Lab Manual

Database Management
Systems Lab

Dr K ARUNA KUMARI
D N S B KAVITHA

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

SRKR Engineering College (A), Bhimavaram, India
This lab manual is intended to aid the undergraduate second-year computer science and
engineering students for their course Data Base Management Systems Lab [B20 CS 2204].

About the authors

Dr K ARUNA KUMARI: She got her PhD from KL University, M.Tech from Archarya Nagarjuna
University and MCA from Bharathidasan University,. Presently working as Assistant Professor in
the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SRKR Engineering College, Bhimavaram,
India.

D N S B KAVITHA: She is pursuing PhD from Andhra University, M.Tech and B.Tech from JNTU
Kakinada. Presently working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, SRKR Engineering College, Bhimavaram, India.

Copyright of any copyrighted material included in this book rests with the owners. The authors’
intention is not to infringe any copyright. It is for private circulation among B.Tech. (CSE) students.

Evaluation Scheme
Examination Marks
Day to Day Evaluation 5
Record 5
Internal Exam 5
External Exam 35

2
Preface
Database management systems are now an indispensable tool for managing information, and a
course on the principles and practice of database systems is now an integral part of computer
science curricula.

Database management has evolved from a specialized computer application to a central

component of a modern computing environment, and, as a result, knowledge about database
systems has become an essential part of an education in computer science.

This manual is intended for the second-year students of Computer Science and Engineering in
the subject of Database Management System. This manual typically contains practical/Lab
sessions related to Database Management Systems to enhance understanding.

Students are advised to thoroughly go through this manual rather than only topics mentioned in
the syllabus as practical aspects are the key to understanding and conceptual visualization of
theoretical aspects covered in the books.

3
Course Plan
Second Semester

Database Management Systems Lab

Week Name of The Experiment Session

Introduction to database management system environments,
1 1
Database Creation
2 Creation of tables using DDL and DML commands 2

3 Working with queries using ANY, ALL, IN, IN, EXISTS, 3

NOTEXISTS, UNION, INTERSECT and Constraints
4 Working with Aggregate Functions and Views 4
5 Working with queries using Conversion functions 5
6 Repetition Class

7 Theory Mid exams

8 PL/SQL program for exceptions and implement commit, 6
rollback, savepoint in pl/sql program
9 Working with pl/sql control statements, Nullif, Coalesce 7

10 Working with Loop statements, Raise Exceptions 8

11 Working with Procedures using In, Out, In Out Parameters 9

12 Working with Functions 10

13 Working with Cursors 11

14 Working with Triggers 12

15 Lab Internal
16 Theory Mid exams

17 Sem End Lab Exam

4
Contents

1 Database Creation 6

2 DDL and DML commands 8

3 Queries using ANY, ALL, IN, EXISTS, NOTEXISTS, UNION, 12

INTERSECT and Constraints.

4 Aggregate Functions and Views 17

5 Queries using Conversion functions 20

6 PL/SQL program for exceptions and implement commit, rollback, 23

savepoint in pl/sql program.

7 Control statements, Nullif, Coalesce 28

8 Loop Statements, Raise Exceptions 34

9 Procedures with In, Out, In Out Parameters 39

10 Functions 41

11 Cursors 43

12 Triggers 45

13 Creation of Forms and Reports in MS-Access 47

14 Creation of Database using MySQL 56

15 Case Studies 64

16 Viva Questions 68

5
Session #1
Data Base Creation

Learning Objective
To familiarize the students with database management systems environment (SQL Developer)
and to create a new user for daily log in.

Learning Context
DBMS is a software system that allows the user to define, to create and maintain the database and
provide control access to the data. The following procedure is to be used to create a user for daily
log in.

1. For getting ORACLE SQL DEVELOPER prompt

- Click start
- Click all programs
- Click SQL Developer

2. At Logon window enter the following data.

Username : system
Password : manager
Host string : cse

3. After getting SQL Developer prompt type the following command to create a new user
user001 for daily log in with 100 mb of space.

create user user001 identified by password 001 quota 100m on users;

4. Grant permissions to user using the following command.

grant connect, create session, resource to user001;

5. Now copy emp and dept tables from scott to user001 using the following commands,

create user001.dept as select * from scott. dept;

create user001. emp as select * from scott. emp;
6. Now use the following sequence to save the work and quit from SQL prompt.

commit;
exit;

6
7. Again, go to ORACLE SQL DEVELOPER prompt.

8. At Logon window enter the following data.

Username : user001
Password : 001
Host string : cse

9. Now type the following commands start the work.

show user;
set linesize 100;

10. Now start doing the queries and note down the queries and results.
It may be noted that after executing every SQL command we have to execute

select * from table;

and check manually that the result is the desired one or not.

Materials & Resources for the lab sessions

Text Books
1. Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, "Database System Concepts",
McGraw-Hill, 4th Edition, 2002.
2. Ivan Bayross, “SQL, PL/SQL The programming language of oracle”, BPB publications, 4th
Revised Edition, 2010.
3. Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant, B. Navathe, “Database Systems”, Pearson Education, 6th
Edition, 2013.
4. Peter Rob, Carles Coronel, “Database System Concepts”, Cengage Learning, 7th Edition,
2008.
5. M L Gillenson, “Introduction to Database Management”, Wiley Student Edition, 2012.

Web References:
1. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/dbms/
2. https://www.javatpoint.com/dbms-tutorial

7
Session #2
DDL and DML Commands

Learning Objective
Creation of Tables and usage of DML commands insert, update and delete.

Learning Context
Create table: Tables are defined using the create command. The simplified form of create
command is
r

Where create and table is key words.

Create, table and as are keywords.
➢ r is the name of relation
➢ A1, A2, , An, are attributes of the relation separated by domain types D 1,
D2,…
➢ the way of mentioning integrity constraints are
- Primary key (attribute). It is a set of attributes that uniquely identifies
a tuple in a relation and selected by the DBA for the purpose.
- foreign key (Ar) references r 1. Or
constraint c1 foreign key (Ar) references r1.
Here c1 is constraint name. Foreign key is a combination of attributes with values based
on the primary key values from another table. The meaning of this referential integrity
here is that for each tupple in the relation, the values of ‘Ar’ must exist in the referring
relation.
- check (condition) the optional select statement can be used to
create a table from another reference table.

INSERT: Tables are constructed using the insert command. The simplified form
of insert command is

8
 - Insert, into and values are key words.
- r is the name of relation
- A1, A2, … , An, are attributes of the relation and v1, v2 ,.., vn are the corresponding
values. If the optional attribute list is not given, all the attributes in the relation
are assumed.
- The optional select statement can be used to insert values from another table.
But here it is to be ensured that both tables possess compatible data types.

UPDATE: The attributes values are updated using the update command. The simplified form
of update command is

- Update, set and where are key words

- A is attribute whose new value will be v1.
- The attribute values for the all rows satisfying the conditions are updated.
- If where condition is not given, the attribute values for the all rows are
updated.

DROP TABLE: Table can be dropped using drop table. The syntax of the command
is

Drop table is a key word.

Dropping a table in Oracle frees the space used by the table and commits any pending
changes to the database. All indexes and grants associated with the table are lost.
Objects, such as views, stored procedures, and synonyms built up on the table, are
marked invalid and cease to function.

DELETE: Table contents can be deleted using delete command. The

syntax of delete command is

- Delete, from & where are key words

- The attribute values for the all rows satisfying the conditions are deleted.
- If where condition is not given, the attribute values for all rows are deleted.

ALTER TABLE: Table structure can be altered using alters table command. The syntax of
alter table command is

9
 - alter table, add, modify, drop, column are key words.
- add, modify, drop are used to append an attribute, to change the data typeof
an existing attribute, and to delete an attribute respectively.
- A is attribute and D is domain type.

Procedure
1. Logon into SQL prompt/ livesql.oracle.com
2. Set the line size using the following command.
set line size 100;
3. Create the tables with create table command.
4. Type the following command after creation or modification of each table to view the
structure of the table.
desc table_name;
5. In between insertions and after all the data is inserted, save the data.
6. After inserting all the data or after modification to data, we can view the data by typing
Select * from table_name;
7. Use the following commands after all the task is completed.
commit;
exit;

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to create, alter and delete
tables using DDL commands and modify the table data using DML commands insert, update and
delete.

Exercise
1. Create three tables with the following schema
Sailors(sid:integer, sname:string, rating:integer, age:real)
Boats(bid:integer, bname:string, color:string)
Reserves(sid:integer, bid:integer, day:date)
Impose the appropriate integrity constraints.

10
2. Insert the following values into the above tables.

Sailors Reserves Boats

sid sname rating age sid bid day bid bname color
22 Dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/98 101 Interlake blue
29 Brutus 1 33.0 22 102 10/10/98 102 Interlake red
31 Lubber 8 55.5 22 103 10/8/98 103 Clipper green
32 Andy 8 25.5 22 104 10/7/98 104 Marine red
58 Rusty 10 35.0 31 102 11/10/98
64 Horatio 7 35.0 31 103 11/6/98
71 Zorba 10 16.0 31 104 11/12/98
74 Horatio 9 40 64 101 9/5/98
85 Art 3 25.5 64 102 9/8/98
95 Bob 3 63.5 74 103 9/8/98

3. Change dustin rating to 0

4. Restore dustin rating to 7
5. Increment the rating of all sailors by 10
6. Restore ratings of sailors by decrementing the rating of all sailors by 10
7. Change sailors names to all capital letters
8. Add one row of your own choice and delete that row in reserves table.
9. Alter the sname field of Sailors table to accommodate more characters.
10. Create a table demo with the fields sno, sname, salary and insert 3 rows starting with sno1.
11. Increase the size of sname
12. Update the salary of sno 1 in the demo table to 500
13. Update all the salaries in the demo table to 1000 except sno 1.
14. Delete all the rows in demo table.
15. Add “status” column to demo table
16. Delete the field “status” from dummy table.
17. Create table sailors2 with same data as in sailors.
18. Truncate sailors2.
19. Drop table sailors2.
20. Drop table demo.

11
 Session #3
Working with Queries and Nested Queries
Learning Objective
To practice select queries and nested queries.

Learning Context
Nested Queries
A nested query is a query that has another query embedded within it; the embedded query is called a
subquery. Subqueries are an alternate way of returning data from multiple tables.
Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements along with the
operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.

