Computer Skills (CCS 321/22/M10)

Lecture 2

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

 Describe the evolution of computers from first generation to date
The term computer generation refers to a classification of computer systems in subsequent
phases that show a change in technology. Initially it was used to distinguish between
varying hardware technologies but nowadays generation includes both hardware and
software which together make up the entire computer system.

FIRST GENERATION (1940–59): VACUUM TUBES BASED

First generation computers were vacuum tubes/thermionic valve-based machines. These
computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A
magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data
and programs can be stored. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape and output
was displayed in the form of printouts. First generation computers relied on binary-coded
language (language of 0s and 1s, machine language) to perform operations and were able
to solve only one problem at a time. Each machine was fed with different binary codes and
hence were difficult to program. This resulted in lack of versatility and speed. In addition, to
run on different types of computers, instructions must be rewritten or recompiled.
Characteristics of First Generation Computers

 These computers were based on vacuum tube technology. These were the fastest
computing devices of their times (computation time was in milliseconds).
 These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
 Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of heat.
Therefore, air conditioning was essential.
 These were non-portable and very slow. They lacked in versatility and speed.
 They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity
 These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures. Hence,
constant maintenance was required.
 Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to program and use.
 Each individual component had to be assembled manually. Hence, commercial appeal
of these computers was poor.
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SECOND GENERATION (1959–65): TRANSISTORS BASED
Second generation computers used transistors, which were superior to vacuum tubes.
Since transistor is a small device, the physical size of computers was greatly reduced.
Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable than their
predecessors. In second generation computers, magnetic cores were used as primary
memory and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. They were the first computers
to store instructions in the memory. However, they still relied on punched cards for input
and printouts for output. One of the major developments of this generation includes the
progress from machine language to assembly language (symbolic language).
Characteristics of Second Generation Computers

 These machines were based on transistor technology.

 These were smaller as compared to the first generation computers.
 The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds from
milliseconds.
 These were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, such computers
required less frequent maintenance.
 These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
 Assembly language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became
more time-efficient and less cumbersome.
 Second generation computers still required air conditioning.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required.

THIRD GENERATION (1965–1971): INTEGRATED CIRCUITS BASED

The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third generation computers.
Also called an IC, an integrated circuit consists of a single chip (usually silicon) with many

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components such as transistors and resistors fabricated on it. Integrated circuits replaced
several individually wired transistors. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable, and efficient. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with operating
system. This allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. For the first time, computers became accessible to
mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Characteristics of Third Generation Computers

 These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology.

 They were able to reduce computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
 They were easily portable and more reliable than the second generation.
 These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air
conditioning was still required.
 The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous computers.
 Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
 Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
 Manual assembling of individual components was not required, so it reduced the large
requirements of labour and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies were
required for the manufacture of IC chips.
 Commercial production became easier and cheaper.

FOURTH GENERATION (EARLY 1971- to present): MICROPROCESSORS

The fourth generation is an extension of third generation technology. Although, the
technology of this generation was still based on the integrated circuit, these have been
made readily available to us because of the development of the microprocessor (circuits
containing millions of transistors). These computers make use of very large scale
integration (VLSI) which is the process of creating an IC by integrating millions or billions of
MOS transistors onto a single chip. The fourth generation computers became more
powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to the personal
computer (PC) revolution. This generation also saw the development of the GUIs
(Graphical User Interfaces), mouse, and handheld devices. Despite many advantages, this
generation required complex and sophisticated technology for the manufacturing of CPU
and other components.

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Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers

 Fourth generation computers are microprocessor-based systems.

