Dr.

Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction
1
1.1 NEED FOR PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission and
distribution lines, etc. Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a
power system. The heavy current associated with short circuits is likely to cause dam-
age to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided for
the protection of each section of the power system. Short circuits are usually called
faults by power engineers. Strictly speaking, the term ‘fault’ simply means a ‘defect’.
Some defects, other than short circuits, are also termed as faults. For example, the
failure of conducting path due to a break in a conductor is a type of fault.
If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device
is needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy sec-
tion of the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of
a second. If a short circuit persists on a system for a longer, it may cause damage to
some important sections of the system. A heavy short circuit current may cause a fire.
It may spread in the system and damage a part of it. The system voltage may reduce
to a low level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators
in different power stations may lose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short
circuit may cause the total failure of the system.
A protective system includes circuit breakers, transducers (CTs and VTs), and
protective relays to isolate the faulty section of the power system from the healthy
sections. A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty element of the system when it
is called upon to do so by the protective relay. Transducers (CTs and VTs) are used
to reduce currents and voltages to lower values and to isolate protective relays from
the high voltages of the power system. The function of a protective relay is to detect
and locate a fault and issue a command to the circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty
element. It is a device which senses abnormal conditions on a power system by con-
stantly monitoring electrical quantities of the systems, which differ under normal and
abnormal conditions. The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change dur-
ing abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase-angle (direction) and frequency.
Protective relays utilise one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions
on a power system.
Protection is needed not only against short circuits but also against any other
abnormal conditions which may arise on a power system. A few examples of other
abnormal conditions are overspeed of generators and motors, overvoltage, under-
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

2 Power System Protection and Switchgear

frequency, loss of excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an alternator etc.

Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions and issue
alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker.
A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault, rather
it takes action only after a fault has occurred. However, one exception to this is
the Buchholz relay, a gas actuated relay, which is used for the protection of power
transformers. Sometimes, a slow breakdown of insulation due to a minor arc may
take place in a transformer, resulting in the generation of heat and decomposition of
the transformer’s oil and solid insulation. Such a condition produces a gas which is
collected in a gas chamber of the Buchholz relay. When a specified amount of gas is
accumulated, the Buchholz relay operates an alarm. This gives an early warning of
incipient faults. The transformer is taken out of service for repair before the incipient
fault grows into a serious one. Thus, the occurrence of a major fault is prevented. If
the gas evolves rapidly, the Buchholz relay trips the circuit breaker instantly.
The cost of the protective equipment generally works out to be about 5% of the
total cost of the system.

1.2 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FAULTS

Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The
failure of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may
damage some equipment of the power system. Most of the faults on transmission and
distribution lines are caused by overvoltages due to lightning or switching surges, or
by external conducting objects falling on overhead lines. Overvoltages due to light-
ing or switching surges cause flashover on the surface of insulators resulting in short
circuits. Sometimes, insulators get punctured or break. Sometimes, certain foreign
particles, such as fine cement dust or soot in industrial areas or salt in coastal areas
or any dirt in general accumulates on the surface of string and pin insulators. This
reduces their insulation strength and causes flashovers. Short circuits are also caused
by tree branches or other conducting objects falling on the overhead lines.
Birds also may cause faults on overhead lines if their bodies touch one of the
phases and the earth wire (or the metallic supporting structure which is at earth
potential). If the conductors are broken, there is a failure of the conducting path and
the conductor becomes open-circuited. If the broken conductor falls to the ground,
it results in a short circuit. Joint failures on cables or overhead lines are also a cause
of failure of the conducting path. The opening of one or two of the three phases
makes the system unbalanced. Unbalanced currents flowing in rotating machines
set up harmonics, thereby heating the machines in short periods of time. Therefore,
unbalancing of the lines is not allowed in the normal operation of a power system.
Other causes of faults on overhead lines are: direct lightning strokes, aircraft, snakes,
ice and snow loading, abnormal loading, storms, earthquakes, creepers, etc. In the
case of cables, transformers, generators and other equipment, the causes of faults are:
failure of the solid insulation due to aging, heat, moisture or overvoltage, mechanical
damage, accidental contact with earth or earthed screens, flashover due to overvolt-
ages, etc.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 3

Sometimes, circuit breakers may trip due to errors in the switching operation, test-
ing or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in protective devices, etc.
Certain faults occur due to the poor quality of system components or because
of a faulty system design. Hence, the occurrence of such faults can be reduced by
improving the system design, by using components and materials of good quality and
by better operation and maintenance.

1.3 TYPES OF FAULTS

Two broad classifications of faults are
(i) Symmetrical faults
(ii) Unsymmetrical faults

1.3.1 Symmetrical Faults

A three-phase (3-f) fault is called a symmetrical type of fault. In a 3-f fault, all the
three phases are short circuited. There may be two situations—all the three phases
may be short circuited to the ground or they may be short-circuited without involving
the ground. A 3-f short circuit is generally treated as a standard fault to determine
the system fault level.
1.3.2 Unsymmetrical Faults
Single-phase to ground, two-phase to ground, phase-to-phase short circuits; single-
phase open circuit and two-phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of faults.
Single-phase to Ground (L-G) Fault
A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors and earth is called a sin-
gle phase to ground fault. It may be due to the failure of the insulation between a
phase conductor and the earth, or due to phase conductor breaking and falling to the
ground.
Two-phase to Ground (2L-G) Fault
A short circuit between any two phases and the earth is called a double line to ground
or a two-phase to ground fault.
Phase-to-Phase (L-L) Fault
A short circuit between any two phases is called a line to line or phase-to-phase
fault.
Open-circuited Phases
This type of fault is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults occur when
one or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or a joint on the overhead lines
fails. Such situations may also arise when circuit breakers or isolators open but fail
to close one or more phases. Due to the opening of one or two phases, unbalanced
currents flow in the system, thereby heating rotating machines. Protective schemes
must be provided to deal with such abnormal situations.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

4 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Winding Faults
All types of faults discussed above also occur on the alternator, motor and trans-
former windings. In addition to these types of faults, there is one more type of fault,
namely the short circuiting of turns which occurs on machine windings.

1.3.3 Simultaneous Faults

Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or
simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different types of faults may
occur at the same or different points of the system. An example of two different types
of faults occurring at the same point is a single line to ground fault on one phase and
breaking of the conductor of another phase, both simultaneously present at the same
point. The simultaneous presence of an L-G fault at one point and a second L-G fault
on another phase at some other point is an example of two faults of the same type at
two different points. If these two L-G faults are on the same section of the line, they
are treated as a double line to ground fault. If they occur in different line sections,
it is known as a cross-country earth fault. Cross-country faults are common on sys-
tems grounded through high impedance or Peterson coil but they are rare on solidly
grounded systems.

1.4 EFFECTS OF FAULTS

The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following effects
on a power system, if it remains uncleared.
(i) Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any other
element of the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set up
due to heavy current.
(ii) Arcs associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards. Such fires, result-
ing from arcing, may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is also
a possibility of the fire spreading to other parts of the system if the fault is
not isolated quickly.
(iii) There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders, resulting
in the loss of industrial loads.
(iv) Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents,
thereby heating rotating machines.
(v) There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power
station may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete shutdown of the
system. Loss of stability of interconnected systems may also result. Subsys-
tems may maintain supply for their individual zones but load shedding would
have to be resorted in the sub-system which was receiving power from the
other subsystem before the occurrence of the fault.
(vi) The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers, thereby
causing a loss of revenue.
High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the essential requirements
of a power system to minimise the effects of faults and other abnormalities.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 5

1.5 FAULT STATISTICS

For the design and application of protective scheme, it is very useful to have an
idea of the frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of power system.
Usually the power stations are situated far away from the load centres, resulting
in hundreds of kilometers’ length of overhead lines being exposed to atmospheric
conditions. The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external objects
on the lines, flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc., are greater
for overhead lines than for other parts of the power system. Table 1.1 gives an
approximate idea of the fault statistics.

Table 1.1 Percentage Distribution of Faults in Various Elements of a Power

System
Element % of Total Faults
Overhead Lines 50
Underground Cables 9
Transformers 10
Generators 7
Switchgears 12
CTs, VTs, Relays
Control Equipment, etc. 12

From Table 1.1, it is evident that 50% of the total faults occur on overhead lines.
Hence it is overhead lines that require more attention while planning and designing
protective schemes for a power system.
Table 1.2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different types of faults (mainly
the different types of short circuits) on overhead lines. From the table it is evident that
the frequency of line to ground faults is more than any other type of fault, and hence
the protection against L-G fault requires greater attention in planning and design of
protective schemes for overhead lines.

