Republic of the Philippines

CEBU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Surveying

Lecture:

Allotted Time: 3 Hours (Lecture)

Intended Learning Outcome: - Describe the basic principle and concept of surveying.
- Evaluate the different errors contain in measurement.

Presentation / Discussion:

Surveying Concepts

Definition of Surveying
- Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of distinctive features on
the surface of the earth or beneath the surface of the earth, by means of
measurements of distances, directions and elevations.
- Surveying is the art of determining horizontal distances, differences in elevation,
directions, angles, locations, areas, and volumes on or near the surface of the
earth.
- Surveying is the science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions
of points above, on, or beneath the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such points.
- Surveying is the science and art of determining angular and linear measurements
to establish the form, extent, and relative position of points, lines, and areas on
or near the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through applied
mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques.
- Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above,
on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.
- Surveying is the science of measurement of horizontal distance between objects
or points; measurement of vertical elevation between objects or points; finding
out the relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with reference
to any arbitrary direction and finding out absolute direction by measuring
horizontal angles with reference to a fixed direction.
- Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three
dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the
Earth.
- Surveying involves the measurement of elevations, distances, and angles and
the processing of the measurements into positional information such as maps
and coordinates.
- Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between
objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines,
and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.
- Surveying is the science of determining the dimensions and contour (or three-
dimensional characteristics) of the earth’s surface by measurement of distances,
directions, and elevations.
- Surveying also includes staking out the lines and grades needed for the
construction of buildings, roads, dams, and other structures.
- In addition to these field measurements, surveying includes the computation of
areas, volumes, and other quantities, as well as the preparation of necessary
maps and diagrams.

Basics of Surveying
- Surveying covers the measurements of the earth specifically the surface of the
earth.
 Carried out by finding the (relative) spatial location of points on or near the
surface of the earth.
  Measurement of horizontal distance, vertical elevation, relative direction and
absolute direction.
 Different methods and instruments are being used to facilitate the work of
surveying measurements.
- Surveying involves four stages of operations:
 Planning is required to decide the methods of surveying to be adopted; the
resources (instruments & personnel) to be used and the control points / stations
to be used (those already available and/ or to set up). The planning operation
needs a prior field visit and this is known as reconnaissance survey.
 Field observation involves collection of field data by making necessary
measurements and recording of observed data in a systematic manner. Before
taking any measurements, the permanent adjustments of the instruments need
to be checked thoroughly by trained personnel and if required, it must be
adjusted.
 Office work involves processing, analysis and calculation of observed data;
preparation of necessary data for making plan or map of the area and
computation of relevant field parameters as per design for setting out
engineering works at site.
 Setting out works is to locate and establish different parameters / dimensions
at the site as per design for further engineering work.

Objectives of Surveying
- To collect field data.
- To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.
- To analyze the design of actual engineering works and to calculate the field
parameters for which surveying has been carried out.
- To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.

Uses of Surveying
- To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages
towns, forests, etc. of a country.
- To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses and other
properties.
- To prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works
such as roads, railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
- To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with
different parts of a country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points
important for the defense of a country.
- To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find the
best possible routes for roads, railways, etc.
- To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.
- To prepare an archaeological map including places where ancient relics exist.

Principle of Surveying
- To work from the whole to the part.
 The whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e. controlling stations) and
main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines).
 The area is then divided into a number of parts by forming well-conditioned
triangles. A nearly equilateral triangle is considered the best well-conditioned
triangle.
 The main survey lines are measured very accurately with a standard chain.
Then the sides of the triangles are measured.
 The purpose of this process of working is to prevent accumulation of error.
 During this procedure, if there is any error in the measurement of any side of a
triangle then it will not affect the whole work.
 The error can always be detected and eliminated.
 But, if the reverse process (i.e. from the part to the whole) is followed then the
minor errors in measurement will be magnified in the process of expansion and
a stage will come when these errors will become absolutely uncontrollable.
 - To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from
fixed reference points.
 The new stations should always be fixed by at least two measurements (linear
or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear measurements refer to
horizontal distances measured by chain or tape. Angular measurements refer
to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or
theodolite.
 In chain surveying, the positions of main stations and directions of main survey
lines are fixed by tie lines and check lines.

Basis of Surveying
- Surveying is based on the use of precise measuring instruments in the field and
on systematic computational procedures in the office.
- The instruments may be traditional or electronic.
- The computations (primarily of position, direction, area, and volume) involve
applications of geometry, trigonometry, and basic algebra.

Importance of Surveying
- The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as construction of
highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc. are based upon the measurements taken
during surveying.
- Roads, bridges, buildings, water supply, sewerage, drainage systems, and many
other essential public-works projects could never be built without surveying
technology.
- Surveying is the link between design and construction.
- Other principal works in which surveying is being primarily useful are to fix the
national and state boundaries; to chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;
to establish control points; to execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting
and mapping; and to prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.
- In addition to its customary applications in construction and land-use projects,
surveying is playing an increasingly important role in modern industrial
technology.
- Some activities that would be nearly impossible without accurate surveying
methods include testing and installing accelerators for nuclear research and
development, industrial laser equipment, and other sensitive precision
instruments for manufacturing or research.
- Surveying methods are also used for guiding the fabrication of large equipment,
such as airplanes and ships, where separate pieces that have been assembled
at different locations must ultimately be connected as a unit.

Classification of Surveying
- Plane Surveying
 In plane surveying, the curvature of the earth is not taken into consideration
and the surface of the earth is considered as a plane.
 This type of surveys is applied for small area (less than nearly 200 square
kilometer).
 For most of the Civil Engineering projects, methods of plane surveying are
applied.
 Plane surveying is based on the following fundamental assumptions all
distances and directions are horizontal; the direction of the plumb line is same
at all points within the limits of the survey; all angles (both horizontal and
vertical) are plane angles; and measurement of elevation is with reference to a
datum which is a level surface.
- Geodetic Surveying
 In geodetic surveying in which the true shape of the earth is taken into
consideration.
 This type of surveying is being carried out for highly precise work and is to be
adopted for surveying of large area.
  The line joining any two points is considered a curved line.
 The triangle formed by any three points is considered spherical and the angles
of the triangle are assumed to be spherical angles.

