Physical Activity and Cognitive Functioning
Physical Activity and Cognitive Functioning
Review
Physical Activity and Cognitive Functioning
Francesca Latino 1, * and Francesco Tafuri 2
1 Department of Human Science, Educational and Sport, Pegaso University, 80143 Naples, Italy
2 Heracle Lab Research in Educational Neuroscience, Niccolò Cusano University, 00166 Rome, Italy;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: Neuroscience applied to motor activity is a growing area that aims to understand the effects
of motor activity on the structures and functions of the Central Nervous System. Attention has been
paid to this multidisciplinary field of investigation by the scientific community both because it is of
great importance in the treatment of many chronic diseases and because of its potential applications in
the Movement Sciences. Motor activity during a developmental age is, in fact, an indispensable tool
for the physical and mental growth of children, both able-bodied and disabled. Through movement,
individuals can improve their physical efficiency and promote their own better health, establish
relationships with the environment and others, express themselves and their emotions, form their
identity and develop cognitive processes. This literature review aims, therefore, to highlight how
an adequate practice of motor activity offers extraordinary possibilities for everyone in relation to
learning, from the perspective of an integral development of the person, and, consequently, can
raise the awareness of those involved in the training and growth, especially the youngest, towards
the educational value of motor and sports activities. According to this review, and in line with the
modern neuroscientific approach toward the relationships between motor activities and cognitive
functions, it is possible to claim that hypokinesia tends to inhibit learning. Therefore, it now seems
more topical than ever to draw attention to the need to introduce working proposals that integrate
brain-based motor activity programs into the school curriculum.
several mechanisms that could explain this relationship [9]. Numerous studies published
in recent years on this subject have mainly concluded that motor activity is able to bring
about a series of biological and structural modifications and adaptations that allow brain
cells to create new connections in different cortical areas. Motor activity, in fact, is able to
trigger a cascade of neurochemical growth factors capable of changing the entire brain’s
structure. This reflects the brain’s ability to adapt to the various cognitive challenges that
it faces [10]. Studies using imaging techniques have thus demonstrated that movement
can stimulate angiogenesis, i.e., the development of new blood vessels from existing ones,
neurogenesis, i.e., the presence of undifferentiated neuronal cells capable of self-renewal
and differentiation into different neuronal lines, and improve synaptic plasticity, i.e., the
nervous system’s ability to modify the efficiency of the functioning of connections between
neurons, to eliminate some and establish new ones [11,12]. Motor and sporting activity
conducted on a constant and regular basis is, therefore, capable of favorably influencing
cognitive processes as:
1. It facilitates neural development;
2. It increases the concentration of synapses between neurons;
3. It promotes vascular circulation in the cerebral cortex;
4. It promotes the synthesis of neurotransmitters and neurotrophies that trigger the
processes of neurogenesis, angiogenesis and neuroplasticity.
Although studies conducted on the human brain are still limited compared to those
carried out on animal test subjects, there is now ample evidence that, contrary to past belief
that the adult brain remains static after prenatal and neonatal development, new neurons
can be generated through a process known as neurogenesis [13]. In recent decades, in fact,
numerous experimental trials have shown that neurogenesis can also occur in the adult
brain, particularly at the level of the olfactory bulb and in the hippocampus, where new
undifferentiated neuronal stem cells give rise to neural progenitor cells. It is precisely the
hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe and embedded in the limbic system, that plays
a key role in learning, spatial orientation and memory, as well as being a fundamental area
in the cognitive processes related to the construction of our identity and in the adaptive
capacities of human beings. In fact, as people age, there are several changes in the brain,
to a slight degree, that affect cognitive, behavioral and emotional functions. According
to the definition provided by the American Association of Psychologists (APA) in 1987,
“chronic-progressive cognitive impairment is a brain disease that involves the impairment
of cognitive functions such as to impair the possibility of living independently. Cognitive
symptoms are almost always associated with alterations in personality and behavior that
vary in entity from individual to individual. In addition, there is a progressive alteration
of the functional status.” Cognitive symptoms are different [14]. They vary depending on
the diagnosis and the portion of brain tissue and nerve cells affected. The most common
cognitive symptoms may be memory impairment, language difficulties, reduced attention,
slowed logical reasoning, a progressive reduction in perceptual skills and a reduction in
movement skills.
The improvement of physical performance has a protective effect against cognitive
decline in the course of aging [15]. Physical activity is considered a determining factor
in the health of adults and especially in those over 60 years of age. It helps slow down
the decline in cognitive performance. An adequate program of physical activity in the
elderly improves brain function by modifying the passage across the blood–brain barrier
of chemicals important for mood and nerve transmission [16]. The favorable effects of
physical exercise are then amplified if there is a simultaneous involvement of the elderly in
social and productive activities. This happens independently of the improvement in cardio-
pulmonary performance, suggesting that physical activity can bring benefits in terms of
survival and quality of life. It should be emphasized that the positive effect, although
widespread, is not generic, but mainly oriented towards executive functions and the speed
of information processing [17]. The protective effect of physical activity on the cognitive
function of the elderly has several explanations. First of all, it has a well-established effect
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 3 of 16
on reducing cardio- and cerebrovascular risk, arterial hypertension and diabetes mellitus,
all relevant factors in the pathogenesis of several forms of cognitive decline, including
Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia. Furthermore, physical activity seems to have
a direct effect at the biochemical and structural level (increased production of neuronal
growth factors, such as BNDF, serotonin and IGF-1; increased neuroplasticity in animal
studies; increased hippocampal volume and dentate gyrus in studies on human subjects;
and a reduction in the accumulation of neurodegenerative products such as beta-amyloid
and tau protein) [18].
Therefore, this contribution intends to explore, through a review of the scientific
research in the literature, the link between motor and sport activity and learning processes,
based on the assumption that motor activity can be an important mediating factor capable of
making brain functions more efficient, plastic and adaptable, due to positive modifications
that trigger changes in neurogenesis, synaptic plastic capacity and neuronal proliferation.
ioral changes through an increase in locomotor and exploratory activity, learning ability
and especially spatial and problem-solving abilities. This condition is also capable of
leading to a long-term enhancement of the hippocampus due to an activity-dependent
increase in synaptic transmission [25,26]. This enrichment condition can also influence the
expression of neurotrophins [27], especially BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor),
known as one of the main modulators of brain plasticity. The modulation of the release
of neurotransmitters such as BNDF and their utilization by nerve structures is, in fact,
related to the neuroplasticity induced by motor activity [28]. Neuroplasticity should also be
considered a fundamental property from the perspective of normal neuronal and cognitive
functioning, and not only a response to a pathological condition that results in a lesion;
motor activity, experience, and learning situations are all factors that allow the synaptic
connections of our CNS to be shaped [29,30]. Synaptic neuroplasticity is based on three
fundamental principles that bring about changes in the functioning of neuronal circuits and
modifications in brain reorganization. These principles are represented by the modifiability
of functional and morphological synaptic transmission, by sprouting, i.e., a proliferation of
axon collaterals with an associated formation of synapses, and by neurogenesis, i.e., the
proliferation of certain populations of neurons that take on the characteristics of pluripotent
stem cells.