Subqueries with the SELECT Statement

SQL subqueries are most frequently used with the Select statement.

Syntax
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name expression operator
(SELECT column_name from table_name WHERE ...);

Example:
SELECT sname FROM sailors s
WHERE s.sid = (SELECT DISTINCT r.sid from reserves r WHERE s.sid=r.sid);
This nested query displays the names of sailors who have reserved at least one boat.

IN Operator: - The IN operator allows us to test whether a value is in a given set of elements; an SQL
query is used to generate the set to be tested.

Syntax
SELECT ColumnName(s)
FROM TableName
WHERE ColumnName IN (Value1, Value2...);

Example: -
Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat 103 using IN Operator.
SELECT S.SNAME FROM SAILORS S WHERE S.SID
IN (SELECT R.SID FROM RESERVES R WHERE R.BID = 103);
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NOT IN Operator: - The NOT IN is used in an opposite manner to IN.
Example: -
Find the names of sailors who have not reserved boat 103 using NOT IN Operator.
SELECT S.SNAME FROM SAILORS S WHERE S.SID
NOT IN (SELECT R.SID FROM RESERVES R WHERE R.BID = 103);

EXISTS Operator: - This is a Correlated Nested Queries operator. The EXISTS operator is another set
comparison operator, such as IN. It allows us to test whether a set is nonempty, an implicit comparison
with the empty set.

Syntax
SELECT ColumnName(s)
FROM TableName
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT ColumnName FROM TableName WHERE condition);

Example: - Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat number 103.
SELECT S.SNAME FROM SAILORS S WHERE
EXISTS (SELECT * FROM RESERVES R WHERE R.BID = 103 AND R.SID = S.SID );

NOT EXISTS Operator: - The NOT EXISTS is used in an opposite manner to EXISTS.

Example: - Find the names of sailors who have not reserved boat number 103.
SELECT S.SNAME FROM SAILORS S WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM RESERVES
R WHERE R.BID = 103 AND R.SID = S.SID);

ALL Operator: - It is a comparison operator. The ALL operator is used with a WHERE or HAVING clause
and returns TRUE if all of the subquery values meet the condition.

Syntax
SELECT ColumnName(s)
FROM TableName
WHERE ColumnName operator ALL
(SELECT ColumnName FROM TableName WHERE condition);
where the operator is one of the arithmetic, comparison operators {<, <=, =, <>, >=, >}.

Example: - Find the sailor's with the highest rating.

SELECT S.SID FROM SAILORS S WHERE S.RATING >= ALL (SELECT S2.RATING FROM
SAILORS S2);

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ANY Operator: - Similar to the ALL operator, the ANY operator is also used with a WHERE or HAVING
clause and returns true if any of the subquery values meet the condition.

Syntax
SELECT ColumnName(s)
FROM TableName
WHERE ColumnName operator ANY
(SELECT ColumnName FROM TableName WHERE condition);

Example: - Find sailors whose rating is better than some sailor called Horatio
SELECT S.SID FROM SAILORS S WHERE S.RATING > ANY (SELECT S2.RATING FROM
SAILORS S2 WHERE S2.SNAME = ' Horatio ');

BETWEEN Operator: - The BETWEEN operator is used, when you want to select values within a given
range. Since this is an inclusive operator, both the starting and ending values are considered.
Syntax
SELECT ColumnName(s)
FROM TableName
WHERE ColumnName BETWEEN Value1 AND Value2;

LIKE Operator: - The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a
column of a table.
There are mainly two wildcards that are used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
% : It matches 0 or more characters.
_ : It matches exactly one character.
Syntax
SELECT ColumnName(s)
FROM TableName
WHERE ColumnName LIKE pattern;

AND Operator: - This operator is used to filter records that rely on more than one condition. This operator
displays the records, which satisfy all the conditions separated by AND, and give the output TRUE.
Syntax
SELECT Column1, Column2, ..., ColumnN
FROM TableName
WHERE Condition1 AND Condition2 AND Condition3 ...;

OR Operator: - This operator displays all those records which satisfy any of the conditions separated by
OR and give the output TRUE.
Syntax
SELECT Column1, Column2, ..., ColumnN
FROM TableName
WHERE Condition1 OR Condition2 OR Condition3 ...;
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NOT Operator: - The NOT operator is used when you want to display the records which do not satisfy a
condition.
Syntax
SELECT Column1, Column2, ..., ColumnN
FROM TableName
WHERE NOT Condition;

SET OPERATIONS
SQL supports the set operations union, intersection and minus with the keyword’s union, intersect, and
except (minus in oracle).

UNION: The UNION operator returns records from the result of both queries after eliminating the
duplicate records which are common in both. There is another option of union, the UNION ALL operator,
which returns records from the result of both queries, including duplicate records which are common in
both.

Syntax
SELECT ColumnName(s) FROM Table1
UNION
SELECT ColumnName(s) FROM Table2;

INTERSECT: The INTERSECT operator returns the records which are common in the result of both
queries.

Syntax
SELECT Column1 , Column2 ....
FROM TableName
WHERE Condition
INTERSECT
SELECT Column1 , Column2 ....
FROM TableName
WHERE Condition;

EXCEPT: The EXCEPT operator returns the records which are in the result of the first query but not in
the result of the second one.

Syntax
SELECT ColumnName
FROM TableName
EXCEPT
SELECT ColumnName
FROM TableName;
15
Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to use SQL select
command in queries and nested queries by including various operators to select the
rows.

Exercise

1. Create three tables with the following schema

Sailors(sid:integer, sname:string, rating:integer, age:real)
Boats(bid:integer, bname:string, color:string)
Reserves(sid:integer, bid:integer, day:date)
Give the appropriate integrity constraints.

2. Insert the following values into the above tables.

Sailors Reserves Boats
sid sname rating age sid bid day bid bname color
22 Dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/98 101 Interlake blue
29 Brutus 1 33.0 22 102 10/10/98 102 Interlake red
31 Lubber 8 55.5 22 103 10/8/98 103 Clipper green
32 Andy 8 25.5 22 104 10/7/98 104 Marine red
58 Rusty 10 35.0 31 102 11/10/98
64 Horatio 7 35.0 31 103 11/6/98
71 Zorba 10 16.0 31 104 11/12/98
74 Horatio 9 40 64 101 9/5/98
85 Art 3 25.5 64 102 9/8/98
95 Bob 3 63.5 74 103 9/8/98

3. Find the names of sailors who have reserved at least one boat.
4. Find the ids of sailors who reserved a red boat and a green boat.
5. Find the ids of sailors who reserved a red boat or a green boat.
6. Find the ids of sailors who reserved a red boat but not a green boat.
7. Find the names of sailors who reserved every boat.
8. Find the names of sailors who reserved every red boat.
9. Find all sids of sailors who have a rating of 10 or reserved boat number 101.
10. Find the ids of sailors whose rating is more than the average rating of all sailors
11. Find the sids of sailors whose rating is better than some sailors called horatio.
12. Find the sailors whose rating is better than every sailor called horatio.
13. Find the names of boats reserved by dustin and by no one else.
14. Display the details of sailors whose names start with letter r.
15. Display the details of sailors whose names end with letter r.
16. Display the name, rating and age of sailors whose rating is between 8 and 10.

16
 Session #4
Aggregate Functions & Views

Learning Objective
To implement Aggregate functions and create, drop views

Learning Context
Aggregate functions: that take a collection of values as input and return a single value.
SQL offers five built-in aggregate functions.
❖ MIN (A) : returns minimum of column values
❖ MAX (A) : returns maximum of column values
❖ AVG ([ distinct] A) : returns average of unique column values
❖ SUM ([ distinct] A) : returns total of unique column values
❖ COUNT ([ distinct] A) : returns number of unique column values

The input to SUM and AVG must be a collection of numbers but the other operators can operate on
collection of non -numeric data types like strings.
For example,
select sum(rating) from sailors; displays total rating of all the sailors.
select count(sid) from sailors; displays no. of sailors.
select count (*) from sailors; displays no. of records in sailors.

All the functions except COUNT (*) ignore null values in their input collection. For SQL null value means
unknown or inapplicable.
group by & having Clauses:
The select statement syntax including optional group by and having clauses is as under:
select [distinct ] select-list from from-list
[where qualification ]
[group by group-list ]
[having group-qualification];

The result of the GROUP BY clause is a grouped table i.e., a set of groups of rows derived from the
table by conceptually rearranging it into the minimum number of groups such that within any one group
all rows have the same value for the combination of columns identified by GROUP BY clause.

Example
select sum(sal) from emp group by job;
17
Using this statement, we get the total salary for each designation of the employees. There is a restriction
on the select clause while using group by. Select item in the select clause must be single valued per
group as for the other aggregate functions. Therefore, a statement like
select empno, sum(sal) from emp group by job;
select * from emp group by job; are invalid.
But we can give
select job from emp group by job;
and
select job, avg(sal) from emp group by job; are valid.

HAVING: clause works very much like a where clause except that its logic is related only to the result
of group functions i.e., having clause is used to eliminate groups whereas where clause is used to
eliminate rows from the whole table.

Example
select deptno, avg(sal) from emp group by deptno having max(sal) > 1500;
Displays average salaries depart wise for departments which have average salary greater than 1500.

VIEWS:
A view is a table whose rows are not explicitly stored in the database, but are computed as needed from
the view definition.

Syntax of creating a view

CREATE [OR REPLACE] VIEW view_name
[(column [,...n])]AS SELECT_statement [WITH CHECK OPTION]

Example
The below command creates a view for dbms teacher to view student name and marks in dbms. But
the original table contains sno, sname and all subject marks.
CREATE VIEW dbms (name, dbmarks) AS SELECT sname, s1 FROM Students;

Syntax of deleting view

DROP VIEW view_name;

In SQL, view is said to be updatable (i.e. insert, update or delete) if the following conditions are all
satisfied:
⚫ The from clause has only one relation.
⚫ The select clause contains only attributes of the relation and does not have any expressions,
aggregate functions, or distinct specification.
⚫ Any attribute not in the select clause can be set to null.