Type of Surveys
 Alignment Surveys
 Are made to plan, design, and construct highways, railroads, pipelines, and
other linear projects.
 They normally begin at one control point and progress to another in the most
direct manner permitted by field conditions.
- As-built Surveys
 Document the precise final locations and layouts of engineering works, and
record any design changes that may have been incorporated into the
construction.
- Astronomic Surveys
 Are surveys made to determine the latitude, longitude and azimuth from
observations to the stars.
- Cadastral Surveys
 Usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and rural locations for
the purpose of determining and defining property lines and boundaries,
corners, and areas.
 This type of surveys is also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities, towns,
and provincial jurisdictions.
- City Surveys
 Surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning expansions
or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configurations of the land, and preparing
maps.
- Construction Surveys
 Surveys which are undertaken at a construction site to provide data regarding
grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and the location and
elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers, architects, and
builders.
- Control Surveys
 Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points.
- Engineering Surveys
 Cover surveys carried out as part of the preparation for, and carrying out of,
engineering works, including roads, railways, pipelines, drainage etc.
- Forestry Surveys
 A type of survey executed in connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
- Hydrographic Surveys
 Refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and other
bodies of water.
 These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the shape of areas
underlying water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams.
 They are of general importance in connection with navigation, development of
water supply and resources, flood control, irrigation, production of hydro-
electric power, subaqueous construction, and recreation.
- Layout Surveys
 Involve marking on the ground (using wood stakes, iron bars, aluminum and
concrete monuments, nails, spikes, etc.) the features shown on a design plan.
- Mine Surveys
 Are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining
claims, determine geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and
establish lines and grades for other related mining work.
- Photogrammetric Surveys
 A type of survey which makes use of photographs taken with specially
 designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
 Measurements are obtained from the photographs which are used in
conjunction with limited ground surveys.
- Preliminary Surveys
 Gather geospatial data (distances, positions, and angles) to locate physical
features (e.g., water boundaries, trees, roads, structures, or property markers)
so that the data can be plotted to scale on a map or plan.
 Include the determination of differences in elevation (vertical distances) so that
elevations and contours may also be plotted.
- Property Surveys (land survey, title survey, or a boundary survey)
 Is performed to establish the positions of boundary lines and property corners.
 Are usually performed whenever land ownership is to be transferred or when a
large tract of land is to be subdivided into smaller parcels for development.
- Route Surveys
 Involves the determination of alignment, grades, earthquake quantities,
location of natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning, design,
and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines,
and other linear projects.
- Solar Surveys
 Map property boundaries, solar easements, obstructions according to sun
angles and meet other requirements of zoning boards and title insurance
companies.
- Topographic Surveys
 Are those surveys made for determining the shape of the ground, and the
location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it.
 The features shown include such natural objects as hills, mountains, rivers,
lakes, relief of the ground surface, etc.; and works of man, such as roads,
buildings, ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.

Modern Surveying Equipment and Accessories

- Steel Tapes
 Relatively precise measuring instruments and are used mostly for short
measurements in both preliminary and layout surveys.

- Level and Rod

 Used to determine differences in elevation and elevations in a wide variety of
surveying, mapping, and engineering applications.
- Engineer’s Transit
 A surveying instrument having a horizontal circle divided into degrees, minutes,
and seconds.
 It has a vertical circle or arc.
 Transits are used to measure horizontal and vertical angles.
 The graduated circles (plates) are on the outside of the instrument and angles
have to be read by using a Vernier.

- Theodolites
 Instruments designed for use in measuring horizontal and vertical angles and
for establishing linear and curved alignments in the field.
- Total Station
 This instrument combines electronic distance measurement (EDM), which was
developed in the 1950s, with an electronic theodolite.
 Electronic distance-and angle-measuring capabilities, this instrument is
equipped with a central processor, which enables the computation of horizontal
and vertical positions.

- Satellite-Positioning Receiver
 Capture signals transmitted by four or more positioning satellites to determine
position coordinates (northing, easting, and elevation) of a survey station.
 - Real-Time Kinematic (RTK)
 A highly accurate technique used to determine the position of a receiver using
the signal received from satellite-based positioning systems like GPS, Galileo,
BeiDou, and GLONASS.

Surveying Measurement
- Measuring distances and angles from a known reference are fundamental
surveying operations.
- Through the use of trigonometric calculations, the distance and angle
measurements are used to establish three dimensional (3-D) coordinates for
each surveyed point.
- The five common types of survey measurements are horizontal distances and
angles, vertical distances and angles, and slope distances.
  Horizontal distances and angles
 A linear measurement on the horizontal plane determines the horizontal
distance between two points.
 However, the true horizontal distance is actually curved like the Earth’s
surface.
 Due to this curvature, the direction of gravity is different at each point.
 Subsequently, vertical axes are not parallel to each other.
 Figure shows a representation of the curved surface and the parallel
horizontal distance.
 Horizontal angles are measured on the horizontal plane and establish the
azimuth of each survey measurement.
 An azimuth is a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a defined
reference (typically geodetic north).
 Horizontal distance and angle measurements are then used to calculate the
position of a point on the horizontal plane.