Human studies have made it possible to describe four forms of brain plasticity. The
first is Cortical Map Expansion, which is expressed in the ability of the primary cortices
to expand their representation areas following the acquisition of skills or the repetition
of an exercise [31]. In 1995, Elbert et al., studying a group of violinists, showed that
in response to exercise, their left-hand finger representation area was larger than in the
control group, as they represent a professional category that makes differentiated, as well
as intensive, use of the left hand [32]. Cross-modal reassignment represents the second
form of plasticity and implies the transfer of certain functions specific to a sensory modality
to brain areas other than those originally assigned to them. The third form is Homologous
Area Adaptation, which consists of the possibility of transferring the cognitive operations
of an area in which a lesion has occurred to the contralateral homologous area of the
cerebral hemisphere. The last form of neuroplasticity is expressed through the concept
of masked compensation or vicariousness, and this represents the possibility of using
alternative strategies and modalities to counteract and, indeed, partially vicariate the
functions no longer performed by a damaged area, due to the recruitment of an intact
cognitive system. From this point of view, motor activity would favor learning as it is
able to trigger the release of a cascade of neurochemical factors capable of generating
neurogenesis, especially at the level of the hippocampus [33], a region that, by its very
nature, is the gateway to new memories essential for learning [34]. Neurogenesis is,
in fact, a differentiation process that allows for the generation of new neurons, which
takes place throughout life, in which neuronal stem cells evolve into mature neurons that
will go on to form the brain’s network of interconnections [35]. This differentiation is
facilitated by factors such as past experience, learning, physical and mental exercise. This
is exactly what happens with exercise-mediated learning, which results in new stimuli
that promote the creation of synaptic connections and, consequently, improved intellectual
performance [36]. It seems, therefore, clear how the constant practice of motor and sporting
activity nourishes and supports cognitive functions while at the same time fostering the
development of a positive sense of self-efficacy, thus offering a positive feedback loop
that supports learning. Neuroplasticity is, moreover, the basis of the concept of cognitive
modifiability, of which it is the prerequisite and neurobiological counterpart, as well as its
complex mediating phenomenon. Cognitive modifiability is the possibility of enhancing
cognitive processes and internal brain resources that are not always exploited, but also
the possibility of developing abilities that are absent or present to a reduced extent in an
individual’s behavioral repertoire [37]. It describes the human organism’s tendency to
allow itself to be shaped by its environment. Numerous studies underline how motor
activity performed in adulthood allows for the activation of less-developed brain areas
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 5 of 16
and the modification of neuronal maps [38]. It is precisely through movement, practice
and experience that neuronal networks and related structures can actively reorganize
themselves. When a new motor skill is acquired, the brain potential for neuroplasticity
is set in motion. During the first exercise, the connections between the brain and the
specific muscle group used to learn that skill are not optimized. With the repetition of the
gesture, the neural pathway becomes more established and refined, so that more neurons
and muscle fibers are recruited and coordinated within the correct motor pattern. The
plastic changes that occur in the brain result in physical improvements related to the
acquired ability. Motor activity allows the brain to function to its full potential, supporting
neuronal multiplication and strengthening connections, thus leading to improved cognitive
abilities [39]. Motor and sports activity programs are important as they prepare the brain
for learning by placing it in the optimal conditions for learning [40]. Studies by Kleim
and Jones [41] first, and Feuerstein et al. [42] later, show that there are essential criteria
that underlie neuroplasticity and, thus, cognitive modifiability. The first criterion is the
Activation effect, according to which, for there to be plasticity, learning interventions must
be carried out in such a way as to stimulate specific brain functions. This is the essential
criterion that cannot be disregarded, as it represents the potential of cognitive modifiability.
Several studies have demonstrated the loss of certain neural connections and, consequently,
of acquired abilities, when these brain functions are not exercised [43]. The second criterion
is called the Specificity effect and is based on the principle that highly specific interventions
are required to increase neuroplasticity and cognitive modifiability. The Repetition effect
constitutes the third principle, whereby the repetition of the motor task is a prerequisite
for changes to manifest themselves behaviorally. However, mere passive repetition is not
sufficient to promote plasticity; there must be variability in the tasks proposed. The fourth
condition is the Intensity effect, according to which the greater the frequency and time over
which the function is stimulated, the more noticeable the change will also be behaviorally.
The Persistence effect is based on the need for a certain level of constancy in relation to the
exercise schedule, and is the fifth condition. The sixth criterion relates to the motivational
dimension and is the Salience Effect; understanding the value of the intervention is the key
to successful cognitive modifiability. The Optimal timing potential effect is the seventh
criterion. According to this principle, change is correlated with age. Nevertheless, if the
adult brain is subjected to appropriate stimulation, this does not constitute a barrier to
learning. According to the eighth criterion, termed the Novelty effect, in order for any
change to take place, the exercise of skills must incorporate new and increasingly complex
elements. The Spread off effect is the ninth criterion and represents the possibility that
the changes, and thus the new learning, may also extend to other functions not originally
targeted by the intervention. The tenth criterion is the Selection effect and reflects the
possibility that there may be interference caused by the new changes in other areas of
operation. The eleventh is the Consciousness/awareness effect and concerns the need
for the subject to be aware of the changes he or she undergoes as a result of the stimuli
and experiences. The last criterion is the multi-sensory effect, which concerns the way
in which stimuli are presented; the variety of stimuli and experiences proposed favors
the learning experience. In a 2006 study, Feuerstein described the concept of cognitive
modifiability as the individual’s ability to modify his or her responses through motor
practice and experience. This capacity constitutes a condition of plasticity in an organism,
which, as a result of motor and sporting activity, becomes capable of improving, changing
and developing new learning strategies.
would create the most suitable conditions for making the CNS easily predisposed to the
changes and adaptations necessary for learning new functions [83–85]. In this sense, it can
be used both as enhancement training and as maintenance training for brain functions [86].
Aerobic physical activity would appear to induce improvements in the frontal brain areas
especially [87]. The greatest positive effects have been observed on improvements in capac-
ities related to executive functions, memory, attention, working memory, concentration,
planning and processing speed; functions that are managed precisely by the prefrontal
cortex. This selectivity of action of the training is confirmed by magnetic resonance images
that allow the presence of increased grey matter in the frontal regions to be observed. These
results can be interpreted as evidence in favor of increased neuronal efficiency during
executive and memory tasks [88]. There are, therefore, some experimental data supporting
the role of BDNF as a mediating factor for cognitive improvements; as the hippocampus
is crucial for memory consolidation and learning, so is the generation of new neurons
and the increased plasticity in this region [89,90]. The most current studies in the field of
neuroscience applied to motor activity suggest that BDNF has numerous beneficial effects
on the mind, as it is capable of inducing significant performance improvements on aspects
such as attention and cognitive control, the emotional and social sphere, and short- and
long-term memory [91,92]. In light of the numerous scientific evidence provided by the
most current neuroscientific research, it is possible to state that BDNF could therefore be a
potential modulator of the effects of aerobic motor activity on the cognitive performance of
young adults.
resistance exercise on working memory or attention, although they did observe a substantial
enhancement in reasoning. Nevertheless, the size of their sample was relatively limited,
as they only identified a maximum of three studies for each cognitive dimension. In 2018,
Northey et al. [98] successfully aggregated the findings from thirteen trials. The researchers
documented notable impacts of resistance exercise on cognitive processes such as executive
function, memory and working memory. In comparison to the data accessible for long-term
regimens, there is a paucity of evidence pertaining to the immediate consequences of a
single training session.
