitter to dissipate heat efficiently.
• Collects the majority of carriers that pass through the base.

IT Section II (UE248066) 2
 The base layer is intentionally kept thin and lightly doped to ensure most carriers from the
emitter reach the collector, making the transistor efficient for amplification.

Physical Layout:

The emitter and collector layers are much wider than the base. For example, in some transistors,
the width ratio of emitter-to-base-to-collector can be 150:1:150, highlighting how thin the
base is. The doping concentration of the base is also 100 times less than the emitter and
collector, increasing its resistance and reducing unwanted carrier recombination.

Transistor Operation
The operation of a BJT depends on how its two pn junctions (emitter-base and collector-base)
are biased. Proper biasing allows the transistor to function as an amplifier or a switch.

Figure 3. Biasing a transistor: (a) forward-bias; (b) reverse-bias

Biasing Modes:

1. Active Mode (Amplification):

• Emitter-Base (EB) Junction: Forward-biased, allowing majority carriers to inject into
the base.
• Collector-Base (CB) Junction: Reverse-biased, collecting most carriers that pass
through the base.
• Current Flow:
Emitter current (IE ) splits into base current (IB ) and collector current (IC ). Only ~1% of
carriers recombine in the base (IB ), while ~99% reach the collector (IC ).
• Equation:

1IE = IC + IB 1

2. Cutoff Mode (OFF State):

• Both junctions are reverse-biased, blocking almost all current flow.
• Used in switching applications to represent a logical “0”.
3. Saturation Mode (ON State):
• Both junctions are forward-biased, allowing maximum current flow.
• Acts as a closed switch (logical “1”).

Current Components and Leakage:

• Majority Carriers: Form the primary collector current (IC ).

3 Parav Sharma
 • Minority Carriers: Cause a small leakage current (ICO) in the reverse-biased CB
junction. ICO is temperature-sensitive but negligible in modern transistors.

+ Majority carriers + Minority carriers

p n p
IE IC
E C

B
Depletion regions
IB
+ – + –
VEE VCC

Figure 4. Majority and minority carrier flow of a pnp transistor.

Table - Transistor Operation Modes:

Mode EB Junction CB Junction Primary Use

Active Forward-biased Reverse-biased Amplification
Cutoff Reverse-biased Reverse-biased OFF State (Switch)
Saturation Forward-biased Forward-biased ON State (Switch)

✓ npn uses electrons while pnp uses holes as majority carriers.

KEYPOINTS

✓ Base is ultra-thin and lightly doped to minimize carrier recombination.

✓ Emitter is heavily doped for maximum charge carrier injection efficiency
✓ Active mode enables amplification via base current (IB ) controlling collector current (IC ).
✓ Cutoff/Saturation modes provide digital ON/OFF switching functionality.
✓ ICO (leakage current) is insignificant in modern transistors due to improved manufacturing.

3. Common Base Configuration

The common-base (CB) configuration is a fundamental transistor connection where the base
terminal serves as the common reference point for both input and output circuits. In this setup,
the input signal is applied between the emitter and base, while the output is taken from the
collector and base. This configuration is particularly useful in high-frequency
applications due to its excellent voltage gain and bandwidth characteristics, though it provides
no current gain (α < 1).

Circuit Setup and Biasing

For proper operation, the CB configuration requires specific biasing conditions:

• Emitter-Base (EB) Junction: Must be forward-biased (typically VBE ≈ 0.7 V for

silicon transistors) to allow majority carriers (electrons in npn, holes in pnp) to inject
into the base.
• Collector-Base (CB) Junction: Must be reverse-biased (VCB > 0) to collect the
diffused carriers.

IT Section II (UE248066) 4
 IE IC IE IC
p n p n p n
E C E C
B B
IB IB

+ – + – – + – +
VEE VCC VEE VCC

IE IC IE IC
E C E C

IB IB

B B

(a) (b)

Figure 5. Notation and symbols used with the common-base configuration: (a) pnp transistor; (b) npn transistor.