 Vertical distances and angles

 Vertical distances are measured along the vertical axis to determine the
difference in height (or elevation) between points.
 Vertical angles are measured in the vertical plane either above or below the
horizontal plane of the instrument.
 Zenith angles, used as a reference for measuring vertical angles, are defined
as 0° directly overhead and 90° at the horizontal plane.
 Slope Distance
 The slope distance is the shortest distance from the instrument to the target.
 This distance is the hypotenuse of the horizontal and vertical distances.
 The horizontal and vertical distances can be calculated if the slope distance
and vertical angle is known.
- Surveying measurement is always subject to imperfections of the instrument
used and the different errors inherent in the process of obtaining the
measurement.

Direct Measurement
- A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard
measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind.
- Some common examples of direct measurements are applying a wire or tape to
a line, determining a horizontal or vertical angle with a transit, or fitting a
protractor between two intersecting lines to determine the intersection angle.

Indirect Measurement
- When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a quantity to
be measured an indirect measurement is made.
 - In this type of measurement, the observed value is determined by its relationship
to some other known values.
- For example, the total length of a line would be an indirectly observed distance if
it is determined by a summation of a series of directly measured short segments.
- In the stadia and subtense method, horizontal and vertical distances are
indirectly obtained since it makes use of optical systems for relating a short
known length to the angle it subtends at the distance to be determined.

Units of Measurement
- Length, Area, Volume, Mass (Weight) and Temperature Measurement

Quantity Unit Symbol

Length kilometer
meter
millimeter

ℎ
Area square meter
hectare

Volume cubic meter

Mass (Weight) kilogram

Temperature Degree Celsius ℃

- Angular Measurement
 The Sexagesimal system uses angular notation in increments of 60 by dividing
the circle into 360 degrees; degrees into 60 minutes; and minutes into 60
seconds.
 Each unit has a corresponding symbol: degrees are indicated by °; minutes by
´; and seconds by ˝.

 1 circle= 360°= 21,600´= 1,296,000˝

 1°= 60´= 3600˝
 1´= 60˝
 Angles are expressed in Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds as applicable, but
can be expressed in any combination.
 Example 35.37°, 2122.2´, 127332˝, 34°81´72˝, and 35°22´12˝ all represent the
same magnitude of angle.
  Example

23 12 18 23.205
Degree-Minutes-Seconds Decimal Degrees

42 53 06 42.885
63 32 18 63.545
87 58 48 87.980

Significant Figures
- In recording results from values obtained by measurements and in making
computations, it is important to determine which should be retained as significant
figures.
- The number of significant figures in any value includes the number of certain
digits plus one digit that is estimated and, therefore, questionable or uncertain.
- For example, if a line is measured with a scale graduated in one-meter
increments and recorded as 3.6 meters, the value has two significant figures - 3
that is certain and the 6 which is estimated.
- If the same line is again measured with a scale graduated in tenths of a meter,
and recorded with three significant figures, as 3.65 meters, the 3 and 6 are
certain, whereas the 5 is estimated or uncertain.
- One Significant Figure
100 9 0.001
400 8000 0.000005
- Two Significant Figures
24 0.020 0.0024
0.24 0.000065 3.6
- Three Significant Figures
365 3.65 0.000249
12.3 10.1 0.0120
- Four Significant Figures
7654 0.8742 0.00006712
32.25 15.00 364.0
- Five Significant Figures
12345 100.00 40.000
0.86740 46.609 155.28
- Some general rules regarding significant figures are:
 Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant, as, for
example in the following values each of which contains 4 significant figures:
12.03, 35.06, and 4009.
 Rule 2 – For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the
decimal are not significant. They merely show the position of the decimal such
as in the following values which contain three significant figures: 0.00325,
0.000468, and 0.0230.
 Rule 3 –Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant such as:
169.30, 366.00, and 11.000. These three values all have five significant figures.

Rounding Off Numbers

- Rounding off a value is the process of dropping one or more of the final digits so
that the value contains only the significant figures required for further
computation or for portraying the final results.
- The following procedures of rounding off values are generally accepted:
 Digit is less than 5. When the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the number is
written without the digit.
24.244 → 24.24 (Rounded off to nearest hundred)
24.24 → 24.2 (Rounded off to nearest tenths)
 Digit is equal to 5. When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even
number is used for the preceding digit.
26.175 → 26.18 (Rounded off to nearest hundred)
126.285 → 126.28 (Rounded off to nearest tenths)
  Digit is greater than 5. When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the
number is written with the preceding digit increased by one.
226.276 → 226.28 (Rounded off to nearest hundred)
226.28 → 226.3 (Rounded off to nearest tenths)