Recently, Wilke et al. [110] provided a comprehensive overview of the existing body of
evidence pertaining to the immediate impacts of resistance exercise on cognitive capabilities
among the adult population. The findings of their study illustrate that a single session of
training has the capability to elicit modest enhancements in performance. The postulated
mechanisms through which physical activity might impact cognitive functioning could
account for this discrepancy. It has been demonstrated that acute aerobic exercise has the
potential to augment cerebral blood flow [111]. A comparable phenomenon might arise
following resistance exercise. Nevertheless, while the primary factors influencing cerebral
perfusion subsequent to aerobic exercise are neuronal exigency, cardiac output and the
partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide, it is plausible to surmise that resistance exercise
could instead instigate fluctuations and/or surges in blood pressure, leading to alterations
in blood flow [112]. An alternative aspect pertains to changes in the concentration of
cortisol in the bloodstream.
To the best of our knowledge, the study by Sibley and Etnier [113] remains the only
review that aims to evaluate the effects of anaerobic exercise on children. Nonetheless, it is
considerably antiquated and has yet to present a comprehensive statistical summation of
the gathered information.
experience. In this sense, motor activity, with cognitively engaging tasks, is capable of
inducing and emphasizing cognitive processes and is an effective tool for achieving a
person’s full cognitive potential [123,124].
8. Discussion
Motor and sports activity can make brain functions more efficient, plastic and adapt-
able, which translates into a significant improvement in memory and executive function
due to positive modifications that trigger changes in neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity and
neuronal proliferation. The data discussed in this review show that motor activity can be
used to improve cognitive abilities both in healthy individuals and in those with cognitive
decline, as it would be a predisposing terrain on which to accommodate the changes and
adaptations induced by learning new and more evolved functions and skills. Research
in the field of neuroscience points to a profound interdependence between movement
and cognitive processes. According to a conceptualization model proposed by many au-
thors [125–128], this interdependence is mainly related to the changes that occur in brain
function and structure as a consequence of motor activity. In recent years, research in this
field has evolved considerably, through studies born out of the need to better understand
the multifaceted relationship between motor activity and cognitive health. Advances in
neuroscience and neuroimaging techniques have allowed researchers to better understand
the effects of motor activity on cognitive function by investigating its physiological and
molecular mechanisms [129–131]. Research conducted in the different areas of interest
regarding motor activity has helped to define this line of investigation and to identify
some preliminary underlying mechanisms. This has resulted in a deeper understanding
of the components that are linked to cognitive function and that may be amenable to
intervention [132,133]. Investigations into the influence of motor activity on cognitive func-
tioning have proposed several mechanisms that could explain this relationship [134,135].
Numerous studies published in recent years on this topic have mainly concluded that
motor activity is able to bring about a series of biological and structural modifications and
adaptations that allow brain cells to create new connections in different cortical areas. In
fact, motor activity is able to trigger a cascade of neurochemical growth factors capable of
changing the entire brain’s structure. This reflects the brain’s ability to adapt to the various
cognitive challenges it faces [136,137]. However, until recently, the relationship between
intensive exercise and cognitive function was not entirely established, in light of the fact
that the literature on the subject seemed to provide somewhat contradictory results. Indeed,
while a number of studies indicated that short sessions of motor activity could induce
benefits in terms of cognitive functioning, others found no such beneficial effect [138,139].
In more recent times, it has been shown that the effect of motor activity on cognitive
performance depends on both the intensity and duration of the exercise, as well as the
intrinsic aspects that characterize the proposed activity, i.e., the cognitive engagement
required by the exercise [140]. Although it would appear that the most fruitful mode
of motor activity delivery may be that of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, and that
the first hour after the end of exercise itself may be the most likely window of time
within which motor learning processes are most facilitated, research in recent years has
focused on understanding how motor activity with cognitive involvement is most likely to
influence cognitive development and learning processes [141]. The most recent scientific
evidence shows, therefore, how the effects of motor activity on cognitive abilities can lead
to favorable results in terms of improving both low-level cognitive functions related to
simple reactions and higher-level functions such as memory, processing speed, attention
and executive function [90,117]. Overall, the results of these studies suggest that motor
activity is positively correlated with children’s cognitive functioning and learning abilities,
but these relationships are not universal and vary depending on the outcome studied and
the different variables taken into account Figure 1.
shows, therefore, how the effects of motor activity on cognitive abilities can lead to favor‐
able results in terms of improving both low‐level cognitive functions related to simple
reactions and higher‐level functions such as memory, processing speed, attention and ex‐
ecutive function [90,117]. Overall, the results of these studies suggest that motor activity
is positively correlated with children’s cognitive functioning and learning abilities, but
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 10 of 16
these relationships are not universal and vary depending on the outcome studied and the
different variables taken into account Figure 1.
Figure Effectsofofphysical
1. Effects
Figure 1. physicalactivity
activity
onon cognitive
cognitive function.
function.
9. Conclusions
The modern neuroscientific approach toward the relationships between motor activ-
ities and cognitive functions suggests that hypokinesia tends to inhibit learning. In this
context, neuroscience applied to motor and sporting activity forces us to pay particular
attention to the growing number of children and adolescents with learning disorders.
Therefore, it now seems more topical than ever to draw attention to the need to introduce
working proposals that integrate brain-based motor activity programs into the school
curriculum. Future research collaborating with educational institutions should, therefore,
allow us to work together in order to maximize the use of adapted physical activity within
the regular curriculum.
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 11 of 16
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.L.; methodology, F.L. and F.T.; software, F.T.; validation,
F.L.; formal analysis, F.L.; investigation, F.L.; resources, F.T.; data curation, F.L.; writing—original draft
preparation, F.L.; writing—review and editing, F.L.; supervision, F.L.; project administration, F.T.;
funding acquisition, F.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study was obtained from the included
studies and was openly available.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
1. Erickson, K.I.; Voss, M.W.; Prakash, R.S.; Basak, C.; Szabo, A.; Chaddock, L.; Kim, J.S.; Heo, S.; Alves, H.; White, S.M.; et al.
Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 3017–3022.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Spalding, K.L.; Bergmann, O.; Alkass, K.; Bernard, S.; Salehpour, M.; Huttner, H.B.; Bostrom, E.; Westerlund, I.; Vial, C.; Buchholz,
B.A.; et al. Dynamics of hippocampal neurogenesis in adult humans. Cell 2013, 153, 1219–1227. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Phillips, C.; Baktir, M.A.; Srivatsan, M.; Salehi, A. Neuroprotective effects of physical activity on the brain: A closer look at trophic
factor signaling. Front. Cell. Neurosci. 2014, 8, 170. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Cabeza, R.; Albert, M.; Belleville, S.; Craik, F.; Duarte, A.; Grady, C.L.; Lindenberger, U.; Nyberg, L.; Park, D.C.; Reuter-Lorenz,
P.A.; et al. Maintenance, reserve and compensation: The cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2018, 19,
701–710. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Hillman, C.H.; McAuley, E.; Erickson, K.I.; Liu-Ambrose, T.; Kramer, A.F. On mindful and mindless physical activity and
executive function: A response to Diamond and Ling (2016). Dev. Cogn. Neurosci. 2019, 37, 100529. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Vazou, S.; Pesce, C.; Lakes, K.; Smiley-Oyen, A. More than one road leads to Rome: A narrative review and meta-analysis of
physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 2019, 17, 153–178. [CrossRef]
7. Donnelly, J.E.; Hillman, C.H.; Castelli, D.; Etnier, J.L.; Lee, S.; Tomporowski, P.; Lambourne, K.; Szabo-Reed, A.N. Physical
Activity, Fitness, Cognitive Function, and Academic Achievement in Children: A Systematic Review. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2016,
48, 1197–1222. [CrossRef]
8. Khan, N.A.; Hillman, C.H. The relation of childhood physical activity and aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition: A
review. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 2014, 26, 138–146. [CrossRef]
9. Dishman, R.K.; Berthoud, H.R.; Booth, F.W.; Cotman, C.W.; Edgerton, V.R.; Fleshner, M.R.; Gandevia, S.C.; Gomez-Pinilla, F.;
Greenwood, B.N.; Hillman, C.H.; et al. Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity 2006, 14, 345–356. [CrossRef]
10. Wassenaar, T.M.; Williamson, W.; Johansen-Berg, H.; Dawes, H.; Roberts, N.; Foster, C.; Sexton, C.E. A critical evaluation of
systematic reviews assessing the effect of chronic physical activity on academic achievement, cognition and the brain in children
and adolescents: A systematic review. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2020, 17, 79. [CrossRef]
11. Voss, M.W.; Heo, S.; Prakash, R.S.; Erickson, K.I.; Alves, H.; Chaddock, L.; Szabo, A.N.; Mailey, E.L.; Wójcicki, T.R.; White, S.M.;
et al. The influence of aerobic fitness on cerebral white matter integrity and cognitive function in older adults: Results of a
one-year exercise intervention. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2013, 34, 2972–2985. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Steichele, K.; Keefer, A.; Dietzel, N.; Graessel, E.; Prokosch, H.-U.; Kolominsky-Rabas, P.L. The effects of exercise programs on
cognition, activities of daily living, and neuropsychiatric symptoms in community-dwelling people with dementia—A systematic
review. Alz. Res. Ther. 2022, 14, 97. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. van Praag, H.; Shubert, T.; Zhao, C.; Gage, F.H. Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice. J.
Neurosci. 2005, 25, 8680–8685. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Varghese, A.P.; Prasad, J.; Jacob, K.S. Mild cognitive impairment and dementia in older patients attending a general hospital in
south India: DSM-5 standards and correlates. Int. Psychogeriatr. 2019, 31, 133–138. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Blondell, S.J.; Hammersley-Mather, R.; Veerman, J.L. Does physical activity prevent cognitive decline and dementia?: A systematic
review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. BMC Public Health 2014, 14, 510. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Yamasaki, T. Preventive Strategies for Cognitive Decline and Dementia: Benefits of Aerobic Physical Activity, Especially Open-Skill
Exercise. Brain Sci. 2023, 13, 521. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Veronese, N.; Soysal, P.; Demurtas, J.; Solmi, M.; Bruyère, O.; Christodoulou, N.; Ramalho, R.; Fusar-Poli, P.; Lappas, A.S.; Pinto,
D.; et al. Physical activity and exercise for the prevention and management of mild cognitive impairment and dementia: A
collaborative international guideline. Eur. Geriatr. Med. 2023, 14, 925–952. [CrossRef]
18. Chen, C.; Nakagawa, S. Physical activity for cognitive health promotion: An overview of the underlying neurobiological
mechanisms. Ageing Res. Rev. 2023, 86, 101868. [CrossRef]
19. Leuner, B.; Gould, E. Structural plasticity and hippocampal function. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2010, 61, 111–140. [CrossRef]
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 12 of 16
20. Doidge, N. The Brain Changed Itself, UK ed.; Penguin Books: London, UK, 2007.
21. Mahncke, H.W.; Bronstone, A.; Merzenich, M.M. Brain Plasticity and Functional Losses in the Aged: Scientific Bases for a Novel
Intervention. Prog. Brain Res. 2006, 157, 81–109.
22. Bartels, S.; Roubíček, T. Thermoviscoplasticity at small strains. ZAMM J. Appl. Math. Mech. Z. Angew. Math. Mech. 2008, 88,
735–754. [CrossRef]
23. Knaepen, K.; Goekint, M.; Heyman, E.M.; Meeusen, R. Neuroplasticity exercise-induced response of peripheral brain-derived
neurotrophic factor: A systematic review of experimental studies in human subjects. Sports Med. 2010, 40, 765–801. [CrossRef]
24. Siegel, D.J. The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are; Guilford Press: New York, NY,
USA, 2012.
25. Fagherazzi, C.; Zucchero, A.; Brugiolo, R. The concept of brain plasticity and its potential clinical applications in the elderly with
dementia: Focus. G Gerontol. 2014, 62, 464–482.
26. Shapiro, M. Plasticity, hippocampal place cells, and cognitive maps. Arch Neurol. 2001, 58, 874–881. [CrossRef]
27. Ickes, B.R.; Pham, T.M.; Sanders, L.A.; Albeck, D.S.; Mohammed, A.H.; Granholm, A.C. Long-term environmental enrichment
leads to regional increases in neurotrophin levels in rat brain. Exp. Neurol. 2000, 164, 45–52. [CrossRef]
28. Schinder, A.F.; Berninger, B.; Poo, M. Postsynaptic target specificity of neurotrophin-induced presynaptic potentiation. Neuron
2000, 25, 151–163. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Blundo, C. Conoscere e Potenziare il Cervello; Giunti Editore: Firenze, Italy, 2007.