Current Flow Characteristics:

The emitter current (IE ) splits into:

1. Collector Current (IC ): Majority of carriers (≈ 99%) reach the collector.

2. Base Current (IB ): A small fraction (≈ 1%) recombines in the base.
This relationship is defined by Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

IE = IC + IB

Input and Output Characteristics

The CB configuration is analysed using two key characteristic curves:

Input Characteristics (IE vs VBE ):

Figure 6. Input or driving point characteristics for a common-base silicon transistor amplifier.

It resembles a forward-biased diode curve. For a fixed VCB , IE increases exponentially

with VBE . In the active region, VBE ≈ 0.7 V (silicon) regardless of IE .

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 Output Characteristics (IC vs VCB ):

• Active Region: IC ≈ IE and remains nearly constant for changes in VCB . This flat curve
indicates high output impedance.
• Cutoff Region: IC = ICBO (minute leakage current, typically nanoamperes).
• Saturation Region: IC rises sharply when VCB < 0 V (both junctions forward-biased).
IC (mA)

Active region (unshaded area)

7 mA
7

6 mA
6

5 mA
5

4 mA
4

3 mA
3

2 mA
2

I E = 1 mA
1
ICO = ICBO
I E = 0 mA
0
−1 0 10 20 30 40 V CB (V)
Cutoff region BVCBO

Figure 7. Output or collector characteristics for a common-base transistor amplifier.

Key Parameters
Current Gain ():
IC
• DC Alpha (dc): Ratio of collector to emitter current i.e., dc = . Typically, 0.95 to
IE
0.99 (always < 1 due to base recombination).
IC
• AC Alpha (ac ): Small-signal gain i.e., dc = . Nearly equal to dc in practical
IE
circuits.

Leakage Current (ICBO):

• Minority-carrier current in the reverse-biased CB junction.

• Modern transistors minimize ICBO (nanoampere range), making it negligible in most
applications.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

• High Voltage Gain: Achieved due to low input impedance (≈ 20-100 Ω) and high
output impedance (≈ 50 kΩ-1 MΩ).
• No Phase Shift: Input and output signals are in phase.

IT Section II (UE248066) 6
 • Excellent High-Frequency Response: Preferred for RF and cascode amplifiers.

Disadvantages:

• Low Input Impedance: Requires strong signal sources.

• Current Gain < 1: Unsuitable for current amplification.

Applications
1. Radio Frequency (RF) Circuits: CB’s bandwidth suits tuners and oscillators.
2. Impedance Matching: Connects high-Z sources to low-Z loads.
3. Cascode Amplifiers: Combines CB with CE for enhanced performance.
KEYPOINTS

✓ The base is common to input and output, with the emitter as input and collector as output.
✓ Active mode requires EB forward-biased and CB reverse-biased (IC ≈ IE ).
✓  ≈ 0.99 for practical transistors, but ICBOICBO becomes significant at high temperatures.
✓ Voltage gain is high, but current gain () < 1 limits power amplification.
✓ Preferred for high-frequency applications due to wide bandwidth and stability.

4. Common Emitter Configuration

The common-emitter (CE) configuration is the most widely used transistor arrangement due to
its high current and voltage gain. In this setup, the emitter terminal is common to both input
(base-emitter) and output (collector-emitter) circuits. The CE configuration is preferred for
amplification because it provides significant power gain, making it ideal for audio amplifiers,
signal processing, and switching applications.

Circuit Setup and Biasing

Biasing Conditions:

• Base-Emitter (BE) Junction: Must be forward-biased (VBE ≈ 0.7 V for Si).

• Collector-Emitter (CE) Junction: Must be reverse-biased (VCE > VBE ).

Current Relationships:

• Emitter Current (IE ): Splits into collector current (IC ) and base current (IB ).

IE = IC + IB

• Collector Current: Dominated by majority carriers i.e., IC ≈ IE (since IB is small).

Key Biasing Rule:

For active mode operation, ensure:

• VBE = 0.7 V (forward bias).

• VCE > VBE (reverse bias).

7 Parav Sharma
 (a) (b)

Figure 8. Notation and symbols used with the common-emitter configuration: (a) npn transistor; (b) pnp transistor.

Input and Output Characteristics

Input Characteristics (IB vs VBE ):

Figure 9. Characteristics of a silicon transistor in the common-emitter configuration: base characteristics

It resembles a diode curve (exponential rise in IB with VBE ). VBE ≈ 0.7 V for Si transistors in
the active region.

