Operational Amplifiers

(Op-Amp)
Book: Ramakant A. Gayakwad
 Introduction
▪ Operational Amplifier or “Op-Amp” is a
multistage amplifier that is used for general
electrical signal manipulation.
▪ The numbers of applications possible with Op-
amps are too numerous to list.
▪ Though they are often internally complex, their
use in circuits most often simplifies the overall
design.
▪ The circuit is modeled by an ideal voltage
amplifier.
Applications of Op-amp
• Summing amplifiers
• AC and DC signals application
• Digital to analog converters
• Analog computers
• Active filters
• Oscillators
• Rectifiers
• Comparators
• Integrators and Differentiators
 Op-Amp
• An op-amp is a high gain electronic voltage
amplifier with two inputs and a single output.
• Operational amplifiers were used to primarily
perform mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, integration and differentiation.
Op Amp IC
Op-amp circuit model
Internal block diagram
• Input Stage: The input stage
requires high input impedance
and low output impedance. The
requirement is achieved by
using a differential amplifier. The
function of the differential
amplifier is to amplify the
difference between the input
signals. This stage provides most
of the required voltage gain.
• Gain Stage: The overall gain
requirement of the op-amp is
very high. This voltage amplifier
stage contains a chain of
cascaded amplifiers which
provide the additional gain
required.
• Output Stage: The output stage
has low impedance and high
current sourcing capability.
 Op-amp Input signal
modes
• For op-amp we have three input signal
modes:
oSingle Ended Mode
oDifferential Mode
oCommon Mode
Single Ended Input Mode
Differential Input Mode
 Common Mode
• In common mode, the
two signal voltages of
same phase, frequency
and magnitude are
applied to the inputs as
shown in fig.
• When two input signals
are applied to both
inputs, they tend to
cancel each other
resulting in a zero-output
voltage. This action is
called common mode
rejection.
Op-amp parameters
• Common mode rejection ratio
• Maximum Output voltage swing
• Input Offset voltage
• Input Bias Current
• Input impedance
• Input offset current
• Output impedance
• Slew rate
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR)
• Unwanted signals or noise appearing with same polarity on
both lines of input are common mode signals and are
cancelled by the op-amp. The measure of the op-amp’s
ability to reject common mode signals is expressed in terms of
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR). It is defined as
𝐴𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐𝑚
where 𝐴𝑜𝑙 is the open loop differential gain and 𝐴𝑐𝑚 is the
common mode gain.
• Practical op-amps exhibit a very small 𝐴𝑐𝑚 and a very high 𝐴𝑜𝑙 .
Higher 𝐴𝑜𝑙 the better the performance of the op-amp
Maximum Output Voltage
Swing
 Input Offset Voltage
• The input offset voltage (ViO) is defined as the
voltage that must be applied between the two
input terminals of the op amp to obtain zero
volts at the output.
• For an ideal op-amp, the output voltage must be
zero if the voltage at both input terminals is zero.
But in practical, a small amount of voltage
appears (due to imbalance in the differential
amplifier in op-amp) at the output even if the
voltage at both input is zero.
 Input Bias Current &
Input Offset Current
• Ideally no current flows into the input terminals of
op-amp.
• But in practice, a small amount of current flows into
the input terminals. These currents are called bias
current.
• The difference between these two input bias
currents are called input offset current.
 Input and Output
Impedance
• The input impedance in
the differential mode is
the total resistance
between inverting and
noninverting inputs.

• The output impedance

is the resistance viewed
from the output terminal
of the op-amp.
 Slew rate
• The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of output
voltage change per unit time. It is denoted by the letter S.
The slew rate helps us to identify the amplitude and
maximum input frequency suitable to an operational
amplifier (OP amp) such that the output is not
significantly distorted.
∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
∆𝑡
 Ideal Op-amp
• An ideal op-amp exhibits the following
characteristics:
o Infinite voltage gain
o Infinite input impedance
o Zero output impedance
o Zero input offset voltage
o Zero input offset current
o Infinite CMRR
o Infinite slew rate
o Infinite Bandwidth
Concept of Virtual Ground
• Let V1 and V2 be the voltage at
the input terminals.
• We know, 𝑉0 = 𝐴𝑣 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ).
• 𝐴𝑣 is the differential voltage gain
and ideal value is ∞.
𝑉0
𝐴𝑣 = ∞ =
𝑉1 − 𝑉2
⇒ 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 0

• This concept is called as virtual

ground.
Op-amp as Inverting
Amplifier
Op-amp as Non-Inverting
Amplifier
 Positive Feedback vs.
Negative Feedback
As grades
You study hard &
improve, you are Your grades
your grades
inspired, and you further improve
improve
study more
Negative feedback in op-amp
• Negative feedback can be compared to the following cycle:
1) You study hard, and your grades improve.
2) You spend less time studying and more time relaxing.
3) Your grades drop.
4) You spend less time relaxing and more time studying.
5) Your grades get back to the previous level.
• It is a process of trying to keep the results (i.e., your grades in this
example) constant. This process is called negative feedback.
• When Vin changes, negative feedback changes the input to the
amplifier in order to counteract the effect of the change in Vin.
Conversely, positive feedback increases the effects of the change in
Vin.
• Negative feedback makes it possible to create an easy-to-handle
amplifier because it compensates for variations in gain.
Voltage Follower
• It is a non-inverting op-amp.
𝑅𝑓
• 𝑅𝑓 = 0, 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + =1
𝑅𝑖
• Therefore, 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛

• It is true that a voltage follower

does not intentionally alter the
amplitude or frequency
characteristics of the input signal,
but it does allow us to improve
impedance relationships.
 Op-amp as an adder

If 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 , then 𝑉0 = − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
Since, output is equal to the negative summation of
the inputs, the circuit is called an inverting summer.
 Problem
• Design a circuit whose output is the average of two
input voltages.
• Develop an inverting amplifier that can amplify
5times of input signal. Show the input and output
waveforms. Consider a 3V(p-p) as input.
• Write the transfer function (input/output equation)
for an operational amplifier with an open-loop
voltage gain of 100,000, and the inverting input
connected directly to its output terminal. An input
voltage is applied at the non-inverting input. Solve
for the over-all voltage gain, Av of this amplifier
circuit, and calculate the output voltage for a non-
inverting input voltage of 6 volts.