Errors in Measurement
- An error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity.
- It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the true value and is often
beyond the control of the one performing the operation.
- Error are all inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot
be avoided.
- Errors may be caused by the type of equipment used or by the way in which the
equipment is employed.
- Errors may also be caused by the imperfections of the senses of the person
undertaking the measurement or by natural causes.
- The effect of errors cannot be entirely eliminated; it can be minimized by careful
work and by applying corrections.
- In any surveying operation, the surveyor must perform to exact standards and
must understand thoroughly the different kinds of error, their sources and
behavior, magnitude, and effects upon field measurements.
- Systematic Error
 One which will always have the same sign and magnitude as long as field
conditions remain constant and unchanged.
 For changing field conditions, there is a corresponding change in magnitude of
the error, however, the sign remains constant.
 This type of error is called a cumulative error will repeat itself in other
measurements, still maintaining the same sign, and thus will accumulate.
 In making a measurement with a 30-m tape which is 5 cm too short, the same
error is made each time the tape is used; if a full tape length is used six times,
the error accumulates and total six times the error (or 30 cm) for the total
measurement.
 Errors can be computed and their effects eliminated by applying corrections,
employing proper techniques in the use of instruments, or by adopting a field
procedure which will automatically eliminate it.
 In surveying, errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural causes, and
human limitations of the observer.
- Accidental Error
 These errors are purely accidental in character.
 The occurrence of such errors and matters of chance as they are likely to be
positive or negative, and may tend in part to compensate or average out
according to laws of probability.
 There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the error for
an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same as for a second
observation.
 The failure of the tapeman to exert the correct amount of pull on the ends of a
tape during measurement.
 The reading of an angle with a transit, the instrument man cannot read it
perfectly, there would be times when he cannot read it perfectly, there would
be times when he cannot read a value which is too large and, in another
attempt, he may read a value which would be too small.
- Instrumental Error
 These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used, either from faults
in their construction or from improper adjustments between the different parts
prior to their use.
 Surveying instruments just like any other instrument, are never perfect; proper
corrections and field methods are applied to bring the measurements within
certain allowable limits of precision.
 With time and continuous usage, the wear and tear of the instrument will likely
be a cause for errors.
  Example of instrumental errors:
1. Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
2. Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
3. Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an
instrument whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
4. Sighting on a rod which is warped.
5. Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.
- Natural Error
 These errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature such as
changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth.
 The surveyor may not be able to totally remove the cause of such errors but he
can minimize their effects by making proper corrections of the results and using
good judgment.
 Common examples are:
1. The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
2. Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
3. Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
4. Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a
strong wind.
5. Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to slope or uneven
ground.
- Personal Error
 This error arises principally from limitations of the senses of sight, touch and
hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.
 Some personal errors are constant, some are compensating, while others may
be erratic.
 Personal errors are significantly reduced or eliminated as skills are developed
in surveying operations through constant practice and experience.
 Errors of this type are also eliminated by employing appropriate checking of
procedures in the taking and recording of measurements.
 Typical of these errors are:
1. Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during sighting.
2. Errors in the measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly on the target.
3. Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel
tape during measurement.
- Most Probable Value
 The theory of probability a basic assumption is that the most probable value
(mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is
the arithmetic mean or the average.
 Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based on available data, has
more chances of being correct than has any other.
 If a given quantity is measured more than one time, resulting in more than one
value, not all the derived values are correct and only on correct value that
should be considered.
 Principle of least squares (theory of probability):

%& = () = , = . 0 1
∑+ -+ /+ /+ /⋯/+3 4
,

%& = () - most probable value of the quantity

measured
∑ ( - the sum of individual measurements
 Example
A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure a distance
between two points marked on the ground. The students came up with the
following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and
251.22. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations result
from accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the distance
measured.
Solution:

%& = () =
∑+ -+ /+ /+ /+ /+ /+ 4
= . 0 1 5 6 7
, ,

- 8 . 8/ 8 .98/ :;.; / 89. :/ 8 .8 / 89. 4

=
<

= 250.51 (mpv of the DM)

The angles about a point Q have the following observed values, 130 15 20" ,
 Example

142 37 30" , and 87 07 40" . Determine the most probable value of each angle.

Solution:

>? = @9 + @ + @
a) Determining the correction to be applied

>? = 130 15 20" + 142 37 30" + 87 07 40"

>? = 360 00 30" (sum of the angle observed
about point Q)

BCDE = 360 − 360 00 30"

Determining the correction to be applied

>? = −30" (discrepancy in the observation)

JKLM N "
GHII = = = −10" (Correction)
,

@9 = @9 ± GHII = 130 15 20" − 10"

b) Determining the Most Probable Values

@9 = 130 15 10" (most probable value of @9 )

@ = @ ± GHII = 142 37 30" − 10"
@ = 142 37 20" (most probable value of @ )
@ = @ ± GHII = 87 07 40" − 10"
 @ = 87 07 30" (most probable value of @ )

@9 + @ + @ = 360 00 00"
c) Solution Check

130 15 10" + 142 37 20" + 87 07 30" = 360 00 00"

360 00 00" = 360 00 00" (Checks)

The observed interior angles of a triangle are P = 35 14 37" , Q = 96 30 09" ,

 Example

and G = 48 15 05" . Determine the discrepancy for the given observation and
the most probable value of each angle.

P, Q, & G = vertices of triangle ABC

Solution:

T = 3 (number of observed angles)

>? = P + Q + G = 35 14 37" + 96 30 09" +

a) Determining the correction to be applied
9
48 15 05" (sum of the observed interior angles

= 179 59 51 (sum of the observed interior

of triangle ABC)
"

>? = -T − 24180 = -3 − 24180 = 180 00 00"

angles of triangle ABC)

>? = 180 00 00 (the correct sum for the observed

interior angles of three sided

BCDE = ± ->? − >? 9 4180

figure)

= ± U180 − 179 59 51" V

= +09" (discrepancy in the observation)
JKLM / ;"
GHII = =
,
GHII = +03" (correction to be added to each observed
angle)

P = P ± GHII = 35 14 37" + 03"

b) Determining the Most Probable Values

= 35 14 40" (most probable value of angle A)

Q = Q ± GHII = 96 30 09” + 03”
 = 96 30 12" (most probable value of angle B)
G = G ± GHII = 48 15 05” + 03”
= 48 15 08" (most probable value of angle C)

P + Q + G = >?
c) Solution Check

35 14 40" + 96 30 12" + 48 15 08" = 180 00 00"

180 00 00" = 180 00 00" (Checks)
 Example

point P are PXQ = 12 31 50" , QXG = 37 29 20" , and GXB = 47 36 30" . If the
Measurement of three horizontal angles (see accompanying figure) about a

measurement of the single angle PXB = 97 37 00" , determine the most

probable values of the angles.