30. Malabou, C. An Eye at the Edge of Discourse. Commun. Theory 2007, 17, 16–25. [CrossRef]
31. Elbert, T.; Pantev, C.; Wienbruch, C.; Rockstroh, B.; Taub, E. Increased cortical representation of the finger of the left hand in string
players. Science 1995, 270, 305–307. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. Pascual-Leone, A. The brain that plays music and is changed by it. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2001, 930, 321–322. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. van Praag, H. Exercise and the brain: Something to chew on. Trends Neurosci. 2009, 32, 283–290. [CrossRef]
34. Fotuhi, O.; Cohen, G.L. Self-affirmation intervention and the reduction of addictive behaviours. In Addictions: A Social Psychological
Perspective; Kopetz, C.A., Lejuez, C.W., Eds.; Routledge: Oxford, UK, 2015; pp. 286–300.
35. Fuchs, E.; Flügge, G. Adult Neuroplasticity: More than 40 Years of Research. Neural Plast. 2014, 5, 1687–5443. [CrossRef]
36. Zhao, C.; Deng, W.; Gage, F.H. Mechanisms and functional implications of adult neurogenesis. Cell 2008, 132, 645–660. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
37. Fabio, R.; Pellegatta, B. Attività di Potenziamento Cognitivo; Erikson: Trento, Italy, 2005; Volume 1.
38. Hywood, H.C.; Tzuriel, D. Interactive Assessment in Practice; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1992.
39. Chaddock, L.; Pontifex, M.B.; Hillman, C.H.; Kramer, A.F. A review of the relation of aerobic fitness and physical activity to brain
structure and function in children. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2011, 17, 975–985. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Federici, A.; Toscani, A. Motor and cognitive effect caused by motor increased activity in primary school. Form. E Insegn. XVI
2018, 1, 1973–4778.
41. Kleim, J.A.; Jones, T. Principles of Experience-Dependent Neural Plasticity: Implications for Rehabilitation after Brain Damage. J.
Speech Lang. Hear. Res. 2008, 51, S225–S239. [CrossRef]
42. Feuerstein, R.; Lewin-Benham, A. What Learning Looks Like—Mediated Learning in Theory and Practice K-6; Teachers College Press:
New York, NY, USA, 2012.
43. Hultsch, D.F.; Hertzog, C.; Small, B.J.; Dixon, R.A. Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging?
Psychol. Aging 1999, 14, 245–263. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Patterson, S.L.; Abel, T.; Deuel, T.A.; Martin, K.C.; Rose, J.C.; Kandel, E.R. Recombinant BDNF rescues deficits in basal synaptic
trans- mission and hippocampal LTP in BDNF knockout mice. Neuron 1996, 16, 1137–1145. [CrossRef]
45. Vaynman, S.; Ying, Z.; Yin, D.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. Exercise differentially regulates synaptic proteins associated to the function of
BDNF. Brain Res. 2006, 1070, 124–130. [CrossRef]
46. Churchill, J.D.; Galvez, R.; Colcombe, S.; Swain, R.A.; Kramer, A.F.; Greenough, W.T. Exercise, experience and the aging brain.
Neurobiol. Aging 2002, 23, 941–955. [CrossRef]
47. Fordyce, D.E.; Farrar, R.P. Physical activity effects on hippocampal and parietal cortical cholinergic function and spatial learning
in F344 rats. Behav. Brain Res. 1991, 43, 115–123. [CrossRef]
48. Neeper, S.A.; Gómez-Pinilla, F.; Chol, J.; Cotman, C. Exercise and brain neurotrophins. Nature 1995, 373, 109. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Isackson, P.J.; Huntsman, M.M.; Murray, K.D.; Gall, C.M. BDNF mRNA expression is increased in adult rat forebrain after limbic
seizures: Temporal patterns of induction distinct from NGF. Neuron 1991, 6, 937–948. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Vaynman, S.; Ying, Z.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. Hippocampal BDNF mediates the efficacy of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition.
Eur. J. Neurosci. 2004, 20, 2580–2590. [CrossRef]
51. Oertel-Knochel, V.; Mehler, P.; Thiel, C.; Steinbrecher, K.; Malchow, B.; Tesky, V.; Ademmer, K.; Prvulovic, D.; Banzer, W.; Zopf,
Y.; et al. Effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive performance and individual psychopathology in depressive and schizophrenia
patients. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2014, 264, 589–604. [CrossRef]
52. Greer, D.J.; Romberg, C.; Saksida, L.M.; van Praag, H.; Bussey, T.J. Running enhances spatial pattern separation in mice. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 2367–2372.
53. Cotman, C.W.; Berchtold, N.C.; Christie, L.A. Exercise builds brain health: Key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation.
Trends Neurosci. 2007, 30, 464–472. [CrossRef]
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 13 of 16
54. Cotman, C.W.; Berchtold, N.C. Exercise: A behavioural intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends Neurosci. 2002,
25, 295–301. [CrossRef]
55. Kim, K.; Sung, Y.; Seo, J.; Lee, S.; Lim, B.; Lee, C.; Chung, Y.R. Effects of treadmill exercise-intensity on short-term memory in the
rats born of the lipopolysaccharide-exposed maternal rats. J. Exerc. Rehabil. 2015, 11, 296–302. [CrossRef]
56. Huang, T.; Larsen, K.T.; Ried-Larsen, M.; Møller, N.C.; Andersen, L.B. The effects of physical activity and exercise on brain-derived
neurotrophic factor in healthy humans: A review. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2014, 24, 1–10. [CrossRef]
57. Johnson, R.A.; Rhodes, J.S.; Jeffrey, S.L.; Garland, T., Jr.; Mitchell, G.S. Hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor but not
neurotrophin-3 increases more in mice selected for increased voluntary wheel running. Neuroscience 2003, 121, 1–7. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
58. Rasmussen, P.; Brassard, P.; Adser, H.; Pedersen, M.V.; Leick, L.; Hart, E.; Secher, N.H.; Pedersen, B.K.; Pilegaard, H. Evidence for
a release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor from the brain during exercise. Exp. Physiol. 2009, 94, 1062–1069. [CrossRef]
59. Russo-Neustadt, A.; Beard, R.C.; Cotman, C.W. Exercise, antidepressant medications, and enhanced brain derived neurotrophic
factor expression. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999, 21, 679–682. [CrossRef]
60. Trenchers, M.F.; Buttner, K.A.; Sulkes Cuevas, J.N.; Temprana, S.G.; Fontanet, P.A.; Monzón-Salinas, M.C.; Ledda, F.; Paratcha, G.;
Schinder, A.F. High plasticity of new granule cells in the aging hippocampus. Cell Rep. 2017, 21, 1129–1139. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
61. Korte, M.; Carroll, P.; Wolf, E.; Brem, G.; Thoenen, H.; Bonhoeffer, T. Hippocampal long-term potentiation is impaired in mice
lacking brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 8856–8860. [CrossRef]
62. Voss, M.W.; Erickson, K.I.; Prakash, R.S.; Chaddock, L.; Kim, J.S.; Alves, H.; Szabo, A.; Phillips, S.M.; Wójcicki, T.R.; Mailey, E.L.;
et al. Neurobiological markers of exercise-related brain plasticity in older adults. Brain Behav. Immun. 2013, 28, 90–99. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
63. Wang, J.; Yang, L.; Zhang, Y.; Niu, C.; Cui, Y.; Feng, W.; Wang, G.F. BDNF and COX-2 participate in anti-depressive mechanisms
of catalpol in rats undergoing chronic unpredictable mild stress. Physiol. Behav. 2015, 151, 360–368. [CrossRef]
64. Liu, P.Z.; Nusslock, R. How stress gets under the skin: Early life adversity and glucocorticoid receptor epigenetic regulation. Curr.