 These computers are very small.
 Fourth generation computers are the cheapest among all the other generations.
 They are portable and quite reliable.
 These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence they do not require air
conditioning.
 Hardware failure is negligible, so minimum maintenance is required.
 The production cost is very low.
 GUI and pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer quickly.
 Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing

FIFTH GENERATION (1980-PRESENT & BEYOND): ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
The dream of creating a human-like computer that would be capable of reasoning and
reaching a decision through a series of “what-if-then” analyses has existed since the
beginning of computer technology. The starting point for the fifth generation of computers
has been set in the early 1980s and the process of developing fifth generation of computers
is still on going. However, the expert system concept is already in use. The expert system is
defined as a computer information system that attempts to mimic the thought process and
reasoning of experts in specific areas.

Characteristics can be identified with the fifth generation computers:

 Mega Chips: Fifth generation computers use Ultra Large Scale Integrated (ULSI) chips,
which is the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a
single chip. In order to store instructions and information, fifth generation computers
require a great amount of storage capacity. Mega chips may enable the computer to
approximate the memory capacity of the human mind.
 Parallel Processing: Most computers today access and execute only one instruction at a
time. This is called serial processing. However, a computer using parallel processing
accesses several instructions at once and works on them at the same time through the
use of multiple central processing units.

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 Artificial Intelligence (AI): It refers to a series of related technologies that tries to
simulate and reproduce human behaviour, including thinking, speaking and reasoning.
AI comprises a group of related technologies: expert systems (ES), natural language
processing (NLP), speech recognition, vision recognition, and robotics.

Since their inception, computers have evolved into different sizes. A computer can be as
huge as occupying a whole room or a large building and as small as a laptop or handheld
device.

Supercomputer
A supercomputer is the fastest, largest, and most expensive type of computer that exists
today. It comprises 10, 100, 1,000, or more computers working simultaneously. They are
designed for special purposes that often require complex calculations such as scientific
research, weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, and geological data analysis. The
largest known supercomputers include Fugaku which is in Japan for scientific research and
Sierra which is by National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) for nuclear weapons
safety.

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Mainframe Computer
Mainframe computers are enormous (2,000 to 10,000 sq. ft.) and powerful computers
mainly used in the data centres of large enterprises and organizations. They are typically
found in a dedicated server room and can be accessed remotely by different user
simultaneously. Mainframes were invented in the 1950s and are capable of processing
huge amounts of data (up to 30 billion transactions per day) quickly and accurately.
Mainframes have upgraded security, scalability, and dependability levels, making them
ideal for vital processes such as banking, government, or insurance. Mainframe computers
also control other systems, such as air traffic control, satellite tracking, and military defence
systems. Mainframes typically feature several CPU, interconnected to many other
computers and gadgets to pool an even larger computing system.

Minicomputers
Minicomputers are mid-sized computers, larger than microcomputers but smaller than
mainframes. These multi-processing systems are ideal for 5 to 300 people and are primarily
used in small businesses, colleges, research labs, and hospitals. Minicomputers are cost-
effective and deliver the functionalities of a mainframe computer at a more affordable price.
Minicomputers can process data from various sources while handling large chunks of
information. They are run by microprocessors and use operating systems such as Unix,
Linux, or Windows. Minicomputers applications include networking, communication, data
processing and analysis, image processing, software development, and multimedia.
Minicomputers can also store huge volumes of data and are ideal for banking, inventory
tracking, accounting, and office automation.

Examples of minicomputers include IBM AS/400 computers and the MV 1500.

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Microcomputers
Microcomputers are the smallest and most popular computer types. They are primarily used
for personal use or start-up business computing. Microcomputers are typically equipped
with various components, such as a processor, memory, storage, and an operating system.
The processor is responsible for executing instructions, while the memory is used to store
data and programs. Microcomputers come in various sizes and configurations, depending
on their purpose.

Examples include desktop computers, laptops, notebooks, and tablets. Desktops usually
feature larger components than laptops, which are designed to be more portable.

Homework 2
1. Describe the computer in detail. In your answer produce a diagram that shows the flow
of data and instructions in a computer system.
2. Describe the impact of computers in our everyday life.
3. Computers are very popular in industry and in the home. Outline any five serious
limitations of computers.

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