Table 1.2 Frequency of Occurrence of Different Types of Faults on Overhead Lines

Types of Faults Fault Symbol % of Total Faults
Line to Ground L-G 85
Line to Line L-L 8
Double Line to Ground 2L-G 5
Three Phase 3-f 2

In the case of cables, 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50% at end junctions.
Cable faults are usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclosures are
not recommended for cables.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

6 Power System Protection and Switchgear

1.6 EVOLUTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS

In the very early days of the power industry, small generators were used to supply
local loads and fuses were the automatic devices to isolate the faulty equipment.
They were effective and their performance was quite satisfactory for small systems.
However, they suffered from the disadvantage of requiring replacement before the
supply could be restored. For important lines, frequent interruption in power supply
is undesirable. This inconvenience was overcome with the introduction of circuit
breakers and protective relays. Attracted armatured-type electromagnetic relays were
first introduced. They were fast, simple and economical. As auxiliary relays their use
will continue even in future, due to their simplicity and low cost. This type of relays
operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet or thought a
plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger-type electromagnetic relays formed instanta-
neous units for detecting overcurrent or over-voltage conditions. Attracted armature-
type electromagnetic relays work on both ac and dc. Later on, induction-type elec-
tromagnetic relays were developed. These relays use the electromagnetic induction
principle for their operation and hence work on ac only. Since both attracted armature
and induction-type electromagnetic relays operate by mechanical forces generated
on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces created by the input quantities, these
relays were called electromechanical relays. Induction disc-type inverse time-current
relays were developed in the early 1920s to meet the selectivity requirement. They
were used for overcurrent protection. For directional and distance relays, induction-
cup-type units were widely used throughout the world. An induction-cup-type unit
was fast and accurate due to its higher torque/inertia ratio. For greater sensitivity and
accuracy, polarised dc relays are being used since 1939.
Attracted armature-type balanced-beam relays provided differential protection,
distance protection as well as low burden overcurrent units. These relays operated
when the magnitude of an operating signal was larger than the magnitude of the
restraining signal. These relays were classified as amplitude comparators.
Single-input induction-type relays provided operations with time delays. Two-
input induction type relays provided directional protection. Two- and three-input
induction-type relays also provided distance protection. The operation of these relays
was dependant on the phase displacement between the applied electrical inputs.
These relays were classified as phase comparators.
In 1947, rectifier bridge-type comparators were developed in Norway and
Germany. Polarised dc relays, energised from rectifier bridge comparators, chal-
lenged the position of induction-cup-type relays. They are widely used for the reali-
sation of distance relay characteristics.
Electronic relays using vacuum tubes first appeared in the literature in 1928 and
continued up to 1956. They were not accepted because of their complexity, short life
of vacuum tubes and incorrect operation under transient conditions. But electronic
valves were used in carrier equipment. There was automatic checking of the carrier
channel. An alarm was sounded if any tube became defective, and it was replaced
immediately.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 7

Magnetic amplifiers were also used in protective relays in the past. A magnetic
amplifier consists of a transformer and a separate dc winding. As the transformer
action is controlled by the dc winding, the device is also known as transductor. This
type of relay is rugged but slow in action. At present, such relays are not used.
Hall crystals were also used to construct phase comparators. Because of their low
output and high-temperature errors, such relays have not been widely adopted except
in Russian countries.
The first transistorised relay was developed in 1949, soon after the innova-
tion of the transistor. Various kinds of static relays using solid-state devices were
developed in the fifties. Multi-input comparators giving quadrilateral characteristics
were developed in the sixties. Static relays possess the advantages of low burden on
the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and contact troubles,
long life and less maintenance. As static relays proved to be superior to electrome-
chanical relays, they were used for the protection of important lines, power stations
and sub-stations. But they did not replace electromechanical relays. Static relays were
treated as an addition to the family of relays. In most static relays, the output or slave
relay is a polarised dc relay which is an electromechanical relay. This can be replaced
by a thyristor circuit, but it is used because of its low cost. Electromechanical relays
have continued to be used because of their simplicity and low cost. Their mainte-
nance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair
of static relays requires personnel trained in solid-state devices. Static relays using
digital techniques have also been developed.
Static relays appeared to be the technology poised to replace the electromechani-
cal counterparts in the late sixties when researchers ventured into the use of comput-
ers for power system protection. Their attempts and the advances in the Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) technology and software techniques in the seventies led to
the development of microprocessor-based relays that were first offered as commer-
cial devices in 1979. Early designs of these relays used the fundamental approaches
that were previously used in the electromechanical and static relays.
In spite of the developments of complex algorithms for implementing protection
functions, the microprocessor-based relays marketed in the eighties did not incor-
porate them. These relays performed basic functions, took advantage of the hybrid
analog and digital techniques, and offered a good economical solution. At present,
in microprocessor-based relays, different relaying algorithms are used to process the
acquired information. Microprocessor/Microntroller-based relays are called numeri-
cal relays specifically if they calculate the algorithm numerically.
The modern power networks which have grown both in size and complexity
require fast accurate and reliable protective schemes to protect major equipment
and to maintain system stability. Increasing interest is being shown in the use of
on-line digital computers for protection. The concept of numerical protection
employing computers which shows much promise in providing improved perfor-
mance has evolved during the past three decades. In the beginning, the numerical
protection (also known as digital protection) philosophy was to use a large computer
system for the total protection of the power system. This protection system proved
to be very costly and required large space. If a computer is required to perform other
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

8 Power System Protection and Switchgear

control functions in addition to protection, it can prove to be economical. With the

tremendous developments in VLSI and computer hardware technology, microproces-
sors that appeared in the seventies have evolved and made remarkable progress in
recent years. The latest fascinating innovation in the field of computer technology
is the development of microprocessors, microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors
(DSPs) and Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) which are making in-roads in
every activity of mankind. With the development of fast, economical, powerful and
sophisticated microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs and FPGAs, there is a grow-
ing trend to develop numerical relays based on these devices.
The conventional relays of electromechanical and static types had no significant
drawbacks in their protection functions, but the additional features offered by micro-
processor technologies encouraged the evolution of relays that introduced many
changes to the power industry. Economics and additionally, functionality were prob-
ably the main factors that forced the power industry to accept and cope with the
changes brought by microprocessor/microcontroller-based numerical relays.
Multifunction numerical relays were introduced in the market in the late eight-
ies. These devices reduced the product and installation costs drastically. This trend
has continued until now and has converted microprocessor/microcontroller based
numerical relays to powerful tools in the modern substations.
The inherent advantage of microprocessor/microcontroller-based protective
schemes, over the existing static relays with one or very limited range of applica-
tions, is their flexibility. The application of microprocessors and microcontrollers to
protective relays also result in the availability of faster, more accurate and reliable
relaying units. A microprocessor or a microcontroller increases the flexibility of a
relay due to its programmable approach. It provides protection at low cost and com-
petes with conventional relays. A number of relaying characteristics can be realised
using the same interface. Using a multiplexer, the microprocessor/microcontroller
can obtain the required input signals for the realisation of a particular relaying char-
acteristic. Different programs can be used for different characteristics. Individual
types and number of relaying units are reduced to a great extent, resulting in a very
compact protective scheme. Field tests have demonstrated their feasibility and some
schemes are under investigation. A number of schemes have been put into service
and their performances have been found to be satisfactory. Microprocessor/micro-
controller-based numerical protective schemes are being widely used in the field.
At present, many trends are emerging. These include common hardware plat-
forms, configuring the software to perform different functions, integrating protection
with substation control and substituting cables carrying voltages and currents with
optical fibre cables carrying signals in the form of polarized light.
On the software side, Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques, such as Artificial
Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems have attracted the attention of
researchers and protection engineers and they are being applied to power system
protection. ANN and Fuzzy Logic based intelligent numerical relays for overcurrent
protection, distance protection of transmission lines and differential protection of
transformers and generators are presently under active research and development
stage. Adaptive protection is also being applied to protection practices. Recent
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 9

work in this area includes feedback systems in which relays continuously monitor
the operating state of the power system and automatically reconfigure themselves
for providing optimal protection.

1.7 ZONES OF PROTECTION

A power system contains generators, transformers, bus bars, transmission and distri-
bution lines, etc. There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of equipment
or element of the power system, such as generator protection, transformer protection,
transmission line protection, bus bar protection, etc. Thus, a power system is divided
into a number of zones for protection. A protective zone covers one or at the most
two elements of a power system. The protective zones are planned in such a way
that the entire power system is collectively covered by them, and thus, no part of the
system is left unprotected. The various protective zones of a typical power system are
shown in Fig. 1.1. Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other, failing which
a fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any of the zones (this may be
due to errors in the measurement of actuating quantities, etc.), and hence no circuit
breaker would trip. Thus, the overlapping between the adjacent zones is unavoidable.
If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly protected scheme, more circuit
breakers than the minimum necessary to isolate the faulty element of the system
would trip. A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the probability of faults in this
region and consequently, tripping of too many breakers does not occur frequently.