NOTE: If we insert a row which does not satisfy condition in the where clause of create view then it is
allowed and that row doesn't appear in the view. To avoid such insertions, we have to use with check
option in the create view.
18
Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to use aggreg ate functions
and create views

Exercise

1. Count the number of different sailor names.

2. Calculate the average age of all sailors.
3. Find the name and the age of the youngest sailor.
4. Find the name and the age of the oldest sailor.
5. Displays all the sailors according to rating (Topper First), if rating is same then sort according
to age (Older First).
6. Displays all the sailors according to rating (Topper First), if rating is same then sort according
to age (Younger First).
7. Displays all the sailors according to rating (Lower Rating First), if rating is same then sort
according to age (Younger First).
8. Find the average age of sailors for each rating level.
9. Find the average age of sailors for each rating level that has at least two sailors.
10. Find the names of sailors who are older than the oldest sailor with a rating of 10.
11. Find the age of the youngest sailor who is eligible to vote (i.e., is at least 18 years old) for each
rating level with at least two such sailors.
12. For each red boat, find the number of reservations for this boat.
13. Find the average age of sailors who are of voting age (i.e., at least 18 years old) for each rating
level that has at least two sailors.
14. Create a view for Expert_Sailors (A sailor is an expert sailor if his rating is > 9).
15. Create a view for a subject_teacher (name, s1) from student table which has the fields roll
number, name, all subject marks i.e. s1, s2.. Students. Try to insert a row into the view.

19
 Session #5
Queries using Conversion Functions

Learning Objective
To implement conversion functions, String, and Date functions

Learning Context
Date functions
Function Description
Add_months(d, n) Returns a date after adding a specified date with the specified
number of months
Last_day(d) Returns the date corresponding to the last day of the month
Months_between(d1, d2) Returns the number of months between two dates
Next_day(d, day) Displays the next day
Round(d, [fmt]) Returns the date which is rounded to the unit specified by the
format model
Trunc(d, [fmt]) Returns the date with the time portion of day truncated to the unit
specified by format model
Greatest(d1, d2, d3…) Returns the latest date present in the arguments

Character Functions
Function Example
Initcap(char) Select initcap(‘hello’) from dual;
Lower(char) Select lower(‘FUN’) from dual;
Uppder(char) Select upper(‘sun’) from dual;
Ltrim(char, set) Select ltrim(‘xyzadams’,’xyz’) from dual;
Rtrim(char, set) Select rtrim(‘xyzadams’,’ams’) from dual;
Translate(char, from, to) Select translate(‘jack’, ’j’, ’b’) from dual;
Replace(char, searchstring, [rep string]) Select replace(‘jack and jue’, ‘j’, ‘bl’) from dual;
Substr(char, m, n) Select substr(‘abcdefg’, 3, 2) from dual;

20
Conversion Functions
Function Description
To_char(d, [fmt]) Converts date to a value of varchar2 datatype in a form specified
by date format fmt. If fmt is neglected then it converts date to
varchar2 in the default date format
To_date(char, [fmt]) Converts char or varchar datatype to date datatype.

Numeric Functions
Function Example
Abs Select abs(-15) from dual;
Ceil(n) Select ceil(44.778) from dual;
Cos(n) Select cos(180) from dual;
Cosh(n) Select cosh(0) from dual;
Exp(n) Select exp(4) from dual;
Floor(n) Select floor(100.2) from dual;
Power(m,n) Select power(4,2) from dual;
Mod(m,n) Select mod(10,2) from dual;
Round(m,n) Select round(100.256,2) from dual;
Trunc(m,n) Select trunc(100.256,2) from dual;
Sqrt(n) Select sqrt(4) from dual;

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to write queries using
convers ion func tions , stri ng, number and date functions .

Exercise

1. Convert 12345 to string.

2. Display system date after converting to varchar2 data type.
3. Display system date in ‘MON-DD-YYYY‘ format after converting to varchar2 data type.
4. Convert string ‘123.45‘ to number data type.
5. Concate the string ‘Rajesh‘ with ‘Raghu‘
6. Concate bid & bname of Boats & display along with color.
7. Lpad the string ‘Rajesh‘ to length 30 with the set of characters in string ‘*‘
8. Lpad the string bname to length 20 with ‘*’ set of characters and string color by ‘/‘.
9. Rpad the string ‘Rajesh‘ to length 30 with the set of characters in string ‘*’
21
10. Rpad the string sname to length 25 with ‘*‘ set of characters and remaining attributes in normal way.
11. Rpad the string bname to length 20 with ‘*‘ set of characters and lpad the same to make it length 30
with ‘#‘ and remaining attributes in normal way.
12. Display all sailors information by removing characters of sname if starts with ‘R‘.
13. Display all sailors information by removing characters of sname if starts with ‘H‘
14. Display all sailors information by removing characters of sname if ends with ‘o‘.
15. Display all Boats information by removing characters of color if ends with ‘r‘.
16. Display all Boats information by showing their names in lower case.
17. Display all Sailors information by showing their names in lower case.
18. Display all Sailors information by showing their names in upper case.
19. Display all Boats information by showing their color in Upper case.
20. Display all Sailors information by showing their names in Capitalizing first char.
21. Capitalize first letter of each word in ‘rajesh raghu’.
22. Find the number of characters in the string ‘Computer Science and Engineering ‘.
23. Display length of string SID, SNAME from Sailors along with their values.
24. Display boats information by starting their names with 3rd character & show only 4 characters.
25. Display the index of string ‘AB‘ after 2nd character & 3rd occurrence in the given string
‘ABCDABCDABABAB‘.
26. Replace ‘A‘ with ‘D‘ in the given string ‘ABCDABCDABABAB‘.
27. Display Sailors information by replacing ‘A‘ with ‘I‘ from SNAME, if any.
28. Display BNAME by replacing ‘ER‘ with ‘MA‘.
29. Display the system date for a system.
30. Display next date on DAY after date D. Ex: Display date on Thu after 20th Feb, 2018.
31. Display SID, Day of Reservation by adding 20 months to given day.
32. Display SID, Day of Reservation and date corresponding to last date of the month.
33. Display SID, Day of Reservation and months between System Date & day of reservation.
34. Find least value in 12, 53, 17, 2.
35. Find least value in '12', '53', '17', '2'
36. Find least value in 'APPLES', 'ORANGES', and ‗BANANAS‘
37. Find greatest value in 12, 13, 17, 2.
38. Find greatest value in '12', '13', '17', '2'
39. Find greatest value in 'APPLES', 'ORANGES', 'BANANAS'
40. Truncate the 5632.98345 number to 0, 1, 2 decimal places.
41. Round off the 5632.98345 number to 0, 1, 2 decimal places.

22
Session #6
PL/SQL
Learning Objective
To implement PL/SQL and Commit, Rollback, and Savepoint

Learning Context
PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language/Structured Query Language. PL/SQL is the
procedural extension to SQL with design features of programming languages. Data
manipulation and query statements of SQL are included within procedural units of code.
PL/SQL Block Structure is as follows.

Exception

Section Description
Required for named blocks. Specifies the way the program
is called by other PL/SQL blocks. Anonymous blocks
Header do not have a header. They start with the DECLARE
keyword if there is a declaration section, or with
the BEGIN keyword if there are no declarations.
It is optional. Declares variables, cursors, TYPEs, and
Declaration local programs that are used in the block’s execution
and exception sections.
Optional in package and TYPE specifications; contains
Execution
statements that are executed when the block is run.
Optional; describes error-handling behavior for
Exception
exceptions raised in the executable section.
23
 As we want output of PL/SQL program on screen, before starting writing anything type (Only Once
per session) SET SERVEROUTPUT ON

An example of an anonymous block:

The following code declares today as date data type and the default value is system date which
can be obtained from the environment variable SYSDATE. Display the date after concatenating
it with the string.

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to write PL/SQL block
and workout with TCL commands commit, sav epoint and ro llback.

Exercise

1. Create a simple PL/SQL program which includes a declaration section, executable section and
exception –Handling section (Ex. Student marks can be selected from the table and printed for those
who secured first class and an exception can be raised if no records were found).
2. Insert data into student table and use COMMIT, ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT in PL/SQL block.

Solution:
i). We have to create the student table and insert the records in to the table as follows:
SQL> create table student(sid number(10),sname varchar2(20),rank varchar(10));
Table created.
SQL> insert into student values(501,'Ravi','second');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(502,'Raju','third');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into student values(503,'Ramu','');
1 row created.
SQL> select *from student;
SID SNAME RANK
---------- -------------------- ----------
501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu
24
set serveroutput on;
declare
temp1 number(10);
temp2 varchar2(10);
begin
select sid, sname into temp1, temp2 from student where rank='first';
dbms_output.put_line('Student No:'|| temp1 ||' Name:'||temp2||' got first rank');
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line('********************************************');
dbms_output.put_line('# Error: there is no student got first rank');
end;
/
update student set rank='first' where sid=503;
1 row updated.
SQL> select * from student;
SID SNAME RANK
---------- -------------------- ----------
501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu first
Student No:503 Name:Ramu got first rank
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

ii) SQL> select *from student;

ID SNAME RANK
---------- -------------------- ----------
501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu first

PL/SQL CODE:
-- Procedure to execute in livesql worksheet
DECLARE
sno student.sid%type;
name student.sname%type;
srank student.rank%type;
BEGIN
sno := 504;
name := 'Karthik';
srank := 'first';
INSERT into student values(sno, name, srank);

25
 dbms_output.put_line('One record inserted');
COMMIT;
-- adding savepoint
SAVEPOINT s1;
-- second time asking user for input
sno := 505;
name := 'Manasa';
srank := 'second';
INSERT into student values(sno,name,srank);
dbms_output.put_line('One record inserted');
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT s1;
END;
/
select * from student;

-- Procedure to execute in sql editor

SQL>ed 5b
Enter the following code into the text editor and save the file with .sql format
DECLARE
sno student.sid%type;
name student.sname%type;
srank student.rank%type;
BEGIN
sno := &sno;
name := '&name';
srank := '&srank';
INSERT into student values(sno, name, srank);
dbms_output.put_line('One record inserted');
COMMIT;
-- adding savepoint
SAVEPOINT s1;
-- second time asking user for input
sno := &sno;
name := '&name';
srank := '&srank';
INSERT into student values(sno,name,srank);
dbms_output.put_line('One record inserted');
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT s1;
END;
/
SQL> @5b;
Enter value for sno: 504
old 7: sno := &sno;
new 7: sno := 504;

26
Enter value for name: ali
old 8: name := '&name';
new 8: name := 'ali';
Enter value for srank: first
old 9: srank := '&srank';
new 9: srank := 'first';
Enter value for sno: 505
old 16: sno := &sno;
new 16: sno := 505;
Enter value for name: haji
old 17: name := '&name';
new 17: name := 'haji';
Enter value for srank: third
old 18: srank := '&srank';
new 18: srank := 'third';
One record inserted
One record inserted

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from student;

SID SNAME RANK
---------- -------------------- ----------
501 Ravi second
502 Raju third
503 Ramu first
504 ali first

select sname, case sname

when 'Ravi' then marks+2
when 'Ramu' then marks+4
else marks
end
"new marks"
from student;

27
 Session #7
Control Statements, NULLIF, COALESCE

Learning Objective
Develop a program that includes the features NESTED IF, CASE and CASE expression. The program
can be extended using the NULLIF and COALESCE functions.