Y9 = PXQ = 12 31 50"
Solution:

Y = QXG = 37 29 20"
Y = GXB = 47 36 30"
Y: = PXB = 97 37 00"
T = 4 (number of observed angles)

>? = Y9 + Y + Y = 12 31 50" + 37 29 20" +

a) Determining the correction to be applied
9
47 36 30"
>? 9 = 97 37 40" (sum of the angles observed about

BCDE = ± -Y: − >? 9 4

point P)

= ± U97 37 00" − 97 37 40" V

= −40" (discrepancy in the two sets of
observation made)
JKLM N: "
GHII = =
, :
GHII = -10 "
(amount of correction to be applied)
 Y9 = Y9 ± GHII = 12 31 50" − 10"
b) Determining the Most Probable Values

= 12 31 40" (most probable value

Y = Y ± GHII = 37 29 20 − 10
of angle APB)
" "

= 37 29 10" (most probable value of angle BPC)

Y = Y ± GHII = 47 36 30" − 10"
= 47 36 20" (most probable value of angle CPD)
Y: = Y: ± GHII = 97 37 00" + 10"
= 97 37 10" (most probable value of angle APD)

Y9 + Y + Y = Y:
c) Solution Check

12 31 40" + 37 29 10" + 47 36 20" = 97 37 10"

97 37 10" = 97 37 10" (Checks)
- Residual
 The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is the difference
between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value.

Z = ( − ()
Z – the residual in any measurement
( – a measurement made of a particular quantity
() – is the most provable value of the quantity
measured
- Probable Error
 The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the
most probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance
that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits
thus set.
 This is the error that would be found in the middle place of the arrangement,
that would possible be found in the middle place of the arrangement, such that
one half of the errors are greater than it and the other half are less than it.
 Probable error of a single measurement:

[ = ±0.6745\
∑ ]0
,N9
[ = probable error
\
∑ ]0
= sum of the squares of the residuals
,N9
T = number of observations
  Probable error of the mean:
∑ ]0
[^ = ±0.6745\
,-,N94
[
[^ =
√T

bcd,edfe JghKdcKi,
>` Ta Ia [IIHI =
 Standard error

√,

>` Ta Ia Bj&C `CHT = \

∑ ]0
,N9

- Relative (error) precision

 The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the
magnitude of the measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy of a
measurement.
 In surveying measurements, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used
to define the degree of refinement obtained.
 Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction
having the magnitude of the error in the denominator.
 For example, if for a particular measurement the probable error of the mean is
0.10 m and the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the
relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2335, also
written as 1:2335.
 Example
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a
line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40 and 1000.46 meters.
Determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of the measurement
Solution:

T = 6 (number of observations)
a)

∑ ( = (9 + ( + ( + (: + (8
 = 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 +
1000.40 + 1000.46
= 6002.70 m
%& HI () =
∑+ < .k
=
, <
= 1000.45 m (most probable value of the
measured length)

Z9 = -(9 − ()4 = 1000.58 − 1000.45 = +0.13

b)

Z = -( − ()4 = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05

Z = -( − ()4 = 1000.38 − 1000.45 = −0.07
Z: = -(: − ()4 = 1000.48 − 1000.45 = +0.03
Z8 = -(8 − ()4 = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
Z< = -(< − ()4 = 1000.46 − 1000.45 = +0.01

∑ Z = 0.00
-------

Z9 = -+0.134 = 0.0169
Z = -−0.054 = 0.0025
Z = -−0.074 = 0.0049
Z: = -+0.034 = 0.0009
Z8 = -−0.054 = 0.0025
Z< = -+0.014 = 0.0001
l Z = Z9 + Z + Z + Z: + Z8 + Z<
= 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0.0049 + 0.0009 + 0.0025
+0.0001
= 0.0278
 ∑n
[ = ±0.6745m
T−1

0.0278
= ±0.6745m
6−1
= ±0.05 m (probable error of a single
measurement)

∑n
[^ = ±0.6745m
T-T − 14

0.0278
= ±0.6745m
6-6 − 14
= ±0.02 m (probable error of a mean)
c) Therefore, the length of the measured line may be expressed as
1000.4560.02m.
This means that 50 percent chance that the true distance measured probably
fails between 1000.43 m and 1000.47 m, and that its most probable value is
1000.45 m.
There is also, however; a 50 percent chance that the true distance lies
outside this range.

[ 0.05
d)

oXL = =
%& 1000.45
9
=
,
(the relative precision of a single
measurement)
[L 0.02
oX^ = =
%& 1000.45
9
=
8 ,
(the relative precision of a single
measurement)

- Weighted Observations
 Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and
conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability and often
encountered is how to combine these measurements and determine the most
probable values.
 For such a situation it is necessary to estimate the degree of reliability (or
weight) for each of the measurements before they are combined and the most
probable values are determined.
 The assignment of relative weight to different measurements is usually based
upon the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements taken for a
particular quantity, and by assuming that the weights are inversely proportional
to the square of the probable errors.
 The weights are inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding

q q q
p9 = 0 p = 0 p = 0
probable errors.

r. r0 r1
p9 [9 = p [ = p [
s. r00 s. r10
= =
s0 r.0 s1 r.0

 The weights are also proportional to the number of observations.

 Errors are directly proportional to the square roots of distances.
 Example
Four measurements of distance were recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and
284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the
weighted mean.
Solution:

∑X 2841.99
pjC ℎ`ja tj T = =
∑p 10
= 284.20 m (most probable
distance
measured)
 Example
It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle which has been

The values observed were as follows: 74 39 45" (in two measurements),

measured at different times by different observers with equal care.

74 39 27" (in four measurements), and 74 39 35" (in six measurements).