Genom. 2018, 8, 653–664. [CrossRef]
65. Lu, B.; Nagappan, G.; Guan, X.; Nathan, P.J.; Wren, P. BDNF-based synaptic repair as a disease-modifying strategy for neurode-
generative diseases. Nat. Rev. 2013, 14, 401–416. [CrossRef]
66. Karpova, N.N. Role of BDNF epigenetics in activity-dependent neuronal plasticity. Neuropharmacology 2014, 76, 709–718.
[CrossRef]
67. Leal, G.; Alfonso, P.M.; Salazar, I.L.; Duarte, C.B. Regulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity by BDNF. Brain Res. 2015, 1621,
82–101. [CrossRef]
68. Larson, E.B.; Wang, L.; Bowen, J.D.; McCormick, W.C.; Teri, L.; Crane, P.; Kukul, W. Exercise is associated with reduced risk factor
for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older. Ann. Intern. Med. 2006, 144, 73–81. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Saskia, H.; Bernhard, H.; Armin, K.; Colzato, L. Neuromodulation of Aerobic Exercise—A review. Front. Psychol. 2016, 6, 1890.
70. Szuhany, K.L.; Bugatti, M.; Otto, M.W. A meta-analytic review of the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotropic factor. J.
Psychiatr. Res. 2015, 60, 56–64. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Ding, Q.; Vaynman, S.; Souda, P.; Whitelegge, J.P.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. Exercise affects energy metabolism and neural plasticity-
related proteins in the hippocampus as revealed by proteomic analysis. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2006, 24, 1265–1276. [CrossRef]
72. Oliff, H.S.; Berchtold, N.C.; Isackson, P.; Cotman, C.W. Exercise-induced regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
transcripts in the rat hippocampus. Mol. Brain Res. 1998, 61, 147–153. [CrossRef]
73. Widenfalk, J.; Olson, L.; Thorén, P. Deprived of habitual running, rats down regulate BDNF and TrkB messages in the brain.
Neurosci. Res. 1999, 34, 125–132. [CrossRef]
74. Suijo, K.; Inoue, S.; Ohya, Y.; Odagiri, Y.; Takamiya, T.; Ishibashi, H.; Itoh, M.; Fujieda, Y.; Shimomitsu, T. Resistance exercise
enhances cognitive function in mouse. Int. J. Sports Med. 2013, 34, 368–375. [CrossRef]
75. Zoladz, J.A.; Pilc, A.; Majerczak, J.; Grandys, M.; Zapart-Bukowska, J.; Duda, K. Endurance training increases plasma brain-
derived neurotrophic factor concentration in young healthy men. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 2008, 59, 119–132.
76. Seifert, T.; Brassard, P.; Wissenberg, M.; Rasmussen, P.; Nordby, P.; Stallknecht, B.; Adser, H.; Jakobsen, A.H.; Pilegaard, H.;
Nielsen, H.B.; et al. Endurance training enhances BDNF release from the human brain. Am. J. Physiol.-Regul. Integr. Comp. 2010,
298, 372–377. [CrossRef]
77. Cassilhas, R.C.; Tufik, S.; de Mello, M.T. Physical exercise, neuroplasticity, spatial learning and memory. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2016,
73, 975–983. [CrossRef]
78. Eadie, B.D.; Redila, V.A.; Christie, B.R. Voluntary exercise alters the cytoarchitecture of the adult dentate gyrus by increasing
cellular proliferation, dendritic complexity, and spine density. J. Comp. Neurol. 2005, 486, 39–47. [CrossRef]
79. Bishop, N.A.; Lu, T.; Yankner, B.A. Neural mechanisms of ageing and cognitive decline. Nature 2010, 464, 529–535. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
80. El Haj, M.; Allain, P. Relationship between source monitoring in episodic memory and executive function in normal aging. Geriatr.
Psychol. Neuropsychiatr. Vieil. 2012, 10, 197–205. [CrossRef]
81. Silver, H.; Goodman, C.; Gur, R.C.; Gur, R.E.; Bilker, W.B. Executive functions and normal aging: Selective impairment in
conditional exclusion compared to abstraction and inhibition. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2011, 31, 53–62. [CrossRef]
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 14 of 16
82. Singh-Manoux, A.; Kivimaki, M.; Glymour, M.M.; Elbaz, A.; Berr, C.; Ebmeier, K.P.; Ferrie, J.E.; Dugravot, A. Timing of onset of
cognitive decline: Results from Whitehall II prospective cohort study. BMJ 2012, 344, d7622. [CrossRef]
83. Woodard, J.L.; Nielson, K.A.; Sugarman, M.A.; Smith, J.C.; Seidenberg, M.; Durgerian, S.; Butts, A.; Hantke, N.; Lancaster, M.;
Matthews, M.A.; et al. Lifestyle and genetic contributions to cognitive decline and hippocampal structure and function in healthy
aging. Curr. Alzheimer Res. 2012, 9, 436–446. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Mahmudul Hasan, S.M.; Rancourt, S.N.; Austin, M.W.; Ploughman, M. Defining Optimal Aerobic Exercise Parameters to Affect
Complex Motor and Cognitive Outcomes after Stroke: A Systematic Review and Synthesis. Neural Plast. 2016, 2016, 2961573.
85. Dieckelmann, M.; González-González, A.I.; Banzer, W.; Berghold, A.; Jeitler, K.; Pantel, J.; Pregartner, G.; Schall, A.; Tesky, V.A.;
Siebenhofer, A. Effectiveness of exercise interventions to improve long-term outcomes in people living with mild cognitive
impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 18074. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Nie, X.; Wang, N.; Chen, Y.; Chen, C.; Han, B.; Zhu, C.; Chen, Y.; Xia, F.; Cang, Z.; Lu, M.; et al. Blood cadmium in Chinese adults
and its relationships with diabetes and obesity. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res Int. 2016, 18, 18714–18723. [CrossRef]
87. Firth, J.; Stubbs, B.; Vancampfort, D.; Schuch, F.; Lagopoulos, J.; Rosenbaum, S.; Ward, P.B. Effect of aerobic exercise on
hippocampal volume in humans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. NeuroImage 2017, 166, 230–238. [CrossRef]
88. Voelcker-Rehage, C.; Niemann, C. Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical activity across the
life span. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2013, 37 Pt B, 2268–2295. [CrossRef]
89. Colcombe, S.J.; Erickson, K.I.; Scalf, P.E.; Kim, J.S.; Prakash, R.; McAuley, E. Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in
aging humans. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2006, 61, 1166–1170. [CrossRef]
90. Mazzeo, F.; Santamaria, S.; Monda, V.; Tafuri, D.; Dalia, C.; Varriale, L.; De Blasio, S.; Esposito, V.; Messina, G.; Monda, M. Dietary
supplements use in competitive and non-competitive boxer: An exploratory study. Biol. Med. 2016, 8, 1.