Learning Context
Decision Making Statements in PL/SQL

In PL/SQL. Decision-making structures require that the programmer specify one or more conditions
to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements to be executed if the
condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition
is determined to be false.

IF STATEMENT:

The IF statement associates a condition with a sequence of statements enclosed by the keywords
THEN and END IF. If the condition is TRUE, the statements get executed, and if the condition is
FALSE or NULL, then the IF statement does nothing.
Syntax:
IF condition THEN
Executable statement(s)
END IF;

28
DECLARE
a number(2) := 10;
BEGIN
a:= 10;
-- check the boolean condition using if statement
IF( a < 20 ) THEN
-- if condition is true then print the following
dbms_output.put_line('a is less than 20 ' );
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line('value of a is : ' || a);
END;
/

IF – ELSE STATEMENT
A sequence of IF-THEN statements can be followed by an optional sequence
of ELSE statements, which execute when the condition is FALSE.
Syntax
IF condition THEN
TRUE sequence of_ executable statement(s)
ELSE
FALSE/ NULL sequence_ of_ executable statement(s)
END IF;

ELSIF STATEMENT

The IF-THEN-ELSIF statement allows you to choose between several alternatives. An IF- THEN
statement can be followed by an optional ELSIF...ELSE statement. The ELSIF clause lets you add
additional conditions.

29
When using IF-THEN-ELSIF statements there are a few points to keep in mind.
• It's ELSIF, not ELSEIF.
• An IF-THEN statement can have zero or one ELSE's and it must come after any ELSIF's.
• An IF-THEN statement can have zero to many ELSIF's and they must come before the
ELSE.
• Once an ELSIF succeeds, none of the remaining ELSIF's or ELSE's will be tested.

IF condition-1 THEN
Statements-1
ELSIF condition- N THEN
Statements-N
[ELSE
ELSE statements]
END IF;

CASE STATEMENT

Like the IF statement, the CASE statement selects one sequence of statements to execute.
However, to select the sequence, the CASE statement uses a selector rather than multiple Boolean
expressions. A selector is an expression, the value of which is used to select one of several
alternatives.
Syntax

CASE selector
WHEN expression1 THEN result 1
WHEN expression2 THEN result 2
...
WHEN expressionN THEN result N [ ELSE] result N+ 1; ]
END CASE;

30
Example
DECLARE
grade char(1) := 'A';
BEGIN
CASE grade
when 'A' then dbms_output.put_line('Excellent');
when 'B' then dbms_output.put_line('Very good');
when 'C' then dbms_output.put_line('Well done');
when 'D' then dbms_output.put_line('You passed');
when 'F' then dbms_output.put_line('Better try again');
else dbms_output.put_line('No such grade');
END CASE;
END;
/

DATA TYPES

The PL/SQL variables, constants and parameters must have a valid data type, which specifies a
storage format, constraints, and a valid range of values.
- CHAR [(maximum_ length)]
- VARCHAR2 (maximum_length )
- NUMBER [(precision, scale )]
- DATE
- % TYPE Attribute
Declares a variable according to a database column definition or previously declared variable.

Example:
Procedure that displays name of an employee if his empno is given. It uses the %
type.

31
NULLIF: Takes two arguments. If the two arguments are equal, then NULL is returned. Otherwise, the
first argument is returned.
Syntax
select column_name, NULLIF(argument1,argument2) from table_name;

Example
select ename, nullif('sita','sita1') from emp;
ENAME NUL
---------- ---
Ram Sita
Sita Sita
Lakshman Sita
Hanuma Sita

select ename, nullif('Sita','Sita') from emp;

ENAME NUL
---------- ---
Ram
Sita
Lakshman
Hanuma

COALESCE: COALESCE () function accepts a list of arguments and returns the first one that evaluates
to a non-null value.
Syntax
coalesce("expression1","expression2",...);
Example
SQL> select coalesce(NULL,'DBMS','OS',’JAVA’) from dual;
COALE
-------
DBMS

32
 Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to write PL/SQL blocks
using c ontr ol statements (if, case ) and the s ignificanc e of nullif and coalesce
functions .

Exercise

1. Write a pl/sql program to find largest of three numbers using nested_if.

2. Write a pl/sql program to find appropriate grade using case statement.
3. Write a pl/sql program to find whether given character is vowel or not using case statement.
4. Implement NULLIF and COALESCE functions.

33
Session #8
Loop Statements, Exceptions

Learning Objective
Program development using WHILE LOOPS, numeric FOR LOOPS, nested loops using ERROR
Handling, BUILT –IN Exceptions, User defined Exceptions, RAISE APPLICATION ERROR.

Learning Context
PL/SQL LOOPS

There may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of times. In
general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function is executed first,
followed by the second, and so on.
Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more complicated
execution paths.
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and
following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages −

Basic loop structure encloses sequence of statements in between the LOOP and END LOOP
statements. With each iteration, the sequence of statements is executed and then control resumes
at the top of the loop.
Syntax
LOOP
Sequence of statements;
END LOOP;
Here, the sequence of statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements. An
EXIT statement or an EXIT WHEN statement is required to break the loop.
34
Example
DECLARE
x number := 10;
BEGIN
LOOP
dbms_output.put_line(x);
x := x + 10;
IF x > 50 THEN
exit;
END IF;
END LOOP;
-- after exit, control resumes here
dbms_output.put_line('After Exit x is: ' || x);
END;
/

FOR LOOP

A FOR LOOP is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs
to execute a specific number of times.

FOR loop_index IN [REVERSE] lowest_number.. highest_

number
LOOP
executable_statement(s)
END LOOP;

The REVERSE keyword causes PL/SQL to start with the highest_ number
and decrement down to the lowest_ number

Example
DECLARE
a number(2);
BEGIN
FOR a in 10 .. 20 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('value of a: ' || a);
END LOOP;
END;
/

Reverse FOR LOOP Statement

By default, iteration proceeds from the initial value to the final value, generally upward from the lower
bound to the higher bound. You can reverse this order by using the REVERSE keyword. In such
case, iteration proceeds the other way. After each iteration, the loop counter is decremented.

35
Example

DECLARE
a number(2) ;
BEGIN
FOR a IN REVERSE 10 .. 20 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('value of a: ' || a);
END LOOP;
END;
/

WHILE STATEMENT

A WHILE LOOP statement in PL/SQL programming language repeatedly executes a target

statement as long as a given condition is true.
WHILE condition
LOOP
executable_statement(s)
END LOOP;

Example
DECLARE
a number(2) := 10;
BEGIN
WHILE a < 20 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('value of a: ' || a);
a := a + 1;
END LOOP;
END;
/

Raising Exceptions

Exceptions are raised by the database server automatically whenever there is any internal database
error, but exceptions can be raised explicitly by the programmer by using the command RAISE.

Following is the simple syntax for raising an exception

DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF condition THEN
RAISE exception_name;

36
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
statement;
END;

User-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL allows you to define your own exceptions according to the need of your program. A user-defined
exception must be declared and then raised explicitly, using either a RAISE statement or the procedure.

DBMS_STANDARD.RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.

The syntax for declaring an exception is

DECLARE
my-exception EXCEPTION;

Pre-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL provides many pre-defined exceptions, which are executed when any database rule is violated
by a program. For example, the predefined exception NO_DATA-FOUND is raised when a SELECT
INTO statement returns no rows.
The following table lists few of the important pre-defined exceptions.

Exception Oracle Error SQLCODE Value

ACCESS_INTO_NULL ORA-06530 -6530

CASE_NOT_FOUND ORA-06592 -6592

COLLECTION_IS_NULL ORA-06531 -6531

CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN ORA-06511 -6511

DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX ORA-00001 -1

INVALID_CURSOR ORA-01001 -1001

INVALID_NUMBER ORA-01722 -1722

LOGIN_DENIED ORA-01017 -1017

NO_DATA_FOUND ORA-01403 +100

NOT_LOGGED_ON ORA-01012 -1012

37
 PROGRAM_ERROR ORA-06501 -6501

ROWTYPE_MISMATCH ORA-06504 -6504

SELF_IS_NULL ORA-30625 -30625

STORAGE_ERROR ORA-06500 -6500

SUBSCRIPT_BEYOND_COUNT ORA-06533 -6533

SUBSCRIPT_OUTSIDE_LIMIT ORA-06532 -6532

SYS_INVALID_ROWID ORA-01410 -1410

TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE ORA-00051 -51

TOO_MANY_ROWS ORA-01422 -1422

VALUE_ERROR ORA-06502 -6502

ZERO_DIVIDE ORA-01476 -1476

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to write PL/SQL blocks
using loop s tatements (while, for) and the s ignificanc e of exc eption handling by
creating and raising th e ex ceptions

Exercise

1. Write a PL/SQL program to print the sum of N natural numbers using while loop.
2. Write a PL/SQL program to print the sum of even numbers using for loop.
3. Write a PL/SQL program to print prime numbers upto given N value using for loop.
4. Write a PL/SQL program to print a pyramid of stars using a nested for loop.
5. Write a PL/SQL program to show pre_defined exception ZERO_DIVIDE
6. Write a PL/SQL program to show pre_defined exception CASE_NOT_FOUND
7. Write a PL/SQL program to Raise user_defined exception

38
 Session #9
Procedures

Learning Objective
To create and execute procedures passing IN and OUT parameters in PL/SQL.

Learning Context

Procedures: Procedures are standalone blocks of a program that can be stored in the database.
• Can receive multiple input parameters and return multiple output values (or no output values)
• Can perform an action such as insert, update or delete record

Syntax of the named blocks (procedures and functions)

In an Oracle stored procedure, the specified arguments and parameters include IN,
OUT, or IN OUT. The parameter mode specifies whether a parameter can be read from or
write to.