Solution:
 ∑X 895 54 48"
pjC ℎ`ja tj T = =
∑p 12
= 74 39 34" (most probable
value of the
angled
measured)
 Example
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four different
routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable errors are given
below. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the point.
Solution:

p9 27778
op9 = = = 16.00
p: 1736
p 6944
op = = = 4.00
p: 1736
p 3086
op = = = 1.78
p: 1736
∑X 5008.121
pjC ℎ`ja tj T = =
∑p 22.78
= 219.847 m (most probable
value of the
elevation of the
point)

 Example
The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different occasions and
the probable error of each mean value was computed with the following results:
1st Set of Measurements =1201.50 ±0.02m
2nd Set of Measurements =1201.45 ±0.04m
3rd Set of Measurements =1201.62 ±0.05m
Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.
Solution:
 pd 2500
opd = = = 6.25
pM 400
pu 625
opu = = = 1.56
pM 400
∑X 10585.26
pjC ℎ`ja tj T = =
∑p 8.81
= 1201.51 m (most probable
value of the line
measured)

- Summation of Errors
 If several measured quantities are added, each of which is affected by
accidental errors, the probable error of the sum is given by the square root of
the sum of the squares of the separate probable errors arising from the several
sources.

[L = ±\[9 + [ + [ + ⋯ [,
[L = probable error of the sum
[9 , [ , etc = probable error of each measurement
 Example
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land are given by the following
measurements and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.5460.03 m, b =
234.2660.05 m, and c = 195.7060.04 m. Determine the probable error of the
sum and the most probable value of the perimeter.
Solution:

PTL = a + b + c
= 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70
= 592.50 m (perimeter of the tract of land)

[L = ±\[9 + [ + [

[L = ±z-0.034 + -0.054 + -0.044

 [L = ±0.07 m (probable error for the sum of the three
measurement)

- Product of Errors

independently measured quantities such as {9 and { (with their corresponding

 For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of two other

probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by the following
equation:

[| = ±z-{9 }[ 4 + -{ }[9 4
[| = probable error of the product
{9 & { = measured quantities
[9 , [ , etc = probable error corresponding to each
quantity measurement
 Example

probable errors as follows: p = 253.36 ± 0.06 m and ~ = 624.15 ± 0.08 m.

The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated

Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculation.
Solution:

P = ~ } p = 624.15 -253.364
= 158134.64 sq. m. (area of the rectangular lot)
[| = ±z-~}[s 4 + -p}[• 4
= ±z-624.15}0.064 + -253.36}0.084
= ±42.58 sq. m. (probable error of the calculated
area)
Mistakes in Measurement
- Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurement which occur because some aspect of
a surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and improper execution.
- Mistakes are also caused by a misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience,
or indifference of the surveyor.
- A large mistake is referred to as a blunder.
- Mistakes and blunders are not classified as errors because they usually are so
large in magnitude when compared to errors.
- Common mistakes in surveying which are frequently committed include: reading
the wrong graduation on the tape, omitting a whole length of tape, transposition
of figures, reading a scale backward, misplacing a decimal point, incorrect
recording on field notes, adding a row or column of numbers incorrectly.
- Example, a tapeman may read a number on the tape as 6 when it should actually
be 9, or he may read a taped distance as 48.6 m but records it as 46.8 m in the
fieldnotes.
- Another example of a mistake is in the recording of a series of repeated
measurements of a line.

Accuracy and Precision

- Accuracy
 Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true
value of the quantity measured.
 It implies the closeness between related measurements and their expectations.
  The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its actual value
represents the total error in the measurement.
 As the measured value approaches the actual value, the magnitude of the total
error is decreased, the accuracy of the measurement increases.
 A measurement is termed less accurate if it deviates by a significant amount
from its expected value, and it is more accurate if the deviation is relatively
small.
 A line known or accepted to be 100.000 m long is measured twice with a steel
tape. The first measured 100.003 m and the second is 99.995 m. The first
measurement is said to be more accurate than the second measurement since
the error in the measurement is only 0.003 m as compared to that of the second
measurement which is 0.005 m.
- Precision
 Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any
physical measurement is made.
 It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity.
 If a set of observations is closely clustered together, the observation is said to
have been obtained with high precision.
 Precision relates to the expertness of manipulation on the part of the observer
or to the capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise
instruments under ideal conditions employing the best techniques.
- Accuracy and Precision
 The concepts are illustrated in Figures III-3 through III-5 with a target shooting
example.
 In Figure III-3, all five shots are closely grouped indicating good precision due
to the degree of repeatability. However, the accuracy is poor because the shots
are far from the center of the target.

 In Figure III-4, the five shots appear randomly scattered about the target
indicating neither accuracy nor precision.
  In Figure III-5, all five shots are closely spaced about the target’s center
indicating both precision and accuracy.

 The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and precise

observations. Often measurements with greater accuracy and precision
requirements employ multiple observations to minimize procedural errors.

Video Links:

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stOFxRK_40w

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YI1haPlOb_w
Assignment:

Midterm Assignment No. 1 (MA-01)

Discussion. Discuss as briefly as possible

1. Develop your personal definition for the practice of surveying.

2. Explain the difference between geodetic and plane surveying.

3. Describe some surveying applications in:

(a) Construction (b) Mining (c) Agriculture

4. List 10 uses for surveying other than property and construction surveying.

5. What causes errors in measurement?

6. What are the different types of errors?

7. Distinguish between accuracy and precision?

8. What are the rules for adjustment of weighted field observations?

9. The following are six equally reliable and direct measurements of a base line
in meter.
702.0; 701.4; 701.8; 701.6; 701.5 and 701.9
Calculate the most probable value and its probable error.

10. (a) Explain the terms: Residual of an observation, most probable value.

∠P = 77 14 20" wt 4
(b) Following observations were recorded for a plane triangle ABC

∠Q = 44 40 35" wt 3
∠G = 53 04 52" wt 2
Compute the adjusted value of the angles.

11. (a) Explain the terms:

(i) Systematic errors, (ii) Accidental errors, (iii) Mistakes
(b) The following angles were measured at a station O so as to close the

= 83 42 28.8" weight 3
horizon.