91. Monda, M.; Viggiano, A.; Vicidomini, C.; Viggiano, A.; Iannaccone, T.; Tafuri, D.; De Luca, B. Expresso coffee increases
parasympathetic activity in young, healthy people. Nutr. Neurosci. 2009, 12, 43–48. [CrossRef]
92. Huan, B.; Chen, K.; Li, Y. Aerobic exercise, an effective prevention and treatment for mild cognitive impairment. Front. Aging
Neurosci. 2023, 15, 119455. [CrossRef]
93. Erickson, K.I.; Banducci, S.E.; Weinstein, A.M.; MacDonald, A.W.I.I.I.; Ferrell, R.E.; Halder, I.; Flory, J.D.; Manuck, S.B. The brain-
derived neurotrophic factor val66met polymorphism moderates an effect of physical activity on working memory performance.
Psychol. Sci. 2013, 24, 1770–1779. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. Colcombe, S.; Kramer, A.F. Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychol. Sci. 2003, 14,
125–130. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Ludyga, S.; Gerber, M.; Brand, S.; Holsboer-Trachsler, E.; Pühse, U. Acute effects of moderate aerobic exercise on specific aspects
of executive function in different age and fitness groups: A meta-analysis. Psychophysiology 2016, 53, 1611–1626. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
96. Groot, C.; Hooghiemstra, A.; Raijmakers, P.; van Berckel, B.; Scheltens, P.; Scherder, E.; van der Flier, W.; Ossenkoppele, R. The
effect of physical activity on cognitive function in patients with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomized control trials. Ageing
Res. Rev. 2016, 25, 13–23. [CrossRef]
97. Firth, J.; Stubbs, B.; Rosenbaum, S.; Vancampfort, D.; Malchow, B.; Schuch, F.; Elliott, R.; Nuechterlein, K.H.; Yung, A.R. Aerobic
exercise improves cognitive functioning in people with schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull
2016, 43, 546–556. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98. Northey, J.M.; Cherbuin, N.; Pumpa, K.L.; Smee, D.J.; Rattray, B. Exercise interventions for cognitive function in adults older than
50: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 2018, 52, 154–160. [CrossRef]
99. De Greeff, J.W.; Bosker, R.J.; Oosterlaan, J.; Visscher, C.; Hartman, E. Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention
and academic performance in preadolescent children: A meta-analysis. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2018, 21, 501–507. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
100. Song, D.; Yu, D.S.; Li, P.W.; Lei, Y. The effectiveness of physical exercise on cognitive and psychological outcomes in individuals
with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 2018, 79, 155–164. [CrossRef]
101. Landrigan, J.F.; Bell, T.; Crowe, M.; Clay, O.J.; Mirman, D. Lifting cognition: A meta-analysis of effects of resistance exercise on
cognition. Psychol. Res. 2020, 84, 1167–1183. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
102. Zhang, L.; Li, B.; Yang, J.; Wang, F.; Tang, Q.; Wang, S. Meta-analysis: Resistance training improves cognition in mild cognitive
impairment. Int. J. Sports Med. 2020, 41, 815–823. [CrossRef]
103. Coelho-Junior, H.; Marzetti, E.; Calvani, R.; Picca, A.; Arai, H.; Uchida, M. Resistance training improves cognitive function
in older adults with different cognitive status: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aging Ment. Health 2022, 26, 213–224.
[CrossRef]
104. Penninx, B.W.J.H.; Rejeski, W.J.; Pandya, J.; Miller, M.E.; Di Bari, M.; Applegate, W.B.; Pahor, M. Exercise and Depressive
Symptoms: A Comparison of Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Effects on Emotional and Physical Function in Older Persons with
High and Low Depressive Symptomatology. J. Geront. Psychl. Sci. 2002, 57B, 124–132. [CrossRef]
105. Pontifex, M.; Hillman, C.; Fernhall, B.; Thompson, K.; Valentini, T. The Effect of Acute Aerobic and Resistance Exercise on
Working Memory. Med. Sc. Sport Ex. 2009, 9, 927–934. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
106. Snowden, M.; Steinman, L.; Mochan, K.; Grodstein, F.; Prohaska, T.R.; Thurman, D.J.; Brown, D.R.; Laditka, J.N.; Soares, J.;
Zweiback, D.J.; et al. Effect of exercise on cognitive performance in community-dwelling older adults: Review of intervention
trials and recommendations for public health practice and research. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2011, 59, 704–716. [CrossRef]
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 15 of 16
107. Loprinzi, P.D.; Frith, E.; Edwards, M.K. Resistance exercise and episodic memory function: A systematic review. Clin. Physiol.
Funct. Imaging 2018, 8, e76301. [CrossRef]
108. Sáez de Asteasu, M.L.; Martínez-Velilla, N.; Zambom-Ferraresi, F.; Casas-Herrero, A.; Izquierdo, M. Role of physical exercise on
cognitive function in healthy older adults: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Ageing Res. Rev. 2017, 37, 117–134.
[CrossRef]
109. Kelly, M.E.; Loughrey, D.; Lawlor, B.A.; Robertson, I.H.; Walsh, C.; Brennan, S. The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning
of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res. Rev. 2014, 16, 12–31. [CrossRef]
110. Wilke, J.; Giesche, F.; Klier, K.; Vogt, L.; Herrmann, E.; Banzer, W. Acute effects of resistance exercise on cognitive function in
healthy adults: A systematic review with multilevel meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2019, 49, 905–916. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
111. Querido, J.S.; Sheel, A.W. Regulation of cerebral blood flow during exercise. Sports Med. 2007, 37, 765–782. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
112. Ogoh, S.; Ainslie, P.N. Cerebral blood flow during exercise: Mechanisms of regulation. J. Appl. Physiol. 2009, 107, 1370–1380.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
113. Sibley, B.A.; Etnier, J.L. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci.
2003, 15, 243–256. [CrossRef]
114. Latino, F.; Fischetti, F.; Cataldi, S.; Monacis, D.; Colella, D. The Impact of an 8-Weeks At-Home Physical Activity Plan on Academic
Achievement at the Time of COVID-19 Lock-Down in Italian School. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5812. [CrossRef]
115. Tomporowski, P.D.; Pesce, C. Exercise, sports, and performance arts benefit cognition via a common process. Psychol. Bull. 2019,
145, 929. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
116. Stodden, D.; Lakes, K.D.; Côté, J.; Aadland, E.; Brian, A.; Draper, C.E.; Ekkekakis, P.; Fumagalli, G.; Laukkanen, A.; Mavilidi, M.F.;
et al. Exploration: An overarching focus for holistic development. Braz. J. Mot. Behav. 2021, 15. [CrossRef]
117. Greco, G.; Fischetti, F.; Cataldi, S.; Latino, F. Effects of Shotokan Karate on resilience to bullying in adolescents. J. Hum. Sport
Exerc. 2019, 14, 890–899. [CrossRef]
118. Brady, F. The contextual interference effect and sport skills. Sage J. 2008, 106, 461–472. [CrossRef]
119. Carey, J.R.; Bhatt, E.; Nagpal, A. Neuroplasticity promoted by task complexity. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 2005, 33, 24–31.