IN
An IN parameter is read-only. You can reference an IN parameter inside a procedure, but you
cannot change its value. Oracle uses IN as the default mode. It means that if you don’t specify the
mode for a parameter explicitly, Oracle will use the IN mode.

OUT
An OUT parameter is writable. Typically, you set a returned value for the OUT parameter and
return it to the calling program. Note that a procedure ignores the value that you supply for an OUT
parameter.

INOUT
An INOUT parameter is both readable and writable. The procedure can read and modify it.

Note that OR REPLACE option allows you to overwrite the current procedure with the new code.

39
 Example:
Procedure that computes and displays tax to be paid if income is passed as parameter

BEGIN

Execution
Exec tax1(1000);
output:80

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to write PL/SQL
procedures .

Exercise

1. Create a procedure to insert a new record into the emp table using the IN parameter.
2. Create a procedure to print the name of an employee if his id is given using OUT parameter.

40
 Session #10
Functions

Learning Objective
Program development using creation of stored functions, invoke functions in SQL Statements and
write complex functions.

Learning Context
A function is similar to a procedure, except that it returns a single value

Syntax of the named blocks (functions)

Example:
Function that returns tax to be paid if income is passed as parameter

RETURN ( p_value * 0. 08);

Execution
a. select tax2(1000) from dual;

Or
b. Execute Following sequence of statements for getting the value returned by the function into bind
variable and print it.

variable v1 number;
exec :v1:=tax2(1000);
print v1;

41
 In Oracle, user- defined functions and stored procedures are very similar in
composition and structure. The primary difference is that stored procedures cannot
return a value to the invoking process, while a function may return a single value to the
invoking process.

The IN qualifier is provided when invoking the function and passes a value in to the
function, while OUT arguments pass a value back to the invoking process. In other
words, the IN qualifier is supplied by the user or process that calls the function, while
the OUT argument is returned by the function. IN OUT arguments perform both IN and
OUT functionality.

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to write PL/SQL functions .

Exercise

1. Write a Function in PL/SQL to take your date_of_birth as input to your function and display the
calculated age.
2. Write a Function in PL/SQL to find the factorial of a given number using the IN parameter.
3. Write a Function in PL/SQL to find the reverse of a number using the INOUT parameter.

42
 Session #11
CURSORS

Learning Objective
Develop programs using features parameters in a CURSOR, FOR UPDATE CURSOR, WHERE
CURRENT of clause and CURSOR variables.

Learning Context

CURSORS:
The syntax of cursor declaration is

DECLARE CURSOR cursor_name

IS
Select_ statement
[ FOR UPDATE [OF column_ name [,... n]]} ]

The DECLARE CURSOR command enables the retrieval and manipulation of records
from a table one row at a time. This provides row-by-row processing, rather than the
traditional set processing offered by SQL. To use this procedure properly, you should:

- DECLARE the cursor

- OPEN the cursor
- FETCH rows from the cursor
- When finished, CLOSE the cursor

The DECLARE CURSOR command works by specifying a SELECT statement. Each

row returned by the SELECT statement may be individually retrieved and manipulated.
In Oracle, variables are not allowed in the WHERE clause of the SELECT statement
unless they are first declared as variables. The parameters are not assigned at the
DECLARE. Instead, they are assigned values at the OPEN command.

Example
The following code creates procedure to display empno and ename of all employees in emp
table using cursors.

43
 Example:
The following code creates procedure to update salaries of employees using cursors

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to manipulate record by
record data u s ing cursors.

Exercise
1. Create a procedure to display empno and ename of all employees in emp table using cursors.
2. Create a procedure to update salaries of employees using cursors
44
Session #12
Triggers

Learning Objective
To create triggers and to study the behavior of triggers.

Learning Context
A trigger is a special kind of stored procedure that fires automatically (hence, the term
trigger) when a data- modification statement is executed. Triggers are associated with
a specific data- modification statement (INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE) on a specific
table.

Syntax and Description:

Triggers, by default, fire once at the statement level. That is, a single INSERT statement
might insert 500 rows into a table, but an insert trigger on that table fires only one time.
Some vendors allow a trigger to fire for each row of the data- modification operation.
So, a statement that inserts 500 rows into a table that has a row- level insert trigger fires
500

In addition to being associated with a specific data- modification statement (INSERT,

UPDATE, or DELETE) on a given table, triggers are associated with a specific time of
firing. In general, triggers can fire BEFORE the data- modification statement is
processed, AFTER it is processed, or (when supported by the vendor) INSTEAD OF
processing the statement.

Triggers that fire before or instead of the data- modification statement do not see the
changes that the statement renders, while those that fir e afterwards can see and act
upon the changes that the data- modification statement renders. It may be noted that
Oracle allows INSTEAD OF triggers to process only against views, not / tables.

45
 Examples:
The first trigger is invoked whenever there is an update operation on the emp table rows
and if salary is changed. It records these changes in another table to know the changes
made to the table. The second trigger is invoked whenever there is an insert, delete or
update operation on the emp1 table rows and the changes are recorded in the empl and
empl1 tables.

: OLD. SAL,: NEW. EMPNO,: NEW. SAL);

IF;

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to write Triggers to
maintain databas e consistency at the time of manipulation.

Exercise
1. Create a trigger on ‘dbms’ table whenever there is an insertion of a row. If the marks
are < 0 insert 0 and insert 100 when marks is > 100.
2. Create a trigger which inserts the changes made into a dbms_change table on dbms
table before there is a deletion or modification of a row.
3. Create a trigger on account table which is invoked whenever an account is created
or an amount is withdrawn such that the balance should be always greater than or
equal to 500.
4. Create a trigger on account table which is invoked after an amount is deposited to
display the amount of balance in the account with account number.
46
 APPENDIX
Creation of Forms and Reports in MS-Access

Learning Objective
To familiarize with MS Access, open an existing database, create new data base, to create forms
and reports in MS - Access.

Learning Context
MS Access is a relational database that facilitates the storage and retrieval of structured
information. Access databases are, ideally, a set of tables that are related in one way or
another. Along with tables,
Access allows us to create:
- Query-organizing or collecting a particular set of data
- Form-interfaces that allow you to maintain or edit records/ data
- Report-printable results
- Macros-extended functionality for the database, an advanced function all of
these objects is stored in a single file with “. mdb” file extension.
PROCEDURE:
Part-I Opening an Existing database:
- Click on the Windows Start button, select All Programs, and
then click Microsoft Access.
- Click on the FILE menu, then open and select the .mdb
file to be opened and then click open. Then the following
screen appears
- Double click the t able to open the table.
- The t able contents are displayed as shown below.
- Then we navigate to the required record using the record
navigation buttons.
- To add a record of data, move to the first empty record
and type in the data values and press TAB to move to the
next field.
- To save a record of data move to the first empty field below
these records. We do not require to do anything else to save
your data. When we l eave a record, either by moving to another
record or by closing a table, Microsoft access automatically
saves the data.
- Edit a record after moving to the required record and use
TAB and SHIFT+TAB to move to next field and previous field.
47
 - Go to FILE menu and click exit to exit from Access.

Data Sheet View

Part II Creating a new database:

1. Click on the Windows Start button, select All Programs, and then click
Microsoft Access.
2. Click on the FILE menu, then new.
3. Click blank database option.
4. Name and save the database.
5. Create t able by double- clicking the create table in design view option.
Then the following window appears.
6. Enter the field names and data types.

48
7. Enter the field width in the field property window.
8. Right click the field which uniquely identifies a record in the table and
click primary key option.
9. Set the other properties like
- Required yes or no depending on whether the field value can be set
to null or not null.
- Validation rule like <= 100 for ensuring value in the marks field to be
not greater than 100.
10. Now save it with a new table name for example table1.
11. Close the design view and double click the table1 object to enter the
data.
12. After editing is completed close the data sheet view and
exit from MS Access.
Note: - we can also create table using create table by wizard or create
table by entering data.

Design view of a table

Data Type Property of a table field

You can use the Data Type property to specify the type of data stored in atable
field. Each field can store data consisting of only a single data type.The Data
Type property uses the following settings.

Setting Type of data Size

Up to 255 characters or the
( Default) Text or combinations of text length set by the Field Size
and numbers, as well as numbers that property, whichever is less?
Text
don’t require calculations, such as Microsoft Access does not
phone numbers. reserve space for unused
49
 portions of a t ext field.

Up to 65, 535 characters.(If

the Memo field is manipulated
through DAO and only text
and numbers [not binary data]
Lengthy text or combinations of text
Memo will b e stored in it, then the
and numbers.
size of the Memo field is
limited b y the size of the
database.)
1 , 2, 4, or 8 bytes ( 16 bytes
Numeric data used in
Number if the Field Size property is
mathematical calculations
set to Replication ID).
Date/ Date and time values for the years
8 bytes.
Time 100 through 9999.
Currency values and numeric data
used in mathematical calculations
involving data with one to four decimal
Currency places. Accurate to 15 digits on the 8 bytes.
left side of the decimal separator and
to 4 digits
on the right side.
A unique sequential (incremented by 1)
number or random number assigned
by Microsoft Access whenever a new 4 bytes (16 bytes if the Field Size
Auto
record is added to a table. Auto property is set to Replication ID).
Number
Number fields can’t be updated. For
more information, see the New
Values property topic.
Yes and No values and fields that
Yes/ No Contain only one of two values 1 bit.
(Yes/ No, True/ False, or On/ Off).
An object (such as a Microsoft
Excel spreadsheet, a
OLE Microsoft Word document,
Up to 1 gb disk space)
Object graphics, sounds, or other binary
data) l inked to or embedded in a
Microsoft Access table.

50
 Text or combinations of text and Each part of the three parts of a
Hyperlink
numbers stored as text and used as Hyperlink data type can contain
A hyperlink address. A hyperlink up to 2048 characters
address can have up to three p arts: Each part of the three parts of a
text to display — the text that appears Hyperlink data type can contain
in a field or control. Address: the up to 2048 characters..
path to a file (UNC path) or page (URL).
Sub address: a location within the file or
page.
Screen tip: the text displayed as a
tooltip.
The easiest way to insert a
hyperlink address in a field
or control is to click Hyperlink on The
Insert menu.
Creates a field that allows you to The same size as the primary
Lookup
choose a value from another table key field used to perform the
Wizard
or from a list of values by using a list lookup, typically y 4 bytes.
box or combo box. Clicking this option
starts the Lookup Wizard, which creates
a Lookup field. After you complete the
wizard, Microsoft The same size as
the primary key field used to perform the
lookup, typically y 4 bytes.
Access sets the data type based on
the values selected in the wizard.