Generator protection

Circuit breaker
HV Switchgear protection

Transformer protection

EHV Switchgear protection

Transformer line protection

EHV Switchgear protection

Fig. 1.1 Zones of protection

Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

10 Power System Protection and Switchgear

1.8 PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION

It has already been explained that a power system is divided into various zones for
its protection. There is a suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs
in a particular zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the
faulty element. The primary relay is the first line of defense. If due to any reason, the
primary relay fails to operate, there is a back-up protective scheme to clear the fault
as a second line of defence.
The causes of failures of protective scheme may be due to the failure of various
elements, as mentioned in Table 1.3. The probability of failures is shown against each
item.
The reliability of protective scheme should at least be 95%. With proper design,
installation and maintenance of the relays, circuit breakers, trip mechanisms, ac and
dc wiring, etc. a very high degree of reliability can be achieved.
The back-up relays are made independent of those factors which might cause
primary relays to fail. A back-up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary
relay sufficient time to operate. When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the
power system is disconnected from the power source, but this is unavoidable. As far
as possible, a back-up relay should be placed at a different station. Sometimes, a
local back-up is also used. It should be located in such a way that it does not employ
components (VT, CT, measuring unit, etc.) common with the primary relays which
are to be backed up. There are three types of back-up relays:
(i) Remote back-up
(ii) Relay back-up
(iii) Breaker back-up

Table 1.3 Percentage failure rate of various equipment

Name of Equipment % of Total Failures
Relays 44
Circuit breaker interrupters 14
AC wiring 12
Breaker trip mechanisms 8
Current transformers 7
DC wiring 5
VT 3
Breaker auxiliary switches 3
Breaker tripcoils 3
DC supply 1

1.8.1 Remote Back-up

When back-up relays are located at a neighbouring station, they back-up the entire
primary protective scheme which includes the relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT and other
elements, in case of a failure of the primary protective scheme. It is the cheapest and
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 11

the simplest form of back-up protection and is a widely used back-up protection for
transmission lines. It is most desirable because of the fact that it will not fail due to
the factors causing the failure of the primary protection.

1.8.2 Relay Back-up

This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is provided for back-up
protection. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and this opera-
tion takes place without delay. Though such a back-up is costly, it can be recom-
mended where a remote back-up is not possible. For back-up relays, principles of
operation that are different from those of the primary protection as desirable. They
should be supplied from separate current and potential transformers.

1.8.3 Breaker Back-up

This is also a kind of a local back-up. This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus
bar system where a number of circuit breakers are connected to it. When a protec-
tive relay operates in response to a fault but the circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault
is treated as a bus bar fault. In such a situation, it becomes necessary that all other
circuit breakers on that bus bar should trip. After a time-delay, the main relay closes
the contact of a back-up relay which trips all other circuit breakers on the bus if the
proper breaker does not trip within a specified time after its trip coil is energised.

1.9 ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION

The basic requirements of a protective system are as follows:
(i) Selectivity or discrimination
(ii) Reliability
(iii) Sensitivity
(iv) Stability
(v) Fast operation

1.9.1 Selectivity or Discrimination

Selectivity, is the quality of protective relay by which it is able to discriminate
between a fault in the protected section and the normal condition. Also, it should be
able to distinguish whether a fault lies within its zone of protection or outside the
zone. Sometimes, this quality of the relay is also called discrimination. When a fault
occurs on a power system, only the faulty part of the system should be isolated. No
healthy part of the system should be deprived of electric supply and hence should be
left intact. The relay should also be able to discriminate between a fault and transient
conditions like power surges or inrush of a transformer’s magnetising current. The
magnetising current of a large transformer is comparable to a fault current, which
may be 5 to 7 times the full load current. When generators of two interconnected
power plants lose synchronism because of disturbances, heavy currents flow through
the equipment and lines. This condition is like a short circuit. The flow of heavy cur-
rents is known as a power surge. The protective relay should be able to distinguish
between a fault or power surge either by its inherent characteristic or with the help of
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

12 Power System Protection and Switchgear

an auxiliary relay. Thus, we see that a protective relay must be able to discriminate
between those conditions for which instantaneous tripping is required and those for
which no operation or a time-delay operation is required.

1.9.2 Reliability
A protective system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of protection.
The failure of a protective system may be due to the failure of any one or more ele-
ments of the protective system. Its important elements are the protective relay, circuit
breaker, VT, CT, wiring, battery, etc. To achieve a high degree of reliability, greater
attention should be given to the design, installation, maintenance and testing of the
various elements of the protective system. Robustness and simplicity of the relaying
equipment also contribute to reliability. The contact pressure, the contact material of
the relay, and the prevention of contact contamination are also very important from
the reliability point of view. A typical value of reliability of a protective scheme is
95%.
1.9.3 Sensitivity
A protective relay should operate when the magnitude of the current exceeds the
preset value. This value is called the pick-up current. The relay should not operate
when the current is below its pick-up value. A relay should be sufficiently sensitive
to operate when the operating current just exceeds its pick-up value.

1.9.4 Stability
A protective system should remain stable even when a large current is flowing through
its protective zone due to an external fault, which does not lie in its zone. The con-
cerned circuit breaker is supposed to clear the fault. But the protective system will
not wait indefinitely if the protective scheme of the zone in which fault has occurred
fails to operate. After a preset delay the relay will operate to trip the circuit breaker.

1.9.5 Fast Operation

A protective system should be fast enough to isolate the faulty element of the system
as quickly as possible to minimise damage to the equipment and to maintain the
system stability. For a modern power system, the stability criterion is very important
and hence, the operating time of the protective system should not exceed the criti-
cal clearing time to avoid the loss of synchronism. Other points under consideration
for quick operation are protection of the equipment from burning due to heavy fault
currents, interruption of supply to consumers and the fall in system voltage which
may result in the loss of industrial loads. The operating time of a protective relay is
usually one cycle. Half-cycle relays are also available. For distribution systems the
operating time may be more than one cycle.

1.10 PERFORMANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS

When a fault occurs in a particular zone of the power system, the primary relays
of that zone are expected to operate and initiate isolation of the faulty element.
However, back-up relays surrounding that area are also alerted by the fault and
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 13

begin to operate. They do not initiate tripping if the primary relays operate correctly.
Information regarding operation of these back-up relays is not available when they
do not trip. The back-up relay operates, if due to any reason the primary relay fails
to operate. Though several primary relays are employed in many protection sys-
tems, but frequently only one of the relays actually initiates tripping of the circuit
breaker. There may be no direct evidence regarding the other relays being in a correct
operating mode.
The performance of the protective relay is documented by those relays that
provide direct or specific evidence of operation. Relay performance is generally clas-
sified as
(i) Correct operation
(ii) Incorrect operation
(iv) No conclusion
1.10.1 Correct Operation
Correct operation of the relay can be either wanted or unwanted. The correct opera-
tion gives indication about (i) correct operation of atleast one of the primary relays,
(ii) operation of none of the back-up relays to trip for the fault, and (iii) proper isola-
tion of the trouble area in the expected time.
Almost all relay operations are corrected and wanted, i.e., the operation is as per
plan and programme. There are the few cases of the correct but unwanted operation.
If all relays and associated equipment perform correctly when their operation is not
desired or anticipated, it is called “correct but unwanted operation.”

1.10.2 Incorrect Operation

A failure, a malfunction, or an unplanned or unanticipated operation of the protec-
tive system results in incorrect operation of the relay. The incorrect operation of the
relay can cause either incorrect isolation of an unfaulted area, or a failure to isolate
a faulted area. The reasons for incorrect operation can be any one or a combination
of (i) misapplication of relays, (ii) incorrect settings, (iii) personnel errors, and (iv)
equipment malfunctions. Equipment that can cause an incorrect operation includes
CTs, VTs, relays, breakers, cable and wiring, pilot channels, station batteries, etc.

1.10.3 No Conclusion
When one or more relays have or appear to have operated, such as the tripping of the
circuit breaker, but no cause of operation can be found, it is the case of ‘no conclu-
sion’. Neither any evidence of a power system fault or trouble, nor apparent failure
of the equipment, causes and extremely frustrating situation. Thus the cases of no
conclusion involves considerable concern and thorough investigation. It is suspected
that many of the cases of ‘no conclusion’ may be the result of personnel involvement
which is not reported. Modern oscillographs and data-recording equipment which
are being used nowaday in many power systems often provide direct evidence or
clues regarding the problem, as well as indicating possibilities that could not have
occurred.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

14 Power System Protection and Switchgear

1.11 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS

Protective relays can be classified in various ways depending on the technology used
for their construction, their speed of operation, their generation of development,
function, etc., and will be discussed in more details in the following chapters.