120. Gaetano, R.; Domenico, T.; Gaetano, A. Physical activity and its relation to body and ludic expression in childhood. Mediterr. J.
Soc. Sci. 2015, 6 (Suppl. S2), 293. [CrossRef]
121. Matura, S.; Fleckenstein, J.; Deichmann, R.; Engeroff, T.; Füzéki, E.; Hattingen, E.; Hellweg, R.; Lienerth, B.; Pilatus, U.; Schwarz,
S.; et al. Effects of aerobic exercise on brain metabolism and grey matter volume in older adults: Results of the randomised
controlled SMART trial. Transl. Psychiatry 2017, 7, e1172. [CrossRef]
122. Bonavolontà, V.; Cataldi, S.; Latino, F.; Carvutto, R.; De Candia, M.; Mastrorilli, G.; Messina, G.; Patti, A.; Fischetti, F. The role
of parental involvement in youth sport experience: Perceived and desired behavior by male soccer players. Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 2021, 18, 8698. [CrossRef]
123. Voss, M.W.; Prakash, R.S.; Erickson, K.I.; Basak, C.; Chaddock, L.; Kim, J.S.; Alves, H.; Heo, S.; Szabo, A.N.; White, S.M.; et al.
Plasticity of brain networks in a randomized intervention trial of exercise training in older adults. Front. Ag. Neurosci. 2010, 2.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
124. Latino, F.; Cataldi, S.; Fischetti, F. Effects of a coordinative ability training program on adolescents’ cognitive functioning. Front.
Psychol. 2021, 28, 30. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
125. Farì, G.; Latino, F.; Tafuri, F.; Dell’Anna, L.; Raele, M.V.; Fai, A.; De Serio, C.; Intonti, G.; De Salvo, A.L.; Ricci, V. Shoulder Pain
Biomechanics, Rehabilitation and Prevention in Wheelchair Basketball Players: A Narrative Review. Biomechanics 2023, 3, 362–376.
[CrossRef]
126. Morsanuto, S.; Peluso Cassese, F.; Tafuri, F.; Tafuri, D. Outdoor Education, Integrated Soccer Activities, and Learning in Children
with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Project Aimed at Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 13456. [CrossRef]
127. Latino, F.; Saraiello, E.; Tafuri, F. Outdoor Physical Activity: A Training Method for Learning in an Experiential and Innovative
Way. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 2023, 23, 1852–1860.
128. Kamijo, K.; Nishihira, Y.; Higashiura, T.; Kuroiwa, K. The interactive effect of exercise intensity and task difficulty on human
cognitive processing. Int. J. Psychophysiol. Off. J. Int. Organ. Psychophysiol. 2007, 65, 114–121. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
129. Pagliara, V.; De Rosa, M.; Di Donato, P.; Nasso, R.; D’Errico, A.; Cammarota, C.; Poli, A.; Masullo, M.; Arcone, R. Inhibition of
Interleukin-6 induced Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 expression and invasive ability by Lemon Peel Polyphenol Extract in human
primary colon cancer cells. Molecules 2021, 26, 7076. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
130. Alcaro, S.; Arcone, R.; Costa, G.; De Vita, D.; Iannone, M.; Ortuso, F.; Procopio, A.; Pasceri, R.; Rotiroti, D.; Scipione, L. Simple
Choline Esters as Potential Anti-Alzheimer Agents. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2010, 16, 692–697. [CrossRef]
131. Da Silva, S.G.; Doná, F.; Da Silva-Fernandes, M.J.; Scorza, F.A.; Cavalheiro, E.A.; Arida, R.M. Physical exercise during the
adolescent period of life increases hippocampal parvalbumin expression. Brain Dev. 2010, 32, 137–142. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
132. Palma, D.D.; Tafuri, D. Special needs and inclusion in sport management: A specific literature review. Sport Sci. 2016, 9 (Suppl. S2),
24–31.
133. Harvey, S.B.; Øverland, S.; Hatch, S.L.; Wessely, S.; Mykletun, A.; Hotopf, M. Exercise and the Prevention of Depression: Results
of the HUNT Cohort Study. Am. J. Psychiatry 2017, 75, 28–36. [CrossRef]
Medicina 2024, 60, 216 16 of 16
134. La Torre, M.E.; Monda, A.; Messina, A.; de Stefano, M.I.; Monda, V.; Moscatelli, F.; Tafuri, F.; Saraiello, E.; Latino, F.; Monda, M.;
et al. The Potential Role of Nutrition in Overtraining Syndrome: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2023, 15, 4916. [CrossRef]
135. Whiteman, A.S.; Young, D.E.; He, X.; Chen, T.C.; Wagenaar, R.C.; Stern, C.E.; Schon, K. Interaction between serum BDNF and
aerobic fitness predicts recognition memory in healthy young adults. Behav. Brain Res. 2014, 259, 302–312. [CrossRef]
136. Latino, F.; Tafuri, F.; Saraiello, E.; Tafuri, D. Classroom-Based Physical Activity as a Means to Improve Self-Efficacy and Academic
Achievement among Normal-Weight and Overweight Youth. Nutrients 2023, 15, 2061. [CrossRef]
137. Latino, F.; Tafuri, F. Physical Activity and Academic Performance in School-Age Children: A Systematic Review. Sustainability
2023, 15, 6616. [CrossRef]
138. Nakagawa, T.; Koan, I.; Chen, C.; Matsubara, T.; Hagiwara, K.; Lei, H.; Hirotsu, M.; Yamagata, H.; Nakagawa, S. Regular
moderate-to vigorous-intensity physical activity rather than walking is associated with enhanced cognitive functions and mental
health in young adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 614. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
139. Pesce, C. Shifting the focus from quantitative to qualitative exercise characteristics in exercise and cognition research. J. Sport
Exerc. Psychol. 2012, 34, 766–786. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
140. Chacón-Cuberos, R.; Zurita-Ortega, F.; Ramírez-Granizo, I.; Castro-Sánchez, M. Physical activity and academic performance in
children and preadolescents: A systematic review. Apunts. Educ. Física Deportes 2020, 139, 1–9. [CrossRef]
141. Masini, A.; Sanmarchi, F.; Kawalec, A.; Esposito, F.; Scrimaglia, S.; Tessari, A.; Scheier, L.M.; Sacchetti, R.; Dallolio, L. Mediter-
ranean diet, physical activity, and family characteristics associated with cognitive performance in Italian primary school children:
Analysis of the I-MOVE project. Eur. J. Pediatr. 2023, 182, 917–927. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.