The form is a formatted display where data is entered, displayed and edited. It
provides greater flexibility than a table. A report is a like a query but is formatted for
printing. As the data is entered data into a form simultaneously data is adding to
the table. In man y cases the tables can become quite large and difficult to read,
especially when we only want information from individual records. An easier
way to view the information in a table is to use a form which is easily created in
Access. Microsoft Access divides a form into five sections in the Design view.

The form header prints at the top of the first page. When we are viewing data,
the form header appears once at the top of the window.
- The page header prints at the top of every page
- The p age header only app ears when printed or in print preview.
- The detail section contains the fields from the t able. When we are viewing
data, the detail section is repeated for each record. When we print the form,
the detail section shows as many records as will fit on a page.
- The page footer prints at the bottom of every page.
- The p age footer only appears when printed or in print preview.
- The form footer prints at the bottom of every page. When we are viewing data,
the footer appears once at the bottom of the window.

51
Design view of Form:

We can use a report to present data in print. With a report, we

have greater flexibility to present summary information than
with a form. For instance, we can include totals across an
entire set of records in a report.

TOOL BOX:
The tool b ox is special kind of tool bar. Control is a
graphical user interface object, such as a text box, check
box, scroll bar, or command button, that lets users control
the program. We use controls to display data or choices,
perform an action, or make the user interface easier to read
Open a form, report, or data access page in Design view.
Toolbox is a set of tools that are available in Design view
to add controls to a form, report, or data access page. To
create a control using the tool box click the tool for the
control we want to create and then drag it and drop it.

TEXT BOXES
We use text boxes on a form, rep ort, or data access to display
data from a record source. This type of text box is called
a bound text box because it’s bound to data in a field. Text
boxes can also be unbound. For example, we can create an
unbound text box to display the results of a calculation or
to accept input from a user. Data in an unbound text box isn’t
stored anywhere.

LABELS
We use labels on a form, report, to display descriptive text
such as titles, captions, or brief instructions.

52
LIST BOXES
The list in a list b ox consists of rows of data. In a form, a list box can have one or more
columns, which can appear with or without headings. If a multiple- column list b
ox is bound .Bound control is a control used on a form, rep ort, or data access page to
enter or display the contents of a field in the underlying table, query, or SQL statement.
The control's Control Source property stores the field name to which the control is
bound. Access stores the values from one of the columns. In a data access page, a list box
has on e column without a heading.

COMBO BOXES
A combo box is like a text box and a list box combined, so it requires less room. We can type
new values in it, as well as select values from a list.

COMMAND BUTTONS
Command buttons provide us with a way of performing action(s) by simply clicking
them. When we choose the button, it not only carries out the appropriate action, it also
looks as if it's being pushed in and released. We use a command button on a form to
start an action or a set of actions. For example, we can create a command button that
opens another form. To make a command button do something on a form, we write
an event procedure and attach it to the button's On Click property.

CHECK BOXES
We can use a check box on a form, report, or as a stand- alone to display a Yes/No value from an
underlying table, query, or SQL statement.
OPTION BUTTONS
We can use an option button on a form, report, or data access page as a stand- alone control
to display a Yes/ No value from an underlying record source. We can also use option
buttons in an option group to display values to choose from.
The option group is the frame that surrounds the controls inside it. Only one option in
an option group can be selected at a time. If an option group is bound to a field, only
the group frame itself is bound not the check boxes, toggle buttons, or option buttons
inside the frame. Because the Control Source property of the group frame is set to
the field that the option group is bound to, we don’t set the Control Source property for
each in the option group. Instead, we set the Option Value (form or report) or the
Value(data access Page) property of each check box, toggle button, or option button. In
a form or report, set the control property to a number that's meaningful for the field the
group frame is bound to. In a data access page, set the control property to either a number
or any text that’s meaningful for the field the group frame is bound to. When we select
an option in an option group, Access sets the value of the field to which the option group
is bound to the value of the selected option's Option Value or Value property.

TOGGLE BUTTONS
We can use a toggle button on a form as a standalone to display a Yes/ No value from
an underlying record source.

53
TABBED PAGES ON FORMS
We can use a tab control to present several pages of information as a single set. This is especially
useful when we're working with many controls that can be sorted into two or more categories.
For example, we might use a tab control on an Employees form to separate employment history
and personal information. Information about employment history is displayed on this page.
Personal information, such as home address and phone number, is displayed on this page.

Procedure:-

Part-I
CREATION OF FORMS:
1. Click on Forms in the Objects column and select either the wizard or design view.
2. The wizard asks which table the form is to come from, and then which fields you
want. Give the table name and select the fields and move to the selected field list
by clicking right arrow button.
3. Select a layout, style, and a title to complete your form. This then opens in form view
for you to begin entering or viewing information.
4. Change to design view to customize.

Part II
CREATION OF REPORTS:

1. Click Report in the Object column and select the wizard or design view. The
wizard asks which t able or query you want to print.
2. Give the table name and then select the fields to print.
3. Select grouping levels grouping brings entries together in the same category,
say all people living in Dallas.
4. Select fields to sort and whether to sort ascending or d e s c e n d i n g order. Up
to four fields can be sorted.
5. Then select the layout i.e. columnar, tabular, or justified.
6. Finally, select a style and a title.
7. The report opens in print preview.
8. Switch to design view to change the formatting.

DESIGN VIEW OF A REPORT

When we print the report, sections are repeated, as appropriate, until all the data in
the report is printed. The controls in each section tell Microsoft Access what data to print
in the section. The Report Header prints at the beginning of the report. The Page
Header and Footer prints on every page. The Category Header and Footer prints for
each category. The Details section prints for each record in the category Controls that
we can use to display, enter, filter, or organize data in Access.

54
Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to c reate database
and generate f orms and reports in MS -ACCESS.

Exercise
1. Create a form for entering the data into student table
which is already created in the previous experiment.
2. Create a form for each subject teacher to enter marks
in the concerned subject.
3. Create a report to head of the department to view all
subject marks of the students.
4. Create a report displaying roll list (roll number and
name of the students) from the student table.

55
My SQL

Learning Objective
To practice simple MySQL commands for retrieving data.

Learning Context
MySQL is primarily an RDBMS and ships with no GUI tools to administer MySQL databases
or manage data contained within the databases. Users may use the included command line
tools,
MySQL uses all the standard ANSI SQL numeric data types, so if you’re coming to MySQL
from a different database system, these definitions will look familiar to you. The following
list shows the common numeric data types and their descriptions.

Numeric Data Types:

INT - A normal-sized integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range
is from -2147483648 to 2147483647. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to
4294967295. You can specify a width of up to 11 digits.

TINYINT - A very small integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range
is from -128 to 127. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 255. You canspecify a width
of up to 4 digits.

SMALLINT - A small integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range
is from -32768 to 32767. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to 65535. You can specify
a width of up to 5 digits.

MEDIUMINT - A medium-sized integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the

allowable range is from -8388608 to 8388607. If unsigned, the allowable range is from 0 to
16777215. You can specify a width of up to 9 digits.

BIGINT - A large integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed, the allowable range is
from -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807. If unsigned, the allowable rangeis
from 0 to 18446744073709551615. You can specify a width of up to 11 digits.

FLOAT(M,D) - A floating-point number that cannot be unsigned. You can define the display
length (M) and the number of decimals (D). This is not required and will default to 10,2, where
2 is the number of decimals and 10 is the total number of digits (including decimals). Decimal
precision can go to 24 places for a FLOAT.

DOUBLE(M,D) - A double precision floating-point number that cannot be unsigned. Youcan

define the display length (M) and the number of decimals (D). This is not required and will
56
default to 16,4, where 4 is the number of decimals. Decimal precision can go to 53 places for
a DOUBLE. REAL is a synonym for DOUBLE.

DECIMAL(M,D) - An unpacked floating-point number that cannot be unsigned. In unpacked

decimals, each decimal corresponds to one byte. Defining the display length (M) and the
number of decimals (D) is required. NUMERIC is a synonym for DECIMAL.

Date and Time Types:

DATE - A date in YYYY-MM-DD format, between 1000-01-01 and 9999-12-31. For example,
December 30th, 1973 would be stored as 1973-12-30.

DATETIME - A date and time combination in YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS format, between

1000-01-01 00:00:00 and 9999-12-31 23:59:59. For example, 3:30 in the afternoon on
December 30th, 1973 would be stored as 1973-12-30 15:30:00.

TIMESTAMP - A timestamp between midnight, January 1, 1970 and sometime in 2037.

This looks like the previous DATETIME format, only without the hyphens between numbers;
3:30 in the afternoon on December 30th, 1973 would be stored as 19731230153000(
YYYYMMDDHHMMSS ).

TIME - Stores the time in HH:MM:SS format.

YEAR(M) - Stores a year in 2-digit or 4-digit format. If the length is specified as 2 (for example
YEAR(2)), YEAR can be 1970 to 2069 (70 to 69). If the length is specified as 4, YEAR can
be 1901 to 2155. The default length is 4.

String Types:
Although numeric and date types are fun, most data you'll store will be in string format. This
list describes the common string datatypes in MySQL.

CHAR(M) - A fixed-length string between 1 and 255 characters in length (for example
CHAR(5)), right-padded with spaces to the specified length when stored. Defining a length
is not required, but the default is 1.

VARCHAR(M) - A variable-length string between 1 and 255 characters in length; for example
VARCHAR(25). You must define a length when creating a VARCHAR field.

BLOB or TEXT - A field with a maximum length of 65535 characters. BLOBs are "Binary
Large Objects" and are used to store large amounts of binary data, such as images or other
types of files. Fields defined as TEXT also hold large amounts of data; the difference
between the two is that sorts and comparisons on stored data are case sensitive on BLOBs
and are not case sensitive in TEXT fields. You do not specify a length with BLOB or TEXT.