1.11.1 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on Technology

Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following three categories, depend-
ing on the technology they use for their construction and operation.
(i) Electromechanical relays
(ii) Static relays
(iii) Numerical relays
Electromechanical Relays
Electromechanical relays are further classified into two categories, i.e., (i) electro-
magnetic relays, and (ii) thermal relays. Electromagnetic relays work on the princi-
ple of either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Thermal relays
utilise the electrothermal effect of the actuating current for their operation.
First of all, electromagnetic relays working on the principle of electromagnetic
attraction were developed. These relays were called attracted armature-type electro-
magnetic relays. This type of relay operates through an armature which is attracted
to an electromagnet or through a plunger drawn into a solenoid. Plunger type elec-
tromagnetic relays are used for instantaneous units for detecting over current or over-
voltage conditions.
Attracted armature-type electromagnetic relays are the simplest type which
respond to ac as well as dc. Initially attracted armature-type relays were called elec-
tromagnetic relays. Later on, induction type electromagnetic relays were developed.
These relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation, and hence
work with ac quantities only. Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet (or a
permanent magnet) and a moving part. When the actuating quantity exceeds a cer-
tain predetermined value, an operating torque is developed which is applied on the
moving part. This causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a contact to
energise the trip coil of the circuit breaker.
Since both attracted armature and induction type electromagnetic relays oper-
ate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due to electromagnetic forces
created by the input quantities, these relays were called electromechanical relays.
The term ‘electromechanical relays’ has been used to designate all the electro-
magnetic relays which use either electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic
induction principle for their operation and thermal relays which operate as a result of
electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. Sometimes both the terms, i.e.,
electromagnetic relays and electromechanical relays are used in parallel.
Static Relays
Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may include transistors, ICs, diodes
and other electronic components. There is a comparator circuit in the relay, which
compares two or more currents or voltages and gives an output which is applied to
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 15

either a slave relay or a thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an electromagnetic relay
which finally closes the contact. A static relay containing a slave relay is a semi-static
relay. A relay using a thyristor circuit is a wholly static relay. Static relays possess
the advantages of having low burden on the CT and VT, fast operation, absence of
mechanical inertia and contact trouble, long life and less maintenance. Static relays
have proved to be superior to electromechanical relays and they are being used for
the protection of important lines, power stations and sub-stations. Yet they have not
completely replaced electromechanical relays. Static relays are treated as an addi-
tion to the family of relays. Electromechanical relays continue to be in use because
of their simplicity and low cost. Their maintenance can be done by less qualified
personnel, whereas the maintenance and repair of static relays requires personnel
trained in solid state devices.
Numerical Relays
Numerical relays are the latest development in this area. These relays acquire the
sequential samples of the ac quantities in numeric (digital) data form through the
data acquisition system, and process the data numerically using an algorithm to cal-
culate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. Numerical relays have been
developed because of tremendous advancement in VLSI and computer hardware
technology. They are based on numerical (digital) devices, e.g., microprocessors,
microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), etc. At present microprocessor/
microcontroller-based numerical relays are widely used. These relays use different
relaying algorithms to process the acquired information. Microprocessor/micro-
controller-based relays are called numerical relays specifically if they calculate the
algorithm numerically. The term ‘digital relay’ was originally used to designate a
previous-generation relay with analog measurement circuits and digital coincidence
time measurement (angle measurement) using microprocessors. Now a days the term
‘numerical relay’ is widely used in place of ‘digital relay’. Sometimes, both terms are
used in parallel. Similarly, the term ‘numerical protection’ is widely used in place of
‘digital protection’. Sometimes both these terms are also used in parallel.
The present downward trend in the cost of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI)
circuits has encouraged wide application of numerical relays for the protection of
modern complex power networks. Economical, powerful and sophisticated numeri-
cal devices (e.g., microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs, etc) are available today
because of tremendous advancement in computer hardware technology. Various effi-
cient and fast relaying algorithms which form a part of the software and are used to
process the acquired information are also available today. Hence, there is a growing
trend to develop and use numerical relays for the protection of various components
of the modern complex power system. Numerical relaying has become a viable alter-
native to the traditional relaying systems employing electromechanical and static
relays. Intelligent numerical relays using artificial Intelligence techniques such as
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems are presently under
active research and development stage.
The main features of numerical relays are their economy, compactness, flexibility
reliability, self-monitoring and self-checking capability, multiple functions, low bur-
den on instruments transformers and improved performance over conventional relays
of electromechanical and static types.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

16 Power System Protection and Switchgear

1.11.2 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on Speed of Operation

Protective relays can be generally classified by their speed of operation as follows:
(i) Instantaneous relays
(ii) Time-delay relays
(iii) High-speed relays
(iv) Ultra high-speed relays
Instantaneous Relays
In these relays, no intentional time delay is introduced to slow down their response.
These relays operate as soon as a secure decision is made.
Time-delay Relays
In these relays, an intentional time delay is introduced between the relay decision
time and the initiation of the trip action.
High-speed Relays
These relays operate in less than a specified time. The specified time in present prac-
tice is 60 milliseconds (3 cycles on a 50 Hz system).
Ultra High-speed Relays
Though this term is not included in the relay standard but these relays are commonly
considered to operate within 5 milliseconds.
1.11.3 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on their
Generation of Development
Relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on generation of
their development.
(i) First-generation relays: Electromechanical relays
(ii) Second-generation relays: Static relays
(iii) Third-generation relays: Numerical relays.
1.11.4 Classi ication of Protective Relays Based on their Function
Protective relays can be classified into the following categories, depending on the
duty they are required to perform:
(i) Overcurrent relays
(ii) Undervoltage relays
(iii) Impedance relays
(iv) Underfrequency relays
(v) Directional relays
These are some important relays. Many other relays specifying their duty they
perform can be put under this type of classification. The duty which a relay performs
is evident from its name. For example, an overcurrent relay operates when the current
exceeds a certain limit, an impedance relay measures the line impedance between
the relay location and the point of fault and operates if the point of fault lies within
the protected section. Directional relays check whether the point of fault lies in the
forward or reverse direction.
The above relays may be electromechanical, static or numerical.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 17

1.11.5 Classi ication of Protective Relays as Comparators

Protective relays are basically comparators which must be able to carry out addition,
subtraction, multiplication or division of some scalar or some phasor quantities and
make comparisons of the input quantities as desired. Based upon this principle, the
protective relays can be classified as comparators into the following categories.
(i) Single-input comparator
(ii) Dual-input comparator
(iii) Multi-input comparator
Single-input Comparator
These relays have only one input signal and are also known as level detectors. Such
relays continuously monitor one electrical quantity and compare it with certain con-
stant quantity, i.e., a reference or a base quantity which may be the pull of a spring
or gravitational force. An example of this type of relay is an over current relay which
measures the current of a circuit and compares it with a certain preset value of the
reference or base quantities. Though these relays are simple in construction and oper-
ation, they have several drawbacks such as (i) they are non-directional, (ii) they are
not reliable because their action depends upon a single quantity, and (iii) they fail to
attain the desired reliability.
Dual-input Comparator
These relays have two input signals. Such relays measure one quantity and compare
it with another quantity. The typical examples of such type of relays are distance
relays and differential relays. The distance relay measures the current entering the
circuit and compares it in magnitude or in phase angle with the local bus voltage. The
differential relay measures the current entering the circuit and compares it with the
current leaving the circuit at the other end. Dual-input comparators are of two types,
i.e., amplitude comparator and phase comparator. The amplitude comparator com-
pares only the amplitude of the two input signals irrespective of phase angle between
them, whereas the phase comparator compares only the phase angle between the two
input signals irrespective of their magnitudes. There is duality between amplitude
and phase comparators, i.e., an amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase
comparator and vice-versa if the input quantities to the comparator are modified. The
modified input quantities are the sum and difference of the original two input quanti-
ties. These relays have several advantages and wide applications.
Multi-input Comparator
Multi-input comparators have more than two input signals and are used for the
relaisation of special characteristics other than straight lines or circle. These compar-
ators are also of two types, i.e., (i) multi-input phase comparator, and (ii) multi-input
amplitude comparator. Multi-input phase comparator is used for realisation of
quadrilateral characteristic whereas multi-input amplitude comparator is used for
realisation of conic characteristics such as elliptical or hyperbolic characteristics.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