• = 102 15 43.3" weight 2

E = 94 38 27.3" weight 4
a = 79 23 23.6" weight 2
Find the most probable value of angles.
Problem Set:

Midterm Problem Set No. 1 (MPS-01)

1. The following data observed are the difference in between Qt9 and Qt by
running a line of levels over four different routes.
Route Diff. in Elevations Probable Error
1 340.22 ±02
2 340.30 ±04
3 340.26 ±06
4 340.32 ±08
1. What is the weight of route 2 assuming weight of route 1 is equal to 1.

3. If the elevation of Qt9 is 650.42 m. what is the elevation of Qt assuming

2. Determine the most probable value of diff. in elevation.

it is higher than Qt9 .

2. The following data shows the difference in elevation between A and B.

Trial Diff. in Elevation No. of Measurements
1 520.14 m 1
2 520.20 m 3
3 520.18 m 6
4 520.24 m 8
1. Compute the probable weight of trial 3.
2. Determine the most probable diff. in elevation.
3. Compute the elevation of B if elevation of A is 1000 with B higher than A.

3. From the measured values of distance AB, the following trials were recorded.
Trials (x) Distance (y)
1 120. 68
2 120. 84
3 120.76
4 120. 64

1. Find the probable error.

2. Find the standard deviation.
3. Find the standard error.

4. Three independent lines of levels are run from Qt9 to Qt . Route A is 6 km.
long, route B is 4 km. long and route C is 8 km. By route A, Qt is 82. 27 m.
above Qt9 by route B, Qt is 82.40 m. above Qt9 and by route C, Qt is 82.
10 m. above Qt9 . The elevation of Qt9 is 86.42.
1. Using the weighted mean values, what is the weight of route B.

3. What is the elevation of Qt .

2. What is the probable value of the weighted mean.
5. The observed angles of a triangle are as follows: A= 34°20’36’’ B = 49°16’34’’
C= 96°22’41’’.
1. Determine the most probable value of angle C.
2. Determine the most probable value of angle A.
3. Determine the most probable value of angle B.

6. The weight of an angle is assumed to be proportional to the number of times it

has been repeated. Five angles in a five-sided figure are measured with the
following results.
Angle Observed Value No. of Repetitions
A 86°15’20’’ 6
B 134°44’35’’ 2
C 75°48’50’’ 2
D 167°02’05’’ 6
E 76°08’50’’ 4
1. Compute the adjusted value of angle D.
2. Compute the adjusted value of angle B.
3. Compute the adjusted value of angle E.

7. The following interior angles of a triangle traverse were measured with the
same precision.
Angle Value (Degrees) No. of Measurements
A 41° 5
B 77° 6
C 63° 2
1. Determine the most probable value of Angle A.
2. Determine the most probable value of Angle B.
3. Determine the most probable value of Angle C.

8. The following interior angles of a triangle traverse were measured with the
same precision.
Angle Value (Degrees) No. of Measurements
A 39° 3
B 65° 4
C 75° 2
1. Determine the most probable value of Angle A.
2. Determine the most probable value of Angle B.
3. Determine the most probable value of Angle C.

9. A civil engineer measures the distance of points A and B and the following
values were recorded in a series of measurements.
Trials No. of Measurements
1 200.58
2 200.40
 3 200.38
4 200.46
1. Determine the average value (mean).
2. Determine the probable error of mean.
3. Determine the precision of the measurements.

10. From the measured values of distance AB, the following trials were recorded.
TRIALS DISTANCE
1 120. 68
2 120. 84
3 120. 76
4 120. 64
1. Find the probable error.
2. Find the standard deviation.
3. Find the standard error.

11. The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of
levels over four different routes.
ROUTE ELEVATIONS PROBABLE ERRORS
1 340. 22 ±02
2 340. 30 ±04
3 340. 26 ±06
4 340. 32 ±08
1. What is the weight of route 3 assuming the weight of route 1 equal to 1.
2. What is the sum of the weighted observation.
3. What is the most probable value of the elevation.

12. A baseline measured with an invar tape, and with a steel tape as follows:
Invar tape Steel tape
571.185 571. 193
571. 186 571. 190
571. 179 571. 185
571. 180 571. 189
571. 183 571. 182
1. What are the most probable value under each set.
2. What are the probable errors under each set.
3. What is the most probable value of the two sets.
4. What is the probable error of the general mean.

13. Three trials of the measured angle between two points x and y were observed
and the following data were recorded.
Trials Measured Angle Time
 1 40°31’ 9:00:00
2 40°34’ 9:02:00
3 40°36’ 9:04:30

1. Find the probable error.

2. Find the standard deviation.
3. Find the standard error.

14. The distance BC was measured 3 times are recorded as follows:

Trial Distance (meters)
1 141. 60
2 141. 80
3 141. 70
1. Determine the probable error.
2. Determine the standard error.
3. Determine the precision of the measurements.

15. The observed interior angles of a triangle and their corresponding number of
times measured are as follows:
Angle No. of measurement
A = 39° 2
B = 65° 3
C = 75° 4
1. Find the probable value of angle A.
2. Find the probable value of angle B.
3. Find the probable value of angle C.

16. The interior angles of a quadrilateral are as follows:

Angles Value No. of Measurements
A 92° 2
B 88° 4
C 71° 3
D 110° 6
1. Compute the corrected value of angle A.
2. Compute the corrected value of angle B.
3. Compute the corrected value of angle C.

17. From the following measured interior angles of a five sided figure, compute the
following:
1. Probable value of angle A.
2. Probable value of angle C.
3. Probable value of angle D.
18.

Station Value of Angles No. of Measurements

A 110° 2
B 98° 3
C 108° 4
D 120° 6
E 105° 4

Measured from point A, angles BAC, CAD and BAD were recorded as follows:
Angle Value No. of Measurements
BAC 28°34’00’’ 2
CAD 61°15’00’’ 2
BAD 89°49’40’’ 4
1. Compute the most probable value of angle BAC.
2. Compute the most probable value of angle BAD.
3. Compute the most probable value of angle CAD.