TINYBLOB or TINYTEXT - A BLOB or TEXT column with a maximum length of 255

characters. You do not specify a length with TINYBLOB or TINYTEXT.
57
MEDIUMBLOB or MEDIUMTEXT - A BLOB or TEXT column with a maximum length of
16777215 characters. You do not specify a length with MEDIUMBLOB or MEDIUMTEXT.

LONGBLOB or LONGTEXT - A BLOB or TEXT column with a maximum length of

4294967295 characters. You do not specify a length with LONGBLOB or LONGTEXT. ENUM
- An enumeration, which is a fancy term for list. When defining an ENUM, you arecreating
a list of items from which the value must be selected ( or it can be NULL). Forexample, if
you wanted your field to contain " A" or " B" or " C", you would define yourENUM as ENUM
( 'A', 'B', 'C') and only those values ( or NULL) could ever populate thatfield.

SYNTAX FOR PROCEDURE AND FUNCTION MySQL

CREATE [DEFINER = { user | CURRENT_USER }] PROCEDURE sp_name

([proc_parameter[,...]]) [characteristic ...]
routine_body

CREATE [DEFINER = { user | CURRENT_USER }] FUNCTION sp_name

([func_parameter[,...]])
RETURNS type
[characteristic ...] routine_body
func_parameter:
param_name type
type:
Any valid MySQL data type

Characteristic:

COMMENT 'string'
| LANGUAGE SQL
| [NOT] DETERMINISTIC
| { CONTAINS SQL | NO SQL | READS SQL DATA | MODIFIES SQL DATA }
| SQL SECURITY { DEFINER | INVOKER }
routine_body:
Valid SQL routine statement

PARAMETERS OF PROCEDURE

The real benefit of a stored procedure is of course when you can pass values to it, as well
as receive values back. The concept of parameters should be familiar to anyone who has
had experience with any procedural programming experience.
There are three types of parameter:
IN: The default. This parameter is passed to the procedure, and can change inside the
procedure, but remains unchanged outside.
OUT: No value is supplied to the procedure ( it is assumed to be NULL), but it can be

58
modified inside the procedure, and is available outside the procedure.
INOUT: The characteristics of both IN and OUT parameters. A value can be passed to the
procedure, modified there as well as passed back again.

Example of database creation in My SQL:

Creating a new user and giving all privileges to that user to access
database. C:\xampp\ mysql> cd bin
C:\xampp\ mysql\bin> mysql – u root
Welcome to the My SQL monitor. Commands end with ; or \ g.
Your MySQL connection id is 1
Server version: 5. 1. 41 Source distributions
Type ‗ help;‘ or ‗ \h‘ for help. Type ‗ \c‘ to clear the current input
statement mysql> show databases;

The contents of the databases will be displayed on the screen as follows:

Database
information_ schema cd col
mysql
phpmy
admin
test
5 rows in set ( 0. 03 sec)
Mysql> use mysql; Database
changed mysql> show
tables;

Tables in mysql
columns_ priv db
event
tables_ priv
time_ zone
time_ zone_leap_ second
time_ zone_ name
time_ zone_ tranition
time_ zone_ transition_ type user
23 rows in set( 0. 05 sec)

To create a user in mysql :

mysql> insert into user( host, user, passwork, select_ priv) values(‘,‘ raju‘, password(‗
raju‘),‘ Y‘);
Query OK, 1 row affected, 3 warnings (0. 01 sec)
mysql> select user, password from user ;
mysql> flush privileges;
59
Query OK, 0 rows affected( 0. 00 sec)
Mysql> create database db;
Query OK, 1 row affected ( 0. 00 sec)
mysql> show databases;

Database
information_ schema cd col
mysql
php
my
admin
test
db
6 rows in set ( 0. 00 sec)

mysql> grant usage on db.* to raju@localhost identified by ‗ raju‘;

Query OK, 0 rows affected ( 0. 00 sec)

mysql> grant all on sam.* to raju@localhost;

Query OK, 0 rows affected ( 0. 00 sec)

C:\xampp\ mysql\bin> mysql – u raju – p

Enter password:****
Welcome to the My SQL monitor. Commands end with ; or \ g.
Your MySQL connection id is 2
Serverversion: 5 . 1. 41 Source distribution
Type ‗ help;‘ or ‗ \h‘ for help. Type ‗ \c‘
to clear the current input statement.

mysql> show databases;

Database

information_ schema db
2 rows in set ( 0. 00 sec)

Example of CREATION AND USING PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS in MySQL:

Creating a procedure.
mysql> CREATE PROCEDURE sp_ in( p VARCHAR( 10)) SET @x= P;
Query OK, 0 rows affected ( 0. 00 sec)
mysql> CALL sp_ in(‗ CSE_ BTECH‘)
Query OK, 0 rows affected ( 0. 00 sec)
mysql> SELECT @X;
@X
CSE_ BTECH
1 row in set ( 0. 00 sec)

60
An OUT using example
mysql> CREATE PROCEDURE sp_ out( OUT p VARCHAR( 10)) SET p=‘ 5th sem‘;
Query OK, o rows affected ( 0. 00 sec)
mysql> CALL sp_ out(@X);
Query OK, 0 rows affected( 0. 00 sec)
mMysql> select @X;
@X
5th sem
1 row in set ( 0. 00 sec)
( or)
mysql> SET @X=‘ 5th sem‘;
Query OK, 0 rows affected ( 0. 00 sec)
Mysql> select @X;
@X
5th sem
1 row in set ( 0. 00 sec)

Creating a Function
mysql> CREATE FUNCTION hello ( s CHAR( 20))
RETURNS CHAR( 50)
DETERMINISTIC
RETURN CONCAT( s);
Query OK, 0 rows affected ( 0. 00 sec)

mysql> SELECT HELLO(‗ CSE‖);

HELLO(‘CST’)
CST
1 row in set ( 0. 00 sec)

In general, SQL statements can be embedded anywhere in a program that host language
statements are allowed.

The following example shows a simple embedded SQL program that retrieves an employee
name and salary from the database and prints them on a standard output device. The
statements that begin with the words EXEC SQL are embedded SQL statements. The
sequence of statements in this example illustrates a pattern common to most embedded SQL
programs.
begin program
exec sql include sqlca;
exec sql begin declare section;
name character_string(15);
salary float;
exec sql end declare section;
exec sql whenever sqlerror stop;
exec sql connect personnel;
exec sql select ename, sal
into :name, :salary
61
 from employee
where eno = 23;
print name, salary;
exec sql disconnect;
end program

Each program statement is described here:

exec sql include sqlca;
They INCLUDE statement incorporates the SQL error and status handling mechanism—the
SQL Communications Area (SQLCA)—into the program. The SQLCA is used by the
WHENEVER statement, which appears later in the program.

exec sql begin declare section;

Next is an SQL declaration section. Host language variables must be declared to SQL prior
to their use in any embedded SQL statements. Host language variables are described in
detail in the next section.

exec sql whenever sqlerror stop;

The WHENEVER statement that follows uses information from the SQLCA to control program
execution under error or exception conditions. In general, an error handling mechanism must
precede all executable embedded SQL statements in a program. For details about error
handling, see Error Handling in the chapter “Working with Transactions and Handling Errors.”

exec sql connect personnel;

Next is a series of SQL and host language statements. The first statement initiates access
to the personnel database. A CONNECT statement must precede any references to a
database.

exec sql select ename, sal

into :name, :salary
from employee
where eno = 23;

Next is the familiar SELECT statement, containing a clause that begins with the keyword
INTO. The INTO clause associates values retrieved by the SELECT statement with host
language variables in the program. Following the INTO keyword are the two host language
variables previously declared to SQL: name and salary.

print name, salary;

This host language statement prints the values contained in the variables.
exec sql disconnect;

The last SQL statement in the program severs the connection of the program to thedatabase.
Consider a simple C program to illustrate embedded SQL. This program below accepts student
62
name from the user and queries DB for his student id.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <sqlca.h>
int main()
{
EXEC SQL INCLUDE SQLCA;
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
BASED ON STUDENT.STD_ID SID; // host variable to store the value
returned by query
char *STD_NAME; // host variable to pass the value to the query
short ind_sid;// indicator variable
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
//Error handling
EXEC WHENEVER NOT FOUND GOTO error_msg1;
EXEC WHENEVER SQLERROR GOTO error_msg2;
printf("Enter the Student name:");
scanf("%s", STD_Name);
// Executes the query
EXEC SQL SELECT STD_ID INTO : SID INDICATOR ind_sid FROM STUDENT
WHERE STD_NAME = : STD_NAME;
printf("STUDENT ID:%d", STD_ID); // prints the result from DB
exit(0);
// Error handling labels
error_msg1:
printf("Student Id %d is not found", STD_ID);
printf("ERROR:%ld", sqlca->sqlcode);
printf("ERROR State:%s", sqlca->sqlstate);
exit(0);
error_msg2:
printf("Error has occurred!");
printf("ERROR:%ld", sqlca->sqlcode);
printf("ERROR State:%s", sqlca->sqlstate);
exit(0);
}

Learning Outcome
After undergoing this laboratory module, the student should be able to c reate database
in MySQL and acc ess it from a c program.
Exercise
1. Practice the questions in Experiment No. 1 SQL queries in the MYSQLenvironment.
2. Practice the questions in Experiment No. 2 for creation of tables, modification of table
structure and inserting values into the tables in the MYSQL environment also.
3. Practice the questions in Experiment No 3 for practicing SQL set operations, joins and
nested queries in the MYSQL environment also.

63
Case Studies

Learning Objective
To develop Database application using DBMS design steps.

The following are some sample applications

1. Accounting Package for Shops

2. Database Manager for Magazine Agency or Newspaper Agency
3. Ticket Booking for Performances
4. Preparing Greeting Cards & Birthday Cards
5. Personal Accounts - Insurance, Loans, Mortgage Payments, Etc.
6. Doctor's Diary & Billing System
7. Personal Bank Account
8. Class Marks Management
9. Hostel Accounting
10. Video Tape Library
11. History of Cricket Scores
12. Cable TV Transmission Program Manager
13. Personal Library
14. Sailors Database
15. Suppliers and Parts Database

Learning Outcome
The student should be able to design a database for the giv en application by
applying design s teps .

Sample DB Application: Railway Reservation System

To develop a Railway Reservation application using DBMS concepts.