18 Power System Protection and Switchgear

1.12 COMPONENTS OF A PROTECTION SYSTEM

A protection system consists of CT CB
Line
many other subsystems which con- Bus bar
tribute to the detection and removal
of faults. As shown in Fig. 1.2, the VT
main subsystems of the protection
system are the transducers, relays, Trip coil
circuit breakers and trip circuit con- Trip circuit
taining trip coil and battery. Relay
The transducers, i.e., the current Battery
and voltage transformers (CTs and Fig. 1.2 Components of aprotection system
VTs) are used to reduce currents
and voltages to standard lower values and to isolate protective relays from the high
voltages of the power system. They constitute a major component of the protection
system, and are discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Protective relays detect and locate
the fault and issue a command to the circuit breaker (CB) to disconnect the faulty
element. When a fault occurs in the protected circuit (i.e., the line in this case), the
relay connected to the CT and VT actuates and closes its contacts to complete the
trip circuit. Current flows from the battery in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of the
circuit breaker is energized, the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and
it operates for the opening operation to disconnect the faulty element.
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying
and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a
specified time, and automatically breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
condition such as those of short circuits, i.e., faults. It is used to isolate the faulty part
of the power system under abnormal conditions. A protective relay detects abnormal
conditions and sends a tripping signal to the circuit breaker. A circuit breaker has two
contacts—a fixed contact and a moving contact. Under normal conditions, these two
contacts remain in closed position. When the circuit breaker is required to isolate
the faulty part, the moving contact moves to interrupt the circuit. On the separation
of the contacts, the flow of current is interrupted, resulting in the formation of an
arc between the contacts. The medium in which circuit interruption is performed is
designated by a suitable prefix, such as oil circuit breaker, air-break circuit breaker, air
blast circuit breaker, sulphure hexafluoride circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker.
Since the primary function of a protection system is to remove a fault, the abil-
ity to trip a circuit breaker through a relay must not be compromised during a fault,
when the ac voltage available at the substation may not be of sufficient magnitude.
In case of a close-in three-phase fault, the ac voltage at the substation can be zero.
Therefore the tripping power, as well as the power required by the relays cannot
be obtained from the ac system, and is usually provided by the station battery. The
battery which is permanently connected through a charger to the station ac service
floats on the charger during normal steady-state conditions. The charger is of a
sufficient VA capacity to provide all steady-state loads powered by the battery. The
battery should also be rated to maintain adequate dc power for 8-12 hours following
a station blackout. For better reliability EHV stations have duplicate batteries, each
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 19

feeding from its charger, and connected to its own complement of relays. Since the
severe transients produced by the electromechanical relays on the battery loads dur-
ing their operation may cause maloperation of other sensitive relays in the substation,
or may even damage them, it is common practice, as far as practicable, to separate
electromechanical and static equipment by connecting them to different batteries.

1.13 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES

A protective scheme is used to protect an equipment or a section of the line. It
includes one or more relays of the same or different types. The following are the
most common protective schemes which are usually used for the protection of a
modern power system.
(i) Overcurrent protection
(ii) Distance protection
(iii) Carrier-current protection
(iv) Differential protection
1.13.1 Overcurrent Protection
This scheme of protection is used for the protection of distribution lines, large
motors, equipment, etc. It includes one or more overcurrent relays. An overcurrent
relay operates when the current exceeds its pick-up value.

1.13.2 Distance Protection

Distance protection is used for the protection of transmission or sub-transmission
lines; usually 33 kV, 66 kV and l32 kV lines. It includes a number of distance relays
of the same or different types. A distance relay measures the distance between the
relay location and the point of fault in terms of impedance, reactance, etc. The relay
operates if the point of fault lies within the protected section of the line. There are
various kinds of distance relays. The important types are impedance, reactance and
mho type. An impedance relay measure the line impedance between the fault point
and relay location; a reactance relay measures reactance, and a mho relay measures
a component of admittance.

1.13.3 Carrier-Current Protection

This scheme of protection is used for the protection of EHV and UHV lines, gener-
ally 132 kV and above. A carrier signal in the range of 50-500 kc/s is generated for
the purpose. A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a transmission line
to be protected. Information regarding the direction of the fault current is transmitted
from one end of the line section to the other. Depending on the information, relays
placed at each end trip if the fault lies within their protected section. Relays do not
trip in case of external faults. The relays are of distance type and their tripping opera-
tion is controlled by the carrier signal.

1.13.4 Differential Protection

This scheme of protection is used for the protection of generators, transformers,
motors of very large size, bus zones, etc. CTs are placed on both sides of each
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

20 Power System Protection and Switchgear

winding of a machine. The outputs of their secondaries are applied to the relay coils.
The relay compares the current entering a machine winding and leaving the same.
Under normal conditions or during any external fault, the current entering the wind-
ing is equal to the current leaving the winding. But in the case of an internal fault
on the winding, these are not equal. This difference in the current actuates the relay.
Thus, the relay operates for internal faults and remains inoperative under normal
conditions or during external faults. In case of bus zone protection, CTs are placed
on the both sides of the bus bar.

1.14 AUTOMATIC RECLOSING

About 90% of faults on overhead lines are of transient nature. Transient faults are
caused by lightning or external bodies falling on the lines. Such faults are always
associated with arcs. If the line is disconnected from the system for a short time,
the arc is extinguished and the fault disappears. Immediately after this, the circuit
breaker can be reclosed automatically to restore the supply.
Most faults on EHV lines are caused by lightning. Flashover across insulators
takes place due to overvoltages caused by lightning and exists for a short time. Hence,
only on instantaneous reclosure is used in the case of EHV lines. There is no need
for more than one reclosure for such a situation. For EHV lines, one reclosure in 12
cycles is recommended. A fast reclosure is desired from the stability point of view.
More details have been given in Ch. 6.
On lines up 33 kV, most faults are caused by external objects such as tree branches,
etc. falling on the overhead lines. This is due to the fact that the support height is less
than that of the trees. The external objects may not be burnt clear at the first reclosure
and may require additional reclosures. Usually three reclosures at 15-120 seconds’
intervals are made to clear the fault. Statistical reports show that over 80% faults
are cleared after the first reclosure, 10% require the second reclosure and 2% need
the third reclosure, while the remaining 8% are permanent faults. If the fault is not
cleared after 3 reclosures, it indicates that the fault is of permanent nature. Automatic
reclosure are not used on cables as the breakdown of insulation in cables causes a
permanent fault.

1.15 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTS)

FOR PROTECTION
Current transformers (CTs) are used to obtain reduced current signals from the power
systems for the purpose of measurement, control and protection. They reduce the
heavy currents of the power system to lower values that are suitable for the opera-
tion of relays and other instruments connected to their secondary windings. Besides
reducing the current levels, CTs also isolate the relays and instruments circuits
from the primary circuit which is a high voltage power circuit and allow the use of
standardized current ratings for relays and meters. The current ratings of the second-
ary windings of the CTs have been standardized so that a degree of interchange-
ability among relays and meters of different manufacturers can be achieved. Since
the standard current ratings of the secondary windings of the CTs are 5 or 1 ampere
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 21

the protective relays also have the same current rating. The current transformers are
designed to withstand fault currents (which may be as high as 50 times the full load
current) for a few seconds. Protective relays require reasonably accurate reproduc-
tion of the normal and abnormal conditions in the power system for correct sens-
ing and operation. Hence the current transformers should be able to provide current
signals to the relays which are faithful reproductions of the primary currents. The
measure of a current transformer performance is its ability to accurately reproduce
the primary current in secondary.
The requirements of CTs used for relaying are quite different from those of meter-
ing (CTs for measuring instruments). CTs used for instrumentation are required to be
accurate over the normal working range of currents, whereas CTs used for relaying
are required to give a correct ratio up to several times the rated primary current. The
CTs used for metering may have very significant errors during fault conditions, when
the currents may be several times their normal value for a very short time. Since
metering functions are not required during faults, this is not significant. CTs used
for relaying are designed to have small errors during fault conditions, whereas their
performance during normal steady state condition, when the relay is not required to
operate, may not be as accurate.
The accuracy of a current transformer is expressed in terms of the departure of its
ratio form its true ratio. This is called the ratio error, and is expressed as:

[ ]
NIs – Ip
Percent error = _______ × 100
Ip
where, N = Nominal CT ratio
Rated primary current
= ____________________
Rated secondary current
Number of secondary turns
= _______________________
Number of primary turns
Is = Secondary current, and
Ip = Primary current
The ratio error of a CT depends on its exciting current.
Current transformers are of electromagnetic, opto-electronic and Rogowski coil
types. The electromagnetic type CTs which are magnetically coupled, multi-winding
transformers can be classified into two categories: toroidal or bar primary CTs and
wound primary CTs. Toroidal or bar-primary-type CTs, donot contain a primary
winding and instead a straight conductor, (wire) which is a part of the power system
and carries the current, acts as the primary. The conductor (wire) that carries the cur-
rents is encircled by a ring-type iron core on which the secondary winding is wound
over the entire periphery. Wound-type CTs consist of a primary winding of fewer
turns wound on the iron core and inserted in series with the conductor that carries the
measured-current.
An opto-electronic or optical CT uses two light beams travelling through an opti-
cal fiber to measure the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor, which
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

22 Power System Protection and Switchgear

gives a measure of the current flowing in the conductor. The phase displacement
between the two beams is proportional to the level of current in the conductor.
The Rogowski Coil (RC) is a helical coil of wire with the lead from one end
returning through the centre of the coil to the other end, so that both are at the same
end of the coil. The whole assembly is then wrapped around the straight conduc-
tor whose current is to be measured. Since the voltage that is induced in the coil is
proportional to the rate of change (derivative) of current in the conductor, the output
of the Rogowski coil is usually connected to an electrical (or electronic) integrator
circuit to provide an output signal that is proportional to the current.
Current transformers are described in detail in Chapter 3.