19. Lines of levels between B and C are run over four different routes. B is at
elevation 825 m. and is higher than C.
Route Distance (km) Difference in Elevation (m)
1 2 0.86
2 6 0.69
3 4 0.75
4 8 1.02
1. Determine the weight of route number 2.
2. Determine the most probable difference in elevation.
3. Determine the most probable elevation of C in meters.

20. Lines of levels are run from Qt9 to Qt over three different routes. If the
elevation of Qt9 is 100 m. above the sea level.
Route Length (Diff. In Elev.)
Between Qt9 & Qt
A 10 632.81
B 16 632. 67
C 40 633. 30

2. Determine the most probable difference in elev. of Qt9 and Qt .

1. Determine the probable weight of route B.

3. Determine the most probable elevation of Qt . Qt9 is lower than Qt .

21. The base and altitude of a triangular lot were measured to have certain
probable errors of 314.60 ±0.16 and 92.60 ±0.14, compute the probable error
of the resulting computation.
22. The following sides of a rectangle and its probable errors are 120. 40 ± 0.04
and 360. 50 ± 0.08 respectively. Compute the probable errors of the sum of the
sides (perimeter) of the rectangle.

23. The probable error of the mean of 6 observation is 0.043 and the most probable
value of the measurement is 860 m. Compute the relative precision.

24. From the following data of a precise leveling from Qt9 to Qt , compute the
following:
1. Compute the probable weighted mean value of the difference in elevation.
2. Compute the standard deviation.

25. Compute the probable elevation Qt assuming it is lower than Qt9 whose
elevation is 212. 4 m.

LINE DIFF. IN ELEV WEIGHT

1 41. 16 6
2 41. 20 4
3 41. 12 3

Three level lines established on three different routes to established bench

Elevation of Qt9 is 30. 162 m, Qt has an elevation which is

marks, the result of which is as follows:

68. 258 m. above Qt9 and Qt is 75. 442 m. above Qt .

Route 1:

Distance of route from Qt9 to Qt is 3 km. and from Qt to

Qt is 7 km.
Qt is 143. 62 m. above Qt9 . Distance of route from Qt9 to
Qt is 6 km. long.
Route 2:

Qt is 143. 58 m. above Qt9 . Distance of route from Qt9 to

Qt is 15 km. long.
Route 3:

1. Compute the weighted difference in elevation between Qt9 & Qt .

2. What is the elevation of Qt .
3. What is the adjusted elevation of Qt .

26. From starting point, A, elevation 340. 85 m., the elevation of a second point B
is found, the route, distance and elevation of B being respectively as follows:

365. 01 m., Route 4 – 6 km., 364. 37 m. Midway along route 1, Qt9 is located
Route 1 – 4 km, 364.84 m., Route 2 – 2.5 km., 364. 20 m. Route 3 – 3 km.,

with an elevation of 351. 29. Along route 4, 2.5 km. from A towards B, Qt is
located, with an elevation of 349. 86 m.
1. Compute the weighted elevation of B.

3. Compute the adjusted elevation of Qt using route 4.

2. Compute the error in elevation of B using route 4.

27. An angle was carefully measured 10 times with an optical theodolite by

observers A and B on two separate days. The calculated results are as follows:
Observer B
Observer A
Mean = 42°16’25’’ Mean = 42°16’20’’
Em = ±3. 2’’ Em = ±1.6”

1. Compute the probable weight of A assuming the weight of B equal to 1.

2. What is the sum of the weight of A and B.
3. What is the most probable value of the angle.

28. A line measure 6846. 34 m. at elevation 993. 9 m. The average radius of

curvature in the area is 6400 km. Compute the sea level distance.
 29. The ground distance as corrected for temp., sag and pull correction is 10000
m. If the sea level reduction factor is 0. 9998756 and the grid scale factor is 0.
9999000, compute the grid distance of the same line.
30. The grid area of a parcel of land is 25425 sq. m. If the sea level reduction factor
is 0. 9998756 and the grid scale factor is 0. 9999, determine the actual ground
area.

31. The difference of elevation between two points was determined by

trigonometric leveling. The slope distance was measured electronically and
was found to be 1486.72 m. and the zenith distance was 83° 14’ 20’’. Calculate
the difference in elevation between the two points.

32. The geodetic length of a line on the earth’s surface is found to be 5280 m. and
its grid distance is equal to 5279. 67 m. Compute the scale factor used.

33. The corrected field distance on the surface of the earth was found to be 3296.
43 m. If the elevation factor is 0. 9999642 and a scale factor of 0. 9999424,
compute the grid distance.

References:

1. A Text Book of Surveying and Leveling, 12th Ed, by R. Agor, 2015 (3rd Reprint,
2018)

2. Elementary Surveying, 3rd Ed, by Juny Pilapil La Putt, 1987 (Reprinted, 2010)

3. Elements of Engineering Survey, by Jayanta Kumar Ghosh, 2015

4. Engineering Surveying - Theory and Examination Problems for Students, 5th Ed,
by W. Schofield, 2001

5. Engineering Surveying, 6th Ed, by W. Schofield, M. Breach, 2007

6. Introduction to Surveying 2nd Edition 2016 by Michael Minchin

7. Principles of Geospatial Surveying, First Edition, by Arthur L. Allan, 2007

8. Surveying - Principles and Applications, 9th Ed, by Barry F. Kavanagh, Tom

Mastin, 2014

9. Surveying and Levelling, 2nd Ed, by N. N. Basak, 2014

10. Surveying for Civil and Mine Engineers - Theory, Workshops, and Practical, by
John Walker, Joseph L. Awange, 2018

11. Surveying with Construction Applications Eight Edition 2015 by Barry F. Kavanagh
and Dianne K. Slattery

12. Surveying, Volume 1, 4th Ed, by S. K. Duggal, 2013