Output Characteristics (IC vs VCE ):

• Active Region: IC is nearly constant for a fixed IB (high output impedance).

• Saturation Region: IC rises sharply when VCE < VBE (both junctions forward-biased).
• Cutoff Region: IC ≈ ICEO (leakage current) when IB = 0.

IT Section II (UE248066) 8
 Figure 10. Characteristics of a silicon transistor in the common-emitter configuration: collector characteristics

Breakdown Region:

Figure 11. Examining the breakdown region of a transistor in the common-emitter configuration

• BVCEO: Maximum VCE before avalanche breakdown (lower than BVCBO).

• Negative Resistance: Occurs at high VCE , where IC increases while VCE decreases.

Key Parameters
Current Gain ():
IC
• DC Beta (dc ): dc = (Typical range: 50–400).
IB
IC
• AC Beta (ac): ac = (Similar to dc in practice).
IB

9 Parav Sharma
 Leakage Currents:

ICEO: Collector-emitter leakage current when IB .

ICEO = ( + 1) ICBO

• Silicon Transistors: ICEO is negligible (nanoamperes).

• Germanium Transistors: Higher leakage; cutoff requires IB < 0.

Relationship Between  and :

 
= and  =
1− 1+

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

• High Current Gain (): IC = IB .

• High Voltage Gain: Due to moderate input and high output impedance.
• Phase Inversion: Output signal is 180° out of phase with input.

Disadvantages:

• Thermal Instability:  and ICEO are temperature-sensitive.

• Non-linearity: Gain varies with operating point.

Applications
1. Audio Amplifiers: CE provides high voltage and current gain.
2. Switching Circuits: Saturation (ON) and cutoff (OFF) modes.
3. Signal Processing: Used in oscillators and modulators.
KEYPOINTS

✓ CE Configuration: Most common due to high power gain.

✓ Active Mode: BE forward-biased, CE reverse-biased (IC = IB ).
✓  Values: Typically 50-400; dc ≈ ac .
✓ Breakdown Voltage (BVCEO ): Lower than BVCEO; avoid exceeding it.
✓ Leakage Current: ICEO is critical for cutoff definition in Si/Ge transistors.

4. Common Collector Configuration

The common-collector (CC) configuration, also called the emitter-follower, is the third
primary transistor arrangement. It is characterized by:

• High input impedance (minimal loading on preceding stages).

• Low output impedance (can drive heavy loads).
• Voltage gain ≈ 1 (output voltage follows input, hence “follower”).
• Primary use: Impedance matching between high-Z sources and low-Z loads.

IT Section II (UE248066) 10
 Circuit Setup and Biasing
Terminal Roles:

• Input: Applied between base (B) and collector (C).

• Output: Taken from emitter (E) to ground (collector is often grounded).

Biasing Conditions:

• Base-Emitter (BE) Junction: Forward-biased (VBE ≈ 0.7 V).

• Base-Collector (BC) Junction: Reverse-biased.

Practical Configuration:

• Load resistor (RL ) connected between emitter and ground.

• Collector tied directly to ground (simplifies design).

Figure 12. Notation and symbols used with the common-collector configuration: (a) pnp transistor; (b) npn transistor.

Circuit Setup and Biasing

Input Characteristics:

Similar to common-emitter but with higher input impedance (reverse-biased BC junction).

Output Characteristics:

• Plot: IE vs VEC for varying IB .

• Key Regions:
➢ Active Region: IE ≈ IC (stable for fixed IB ).
➢ Saturation Region: IE drops sharply when VEC < VBE .
• Output curves resemble common-emitter but with VEC instead of VCE .

11 Parav Sharma
 Key Parameter
Voltage Gain (AV ):

AV ≈ 1(Output mirrors input minus 0.7 V)

Current Gain ():

IE
= = β + 1 (High current gain)
IB

Impedance:

• Input Impedance (Zin): High (kΩ to MΩ).

• Output Impedance (Zout ): Low (Ω to tens of Ω).

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:

• Impedance Matching: Bridges high-Z sources (e.g., sensors) to low-Z loads (e.g.,
speakers).
• Stability: Less sensitive to load variations.
• No Phase Shift: Output signal is in-phase with input.