1.16 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VTS)

Voltage transformers (VTs) were previously known as potential transformers (PTs).
They are used to reduce the power system voltages to lower values and to provide
isolation between the high-voltage power network and the relays and other instru-
ments connected to their secondaries. The voltage ratings of the secondary windings
of the VTs have been standardized, so that a degree of interchangeability among
relays and meters of different manufacturers can be achieved. The secondary wind-
ings of the voltage transformers are rated at 110 V line to line. Therefore, the voltage
ratings of the voltage (pressure) coils of protective relays and measuring instruments
(meters) are also 110 V line to line. The voltage transformers should be able to pro-
vide voltage signals to the relays (and meters) which are faithful reproductions of the
primary voltages.
The accuracy of voltage transformers is expressed in terms of the departure of its
ratio from its true ratio.
The percentage ratio error is given by

(
KVs – Vp
)
Percent ratio error = ________ × 100
Vp
where, K = Nominal voltage ratio
Rated primary voltage
= ____________________
Rated secondary voltage
Number of primary turns
= _______________________
Number of secondary turns
Vs = Secondary voltage, and
Vp = Primary voltage
Ideally a VT should produce a secondary voltage which is exactly proportional and
in phase opposition to the primary voltage. But, in practice, this cannot be achieved
owing to the voltage drops in the primary and secondary windings due to magnitude
and power factor of the secondary burden. Thus, ratio and phase angle errors are
introduced.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 23

There are three types of voltage transformers:

(i) electromagnetic type, (ii) capacitor type, and (iii) opto-electronic type. The electro
magnetic type of VT is similar to a conventional wound type transformer with addi-
tional feature to minimise errors. This type of VT is conveniently used for voltages
up to 132 KV. Capacitor-type voltage transformer has a capacitance voltage divider
and is used at higher system voltages, i.e., 132 KV and above. This type of voltage
transformer is also known as Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCVT). In
an opto-electronic VT, a circular polarized light beam traveling through a fibre optic
up the column is used to determine the voltage difference between the conductor
and the ground. This type of voltage transformer is also known as electronic voltage
transformer.
The voltage transformers (VTs) are described in detail in Chapter 3.

1.17 BASIC RELAY TERMINOLOGY

Relay: A relay is an automatic device by means of which an electrical circuit is
indirectly controlled (opened or closed) and is governed by a change in the same or
another electrical circuit.
Protective relay: A protective relay is an automatic device which detects an abnor-
mal condition in an electrical circuit and causes a circuit breaker to isolate the faulty
element of the system. In some cases it may give an alarm or visible indication to
alert operator.
Operating force or torque: A force or torque which tends to close the contacts of
the relay.
Restraining force or torque: A force or torque which opposes the operating force/
torque.
Actuating quantity: An electrical quantity (current, voltage, etc) to which relay
responds.
Pick-up (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, etc.)
above which the relay operates.
Reset on drop-out (level): The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current,
voltage, etc.) below which the relay is de-energised and returns to its normal position
or state. Consider a situation where a relay has closed its contacts and the actuating
current is still flowing. Now, due to some reason, the abnormal condition is over and
the current starts decreasing. At some maximum value of the current the contacts will
start opening. This condition is called reset or drop-out. The maximum value of the
actuating quantity below which contacts are opened is called the reset or drop-out
value.
Operating time: It is the time which elapses from the instant at which the actuating
quantity exceeds the relays pick-up value to the instant at which the relay closes its
contacts.
Reset time: It is the time which elapses from the moment the actuating quantity falls
below its reset value to the instant when the relay comes back to its normal (initial)
position.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

24 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Setting: The value of the actuating quantity at which the relay is set to operate.
Seal-in relay: This is a kind of an auxiliary relay. It is energised by the contacts of
the main relay. Its contacts are placed in parallel with those of the main relay and is
designed to relieve the contacts of the main relay from their current carrying duty. It
remains in the circuit until the circuit breaker trips. The seal-in contacts are usually
heavier than those of the main relay.
Reinforcing relay: This is a kind of an auxiliary relay. It is energised from the con-
tacts of the main relay. Its contacts are placed in parallel with those of the main relay
and it is also designed to relieve the main relay contacts from their current carrying
duty. The difference between a reinforcing relay and a seal-in relay is that the latter
is designed to remain in the circuit till the circuit breaker operates. But this is not
so with the reinforcing relay. The reinforcing relay is used to hold a signal from the
initiating relay (main relay) for a longer period. As the contacts of the main relay are
not robust, they are closed for a short time.
Back-up relay: A back-up relay operates after a slight delay, if the main relay fails
to operate.
Back-up protection: The back-up protection is designed to clear the fault if the
primary protection fails. It acts as a second line of defence.
Primary protection: If a fault occurs, it is the duty of the primary protective scheme
to clear the fault. It acts as a first line of defence. If it fails, the back-up protection
clears the fault.
Measuring relay: It is the main protective relay of the protective scheme, to which
energising quantities are applied. It performs measurements to detect abnormal con-
ditions in the system to be protected.
Auxiliary relays: Auxiliary relays assist protective relays. They repeat the opera-
tions of protective relays, control switches, etc. They relieve the protective relays of
duties like tripping, time lag, sounding and alarm, etc. They may be instantaneous or
may have a time delay.
Electromagnetic relay: A relay which operates on the electromagnetic principle,
i.e., an electromagnet attracts magnetic moving parts (e.g.,) plunger type moving
iron type, attracted armature type). Such a relay operates principally by action of an
electromagnetic element which is energized by the input quantity.
Electromachanical relay: An electrical relay in which the designed response is
developed by the relative movement of mechanical elements under the action of a
current in the input circuit. Such relay operates by physical movement of mechanical
parts resulting from electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input
quantities.
Electrodynamic relay: A relay which has two or more coils and- operates due to
interaction of fluxes produced by the individual coils
Ferrodynamic relay: A relay in which the electrodynamic action is reinforced by
pieces of ferromagnetic material placed in the path of magnetic lines of force.
Static relays: These are solid state relays and employ semiconductor diodes, tran-
sistors, thyristors, logic gates, ICs, etc. The measuring circuit is a static circuit and
there are no moving parts. In some static relays, a slave relay which is a dc potarised
relay is used as the tripping device.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 25

Analog relay: An analog relay is that in which the measured quantities are con-
verted into lower voltage but similar signals, which are then combined or compared
directly to reference values in level detectors to produce the desired output.
Digital relay: A digital relay is that in which the measured ac quantities are manipu-
lated in analog form and subsequently converted into either square-wave voltages or
digital form. Logic circuits or microprocessors compare either the phase relation-
ships of the square waves or the magnitudes of the quantities in digital form to make
a trip decision.
Numerical relay: A numerical relay is that in which the measured ac quanti-
ties are sequentially sampled and converted into numerical (digital) data form. A
microprocessor or a microcontroller processes the data numerically (i.e., performs
mathematical and/or logical operations on the data) using an algorithm to calculate
the fault discriminants and make trip decisions.
Microprocessor-based relay: A microprocessor is used to perform all functions
of a relay. It measures electrical quantities, makes comparisons, performs computa-
tions, and sends tripping signals. It can realise all sorts of relaying characteristics,
even irregular curves which cannot be reslised by electromechanical or static relays
easily.
Microcontroller-based relay: A microcontroller is used for performing all the
function of the relay. It measures the electrical quantities by acquiring them in digital
form through a data acquisition system, makes comparisons, processes the digital
data to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. It can realise all
sorts of relaying characteristics.
DSP-based relay: A Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is used to perform all the func-
tions of a relay.
FPGA-based relay: A Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is used to perform
all the functions of a relay. It acquires the signals, processes them to calculate the
fault discriminants and make trip decisions.
ANN-based relay: An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is used for processing the
relaying signals (current and voltage signals) and making trip decisions.
Overcurrent relay: A relay which operates when the actuating current exceeds a
certain preset value (its pick-up value).
Undervoltage relay: A relay which operates when the system voltage falls below a
certain preset value.
Directional or reverse power relay: A directional relay is able to detect whether
the point of fault lies in the forward or reverse direction with respect to the relay loca-
tion. It is able to sense the direction of power flow, i.e. whether the power is flowing
in the normal direction or the reverse direction.
Polarised relay: A relay whose operation depends on the direction of current or
voltage.
Flag or target: Flag is a device which gives visual indication whether a relay has
operated or not.
Time-lag relay: A time-lag relay operates after a certain preset time lag. The time
lag may be due to its inherent design feature or may be due to the presence of a time-
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