Requirement Analysis:

This step includes obtaining the problem statement from user requirements like
- Seat Reservation.
- Cancel Reservation
- Update train information and report generation.
- View Reservation status and train Schedule.

64
Conceptual Database Design:

This step includes the following tasks

- Identifying entities by noun phrase approach
(Train, Train Status, Book Ticket, Cancellation, Passenger)
- Identifying attributes.
(Booking Date, Ticket_Id, Train No, Train Name, Category, Pname,
Psex,Page)
- Identifying relationships
(Booking,Status_of)
- Drawing ER Diagrams.

- Refining ER diagrams: The ER diagrams can be refined and simplified if possible.

65
Logical Database Design:

This step includes mapping of ER diagrams to tables.

66
Schema Refinement:

This step includes Normalization. By the process of Normalization, we get Normal forms
like 1NF, 2NF, 3NF, 4NF and BCNF.

Creation of Tables:

This step includes creation of tables in Oracle.

CREATE TABLE

create table train_details(train_name char(15) primary key, total_seats number(3),

reserved_seats number(3));
create table reservation_status(train_name char(15) references train_details(train_name),
seat_id number(3), reserved char(2) check (reserved in('y','n')), customer_name char(15));
create table waiting_list(slno number(3), customer_name char(15) primary key,
train_name char(15) references train_details(train_name));

Insertion of Data :

This step includes insertion of proper data for the project.

Insert into train_details(train_name ,total_seats, reserved_seats) values(‘circar’,45,4);

Insert into reservation_status(train_name, seat_id, reserved, customer_name) values
(‘circar’,34,’C1’,’arun’);
Insert into Waiting_list(slno , customer_name, train_name ) values(34,’arun’,’circar’);
67
VIVA Questions

1. What is SQL?
Structured Query Language (SQL) being ANSI standard language updates database and
commands for accessing.

2. What is database?
A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning,
representing some aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated with
data for a specific purpose.

3. What is DBMS?
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In
other words it is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of
defining, constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.

4. What is a Database system?

The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.

5. What are the various kinds of interactions catered by DBMS?

• Data definition
• Update
• Retrieval
• Administration

6. Advantages of DBMS?
• Redundancy is controlled.
• Unauthorized access is restricted.
• Providing multiple user interfaces.
• Enforcing integrity constraints.
• Providing backup and recovery.

7. Who proposed the relational model?

Edgar F. Codd proposed the relational model.

68
8. Segregate database technology’s development.
The development of database technology is divided into:
• Structure or data model
• Navigational model
• SQL/ relational model

9. Disadvantage in File Processing System?

• Data redundancy & inconsistency.
• Difficult in accessing data.
• Data isolation.
• Data integrity.
• Concurrent access is not possible.
• Security Problems.

10. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?

There are three levels of abstraction:
• Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
• Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in
database and what relationship among those data.
• View level:The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.

11. Define the "integrity rules"

There are two Integrity rules.
• Entity Integrity: States that ―Primary key cannot have NULL value‖
• Referential Integrity: States that ―Foreign Key can be either a NULL value or should
be Primary Key value of other relation.

12. What is Data Independence?

Data independence means that ―the application is independent of the storage structure
and access strategy of data‖. In other words, the ability to modify the schema definition
in one level should not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.
Two types of Data Independence:
1. Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the
logical level.
2. Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.

NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve.

69
13. What is a view? How it is related to data independence?
A view may be thought of as a virtual table, that is, a table that does not really exist in
its own right but is instead derived from one or more underlying base table. In other
words, there is no stored file that direct represents the view instead a definition of view
is stored in data dictionary. Growth and restructuring of base tables are not reflected in
views. Thus, the view can insulate users from the effects of restructuring and growth in
the database. Hence accounts for logical data independence.

14. What is Data Model?

A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics
and constraints.

15. What is E-R model?

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and
of relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of
attributes.

16. What is Object Oriented model?

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in
instance variables within the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate
on the object. These bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same
types of values and the same methods are grouped together into classes.

17. What is an Entity?

It is an 'object' in the real world with an independent existence.

18. What is an Entity type?

It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes.

19. What is an Entity set?

It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.

20. What is an Extension of entity type?

The collections of entities of a particular entity type are grouped together into an entity
set.

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21. What is an attribute?
It is a particular property, which describes the entity.

22. What is a Relation Schema and a Relation?

A relation Schema denoted by R(A1, A2, …, An) is made up of the relation name R and
the list of attributes Ai that it contains. A relation is defined as a set of tuples. Let r be
the relation which contains set tuples (t1, t2, t3, ...,tn). Each tuple is an ordered list of n-
values t=(v1,v2, ..., vn).

23. What is degree of a Relation?

It is the number of attribute of its relation schema.

24. What is Relationship?

It is an association among two or more entities.

25. What is Relationship set?

The collection (or set) of similar relationships.

26. What is Relationship type?

Relationship type defines a set of associations or a relationship set among a given set
of entity types.

27. What is degree of Relationship type?

It is the number of entity type participating. The various relationships of database are:
• One-to-one: Single table having drawn relationship with another table having similar
kind of columns.
• One-to-many: Two tables having primary and foreign key relation.
• Many-to-many: Junction table having many tables related to many tables.

28. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

A data base schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special
language called DDL.

29. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?

This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may specify the
mapping between two schemas.

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30. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?
It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.

31. What is Data Storage - Definition Language?

The storage structures and access methods used by database system are specified by
a set of definition in a special type of DDL called data storage- definition language.

32. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?

This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organized by
appropriate data model.
• Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed
and how to get those data.
• Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data are
needed without specifying how to get those data.

33. What is DML Compiler?

It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the
query evaluation engine can understand.

34. Enlist some commands of DDL.

They are:
CREATE: used in the CREATE TABLE statement. Syntax is:
CREATE TABLE [column name] ( [column definitions] ) [ table parameters]
ALTER: It helps in modification of an existing object of database. Its syntax is:
ALTER objecttype objectname parameters.
DROP: It destroys an existing database, index, table or view. Its syntax is:
DROP objecttype objectname.

35. Define Union All operator and Union.

• Full recordings of two tables is Union All operator.
• A distinct recording of two tables is Union.

36. Define cursor.

A database object which helps in manipulating data row by row representing a result
set is called cursor.

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37. Enlist the cursor types.
They are:
• Dynamic: it reflects changes while scrolling.
• Static: doesn’t reflect changes while scrolling and works on recording of snapshot.
• Keyset: data modification without reflection of new data is seen.

38. Enlist the types of cursor.

They types of cursor are:
• Implicit cursor: Declared automatically as soon as the execution of SQL takes
place without the awareness of the user.
• Explicit cursor: Defined by PL/ SQL which handles query in more than one row.

39. Define sub-query.

A query contained by a query is called Sub-query.

40. Why is group-clause used?

Group-clause uses aggregate values to be derived by collecting similar data.

41. Compare Non-clustered and clustered index

Both having B-tree structure, non-clustered index has data pointers enabling one table
many nonclustered indexes while clustered index is distinct for every table.

42. Define Aggregate functions.

Functions which operate against a collection of values and returning single value is
called aggregate functions.

43. Define Scalar functions.

Scalar function is depended on the argument given and returns sole value.

44. Define “correlated subqueries”.

A ‘correlated subquery’ is a sort of sub query but correlated subquery is reliant on
another query for a value that is returned. In case of execution, the sub query is
executed first and then the correlated query.

45. What do you mean by Index hunting?

Indexes help in improving the speed as well as the query performance of database. The
procedure of boosting the collection of indexes is named as Index hunting
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46. Define Join and enlist its types.
Joins help in explaining the relation between different tables. They also enable you to
select data with relation to data in another table.
The various types are:
• INNER JOINs: Blank rows are left in the middle while more than equal to two tables
are joined.
• OUTER JOINs: Divided into Left Outer Join and Right Outer Join. Blank rows are left
at the specified side by joining tables in other side.
• Other joins are CROSS JOINs, NATURAL JOINs, EQUI JOIN and NON-EQUI JOIN.

47. What restrictions can you apply when you are creating views?
Restrictions that are applied are:
• Only the current database can have views.
• You are not liable to change any computed value in any particular view.
• Integrity constants decide the functionality of INSERT and DELETE.
• Full-text index definitions cannot be applied.
• Temporary views cannot be created.
• Temporary tables cannot contain views.
• No association with DEFAULT definitions.
• Triggers such as INSTEAD OF is associated with views.

48. What is Functional Dependency?

A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y that
are subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a relation
state r of R. The constraint is for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X] then they
have t1[Y] = t2[Y]. This means the value of X component of a tuple uniquely determines
the value of component Y.

49. What is normalization?

It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their Functional
Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
• Minimizing redundance
• Minimizing insertion, deletion and updating anomalies

.
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50. Enlist the advantages of normalizing database.
Advantages of normalizing database are:
• No duplicate entries
• Saves storage space
• Boasts the query performances

51. When is a functional dependency F said to be minimal?

• Every dependency in F has a single attribute for its right hand side.
• We cannot replace any dependency X -> A in F with a dependency Y -> A where is a
proper subset of X and still have a set of dependency that is equivalent to F.
• We cannot remove any dependency from F and still have set of dependency that is
equivalent to F.

52. What is Multivalued dependency?

Multivalued dependency denoted by X Y specified on relation schema R, where X and
Y are both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation r of R: if two
tuples t1 and t2 exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X] then t3 and t4 should also exist in r with
the following properties
• t3[x] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]
• t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]
• t3[Z] = t2[Z] and t4[Z] = t1[Z]
where [Z = (R-(X U Y)) ]

53. What is Lossless join property?

It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation
schemas after decomposition.

54. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?

The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.

55. What is Fully Functional dependency?

It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y is
fully functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the
dependency does not hold any more.

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56. What is 2NF?
A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully
functionally dependent on primary key.

57. What is 3NF?

• A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the
following is true X is a Super-key of R.
• A is a prime attribute of R.
In other words, if every non prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary
key.

58. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?

A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies additional constraints that for
every FD X A, X must be a candidate key.

59. What is 4NF?

A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every Multivalued dependency X Y that
holds over R, one of following is true
• X is subset or equal to (or) XY = R
• X is a Super-key

60. What is 5NF?

A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ...,Rn} that
holds R, one the following is true
• Ri = R for some i
• The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in which the left side is key
of R.

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