Disadvantages:

• No voltage gain (output ≈ input − 0.7 V), limiting signal amplification capability.
• Higher power dissipation due to large emitter currents, requiring careful thermal
design.

Applications
1. Voltage Buffers: Isolates amplifier stages while maintaining signal integrity.
2. Power Amplifiers: Drives low-impedance loads (e.g., audio outputs).
3. Signal Conditioning: Protects sensitive circuits from loading effects.

✓ The common-collector configuration acts as an emitter-follower with near-unity voltage gain

KEYPOINTS

(Vout ≈ Vin − 0.7 V).

✓ This configuration provides excellent impedance transformation with high input and low
output impedance.
✓ It delivers significant current gain (IE = ( + 1)IB ) despite no voltage amplification.
✓ The circuit maintains signal phase integrity while isolating circuit stages.
✓ It is capable of driving heavy loads like speakers due to low output impedance.

5. Limits of Operation
Every transistor has specific operational boundaries that must be observed to prevent
damage and maintain signal integrity. These limits, illustrated in Fig. 13, define the safe
operating area where the transistor functions optimally with minimal distortion.

IT Section II (UE248066) 12
 Key Operational Limits
Current and Voltage Limits:

• Maximum Collector Current (ICmax ): Typically, 50 mA - Exceeding this risks

overheating.
• Collector-Emitter Voltage (VCEO): Usually 20 V maximum - Higher voltages cause
breakdown.
• Saturation Voltage (VCEsat ): ~ 0.3 V minimum - Below this, the transistor enters non-
linear operation.

Power Dissipation:

• The maximum power (PCmax = VCE × IC ) must not exceed rated values (e.g., 300 mW).
• Example safe operating points: 50 mA at 6 V, 15 mA at 20 V and 25 mA at 12 V.

Critical Regions to Avoid:

• Saturation Region: Causes signal distortion.

• Cutoff Region: Where IC ≈ ICEO (leakage current), leading to clipped output.

Figure 13. Defining the linear (undistorted) region of operation for a transistor

Practical Design Considerations:

When characteristic curves aren't available (common in datasheets), designers must ensure:

• Current stays between leakage (ICEO) and maximum (ICmax ).

• Voltage remains above saturation (VCEsat ) but below breakdown (VCEO ).
• Power dissipation (VCE × IC ) never exceeds PCmax .

13 Parav Sharma
 For common-base configurations, the same principles apply using VCB instead of VCE . Staying
within these limits ensures reliable amplification while preventing damage. Always include
safety margins (typically 20-30 % below maximum ratings) for robust circuit design.
KEYPOINTS

✓ Transistors have defined current (ICmax ), voltage (VCEO), and power (PCmax ) limits to prevent
damage and distortion.
✓ Must maintain VCEO above saturation (~ 0.3 V) and below breakdown while keeping IC and
power dissipation within ratings
✓ Safe operation requires staying within these limits with 20-30 % safety margin.

6. Comparison between CB, CE and CC configuration

Parameter Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector
Voltage Gain High: Excellent voltage Moderate to High: Good Low: Minimal voltage
amplification for amplification amplification
Current Gain Low: Typically less than 1 Moderate to High: High: Close to 1 or slightly
Between 20 to 500 less
Power Gain Low: Due to limited High: High voltage and Moderate: High current but
current gain current gain low voltage gain
Input Low: Few ohms Moderate: Hundreds to High: Several kilo-ohms
Impedance kilo-ohms
Output High: Several kilo-ohms Moderate: Hundreds to Low: Tens to hundreds of
Impedance kilo-ohms ohms
Phase No phase shift (0°) 180° phase shift No phase shift (0°)
Relationship
Applications Amplifiers for high- General-purpose Impedance matching;
frequency circuits; sensor amplification; audio and voltage buffer
amplifiers RF amplifiers
Advantages High voltage gain; good Best power gain; versatile High input impedance;
for high-frequency configuration easy to drive loads
operations
Disadvantages Low input impedance; low Lower input and output Limited voltage gain; not
current gain impedances than CC suitable for voltage
amplification

IT Section II (UE248066) 14