26 Power System Protection and Switchgear

delay component. Such relays are used in protection schemes as a means of time
discrimination. They are frequently used in control and alarm schemes.
Instantaneous relay: An instantaneous relay has no intentional time delay in its
operation. It operates in 0.1 second. Sometimes the terms high set or high speed
relays are also used for the relays which have operating times less than 0.1 second.
Inverse time relay: A relay in which the operating time is inversely proportional to
the magnitude of the operating current.
Definite time relay: A relay in which the operating time is independent of the mag-
nitude of the actuating current.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Relay: A relay which gives an inverse
time characteristic at lower values of the operating current and definite time charac-
teristic at higher values of the operating current.
Induction relay: A relay which operates on the principle of induction.
Examples are induction disc relays, induction cup relays etc.
Moving coil relay: This type of a relay has a permanent magnet and a moving coil.
It is also called a permanent magnet d.c. moving coil relay. The actuating current
flows in the moving coil.
Moving iron relay: This is a dc polarised, moving iron type relay. There is an elec-
tromagnet, permanent magnet and a moving armature in its construction.
Printed disc relay: This relay operates on the principle of a dynamometer. There is
a permanent magnet or an electromagnet and a printed disc. Direct current is fed to
the printed circuit of the disc.
Thermal relay: This relay utilises the electrothermal effect of the actuating current
for its operation.
Distance relay: A relay which measures impedance or a component of the imped-
ance at the relay location is known as a distance relay. It is used for the protection of a
transmission line. As the impedance of a line is proportional to the length of the line,
a relay which measures impedance or its component is called a distance relay.
Impedance relay: A relay which measures impedance at the relay location is called
an impedance relay. It is a kind of a distance relay.
Modified impedance relay: It is an impedance relay having shifted characteristics.
The voltage coil includes some current biasing.
Reactance relay: A relay which measures reactance at the relay location is called a
reactance relay. It is a kind of a distance relay.
MHO relay (admittance or angle admittance): This is a kind of a distance relay.
Z
It measures a particular component of the impedance, i.e. _________, where f is the
cos (f – q)
power factor angle and q is the design angle to shift MHO characteristic on the R-X
diagram. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a circle passing through the origin.
It is a directional relay. It is also known as an admittance or angle admittance relay.
Conduction relay: This is a MHO relay whose diameter (passing through the ori-
gin) lies on the R-axis.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 27

Offset MHO characteristic: In an offset MHO relay, the MHO characteristic is

shifted on the R-X diagram to include the origin.
Angle impedance relay (ohm relay): The characteristic of this relay on the R-X
diagram is a straight line passing at an angle and cutting both the axes. It is a kind of
a distance relay and is also called an Ohm relay.
Elliptical relay: The characteristic of an elliptical relay on the R-X diagram is an
ellipse. This is also a kind of a distance relay.
Quadrilateral relay: The characteristic of a quadrilateral relay on the R-X diagram
is a quadrilateral. This too is a kind of a distance relay.
Frequency sensitive relay: This is a relay which operates at a predetermined value
of the system frequency. It may be an under-frequency relay or an over-frequency
relay. An under-frequency relay operates when the system frequency falls below
a certain value. An over-frequency relay will operate when the system frequency
exceeds a certain preset value of the frequency.
Differential relay: A relay which operate in response to the difference of two actu-
ating quantities.
Earth fault relay: A relay used for the protection of an element of a power system
against earth faults is known as an earth fault relay.
Phase fault relay: A relay used for the protection of an element of a power system
against phase faults is called a phase fault relay.
Negative sequence relay: A relay for which the actuating quantity is the negative
sequence current. When the negative sequence current exceeds a certain value, the
relay operates. This type of a relay is used to protect electrical machines against
overheating due to unbalanced currents.
Zero sequence relay: A relay for which the actuating quantity is the zero sequence
current. This type of a relay is used for earth fault protection.
Starting relay or fault detector: This is a relay which detects abnormal conditions
and initiates the operation of other elements of the protective scheme.
Notching relay: A relay which switches in response to a specific number of applied
impulses is called a notching relay.
Regulating relay: A regulating relay is activated when an operating parameter devi-
ates from predetermined limits. This relay functions through supplementary equip-
ment to restore the quantity to the prescribed limits.
Monitoring relay: A monitoring relay verifies conditions on the power system or in
the protection system. This relay includes fault detectors, alarm units, channel-mon-
itoring relays, synchronism verification, and network phasing. Power system condi-
tions that do not involve opening circuit breakers during faults can be monitored by
monitoring (verification) relays.
Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relay: This relay assures that proper con-
ditions exist for interconnecting two sections of power system.
Biased relay: A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the introduction
of some quantity other than the actuating quantity, and which is usually in opposition
to the actuating quantity. The setting of this relay is modified by additional windings
the amount of bias being dependent upon conditions in the protected circuit.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

28 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Primary relay: A relay which is directly connected to the protected circuit without
interposing instrument transformers or shunt.
Secondary relay: A relay connected to the protected circuit through current and
voltage transformers.
Sequential relay: A relay which instantaneously transfers its contact position from
a particular combination of ‘off’ and ‘on’ position to another combination, every time
it picks up or drops off, according to a predetermined programme which may or may
not be adjustable and repetitive
Indicating relay: A measuring or auxiliary relay which displays a signal on
energisation
Reclosing relay: This relay establishes a closing sequence for a circuit breaker fol-
lowing tripping by protective relays.
Supervisory relay: A measuring relay or a combination of measuring and auxiliary
relays in a unit with a definite purpose of supervision.
Change over relay: An auxiliary relay with two positions either of which cannot
be designated as ‘on’ and ‘off’ but which transfers the contact circuits from one con-
nection to the other.
Two-step relay: A relay with two sets of contacts, one of them operates at a cer-
tain value of the characteristic quantity and the other after a further change of the
quantity.
Current unbalance relay: This relay operates when the currents in a polyphase
system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount.
Voltage unbalanced relay: This relay operates when the voltages in a poly phase
system are unbalanced by a predetermined amount.
Ferraris relay: This relay moves by the interaction of the magnetic field of a coil
and the currents induced in a metal body (disc or cup)
Protective zone: A power system is divided into a number of zones from the pro-
tection point of view. Each element of the power system has a separate protective
scheme for its protection. The elements which come under a protective scheme are
said to be in the zone of protection of that particular scheme. Similarly, a protective
relay has its own zone of protection.
Reach: This term is mostly used in connection with distance relays. A distance relay
operates when the impedance (or a component of the impedance) as seen by the relay
is less than a preset value. This preset impedance (or a component of impedance) or
corresponding distance is called the reach of the relay. In other words, it is the maxi-
mum length of the line up to which the relay can protect.
Overreach: Sometimes a relay may operate even when a fault point is beyond its
present reach (i.e. its protected length).
Underreach: Sometimes a relay may fail to operate even when the fault point is
within its reach, but it is at the far end of the protected line. This phenomenon is
called underreach.
Selectivity or discrimination: It is the ability of a relay to discriminate between
faulty conditions and normal conditions (or between a fault within the protected
section and outside the protected section). In other words, it is the quality of the
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 29

protective system by which it distinguishes between those conditions for which it

should operate and those for which it should not.
Reliability: A protective relay must operate reliably when a fault occurs. The reli-
ability of a protective relay should be very high, a typical value being 95%.
Sensitivity: A protective relay should be sensitive enough to operate when the mag-
nitude of the actuating quantity exceeds its pick-up value.
Stability: This is the ability of the protective system to remain inoperative under all
load conditions, and also in case of external faults. The relay should remain stable
when a heavy current due to an external fault is flowing through it.
Fast operation: A protective relay should be fast enough to cause the isolation of
the faulty section as quickly as possible to minimise the damage and to maintain the
stability.
Burden: The power consumed by the relay circuitry at the rated current is known
as its burden.
Blocking: The prevention of tripping of the relay is called blocking. It may be due
to the operation of an additional relay or due to its own characteristic.
Energizing quantity: The electrical quantity, i.e., either current or voltage, which
alone or in combination with other electrical quantities, must be applied to the relay
for its functioning.
Characteristic quantity: A quantity, the value of which characterizes the operation
of the relay for example, current for an overcurrent relay, voltage for a voltage relay,
phase angle for a directional relay, time for an independent time delay relay, imped-
ance for an impedance relay, frequency for a frequency relay.
Characteristic angle: The angle between the phasors representing two of the ener-
gizing quantities applied to a relay and used for the declaration of the performance
of the relay.
System Impedance Ratio (SIR): The ratio of the power system source impedance
to the impedance of the protected zone.
Characteristic Impedance Ratio (CIR): The maximum value of the system imped-
ance ratio up to which the relay performance remains within the prescribed limits of
accuracy.
Power swing: Oscillation between groups of synchronous machines caused by an
abrupt change in load conditions.
Through fault current: The current flowing through a protected zone to a fault
beyond that zone.
Unit system of protection: A unit system of protection is one which is able to detect
and respond to faults occurring only within its own zone of protection. It is said
to have absolute discrimination. Its zone of protection is well defined. It does not
respond to the faults occurring beyond its own zone of protection. Examples of unit
protection are differential protection of alternators, transformers or bus bars, frame
leakage protection, pilot wire and carrier current protection.
Non-unit system of protection: A non-unit system of protection does not have
absolute discrimination (selectivity). It has dependent or relative discrimination.
The discrimination is obtained by time grading, current grading or a combination of
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

30 Power System Protection and Switchgear

current and time grading of the relays of several zones. In this situation, all relays
may respond to a given fault. Examples of non-unit system of protection are dis-
tance protection and time graded, current graded or both time and current graded
protection.
Restricted earth fault protection: This is an English term which may be misunder-
stood in other countries. It is used in the context of transformer or alternator. It refers
to the differential protection of transformers or alternators against ground faults. It is
called restricted because its zone of protection is restricted only to the winding of the
alternator or transformer. The scheme responds to the faults occurring within its zone
of protection. It does not respond to faults beyond its zone of protection.
Unrestricted protection: A protection system which has no clearly defined zone of
operation and which achieves selective operation only by time grading.
Protective gear or equipment: It includes transducers (CTs and VTs), protective
relays, circuit breakers and ancillary equipment to be used in a protective system.
Protective system: It is a combination of Protective gear equipment to
secure isolation of the faulty element under predetermined conditions, usually
abnormal or to give an alarm signal or both.
Protective scheme: A protective scheme may consist of several protective systems.
It is designed to protect one or more elements of a power system.
Residual current: It is the algebraic sum of all currents in a multiphase
system. It is denoted by Ires. In a 3-phase system Ires = IA + IB + IC.
Transducers or instrument transformers: Current and voltage transformers (CTs
and VTs) are collectively known as transducers or instrument transformers. They are
used to reduce currents and voltages to standard lower values and to isolate protective
relays and measuring instruments from the high voltages of the power system.
Switchgear: It is a general term covering switching and interrupting devices and
their combination with associated control, metering, protective and regulating
devices, also assemblies of these devices with associated inter-connections, accesso-
ries, enclosures and supporting structures used primarily in connection with genera-
tion, transmission, distribution, and conversion of electric power.
Circuit breaker: It is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying
and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a
specified time, and automatically breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of short circuit. The medium in which circuit interruption
is performed may be designated by suitable prefix, such as, oil-circuit breaker, air-
blast circuit breaker, air-break circuit breaker, sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker,
vacuum circuit breaker, etc.
Adaptive relaying: Adaptive relaying is defined as the protection system whose
settings can be changed automatically so that it is attuned to the prevailing power
system conditions.
Pilot wire: An auxiliary conductor used in connection with remote measuring
devices or for operating apparatus at a distant point.
Pilot protection: A form of line protection that uses a communication channel as a
means to compare electrical conditions at the terminals of a line.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Introduction 31

Pilot wire protection: Pilot protection in which a metallic circuit is used for the
communicating means between relays at the circuit terminals.

EXERCISES
1. Explain the nature and causes of faults. Discuss the consequences of faults
on a power system.
2. What are the different types of faults? Which type of fault is most
dangerous?
3. Discuss briefly the role of protective relays in a modern power system.
4. What do you understand by a zone of protection? Discuss various zones of
protection for a modern power system.
5. Explain what you understand by primary and back-up protection. What is
the role of back-up protection? What are the various methods of providing
back-up protection?
6. Explain what you understand by pick-up and reset value of the actuating
quantity.
7. Discuss what you understand by selectivity and stability of protective relay.
8. Discuss the essential qualities of a protective relay.
9. How is the relay performance classified? What indication the correct opera-
tion of the relay gives? What do you mean by “correct but unwanted opera-
tion”?
10. What do you understand by incorrect operation of the protective relay? What
are the reasons of incorrect operation?
11. Discuss the classification of protective relays based on their speed of opera-
tion.
12. Differentiate between a digital relay and a numerical relay.
13. What is a numerical relay? Discuss its advantages over conventional relays
of electromechanical and static types. How can an intelligent numerical relay
be developed.
14. What are the various components of a protection system? Briefly describe
their functions with the help of an schematic diagram.
15. Differentiate between a protective system and a protective scheme.
16. What do you understand by adaptive relaying? How can a relay be made
adaptive?
17. Briefly describe the following types of relay.
(i) Monitoring relay (ii) Regulating relay (iii) Auxiliary relay (iv) Synchroniz-
ing relay, and (v) Biased relay.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and

Operating Principles
2
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The proper operation of the power system requires an efficient, reliable and fast-
acting protection scheme, which basically consists of protective relays and switching
devices. A protective relay, acting as a brain behind the whole system, senses the
fault, locates it, and sends a command to appropriate circuit breaker to isolate only
the faulty section, thus keeping the rest of the healthy system functional. It detects
abnormal conditions on a power system by constantly monitoring the electrical quan-
tities of the system, which are different under normal and abnormal (fault) conditions.
The basic electrical quantities which are likely to change during abnormal conditions
are current, voltage, phase angle (direction) and frequency. Protective relays utilize
one or more of these quantities to detect abnormal conditions on a power system.
The basic relay circuit is illustrated in Fig. 2.1. There are two ways in which the
circuit breaker trip coil is energized. In one method, the station battery is used to
supply the current in the trip coil after the relay contacts are closed by the operation
of the relay. In the second method, as soon as the relay operates, the CT secondary
current flows through the trip coil and energizes it. This method does not require a
station battery and it is used for the protection of feeders.

Bus bar

3-f Line
Station battery
VT

CB Trip
coil
CB- Circuit breaker
Contact CT- Current transformer
VT- Voltage transformer
CC- Current coil of the
relay
VC- Voltage coil of the
CT CC VC relay
Relay

Fig. 2.1 Relay connection

Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 33

Protective relays are broadly classified into the following three categories
depending on the technologies they use for their construction and operation.
(i) Electromechanical relays
(ii) Static relays
(iii) Numerical relays
There are various types of protective relays in each category, depending on the
operating principle and application.

2.2 ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts
due to electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input quantities. The
mechanical force results in physical movement of the moving part which closes the
contacts of the relay for its operation. The operation of the contact arrangement is
used for relaying the operated condition to the desired circuit in order to achieve
the required function. Since the mechanical force is generated due to the flow of an
electric current, the term ‘electromechanical relay’ is used.
Most electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic attraction or electro-
magnetic induction principle for their operation. Such relays are called electromag-
netic relays. Depending on the principle of operation, the electromagnetic relays
are of two types, i.e., (i) attracted armature relays, and (ii) induction relays. Some
electromechanical relays also use electrothermic principle for their operation and
are based upon the forces created by expansion of metals caused by temperature rise
due to flow of current. Such relays are called thermal relays. Most of the present day
electromechanical relays are of either induction disc type or induction cup type.
The following are the principal types of electromechanical relays:
1. Electromagnetic relays
(i) Attracted armature relays, and
(ii) Induction relays
2. Thermal relays

2.2.1 Attracted Armature Relays

Attracted armature relays are the simplest type which respond to ac as well as dc.
These relays operate through an armature which is attracted to an electromagnet
or through a plunger which is drawn into a solenoid. All these relays use the same
electromagnetic attraction principle for their operation. The electromagnetic force
exerted on the moving element, i.e., the armature or plunger, is proportional to the
square of the flux in the air gap or the square of the current. In dc relays this force
is constant. In case of ac relays, the total electromagnetic force pulsates at double
the frequency. The motion of the moving element is controlled by an opposing force
generally due to gravity or a spring.
The following are the different types of construction of attracted armature relays.
(i) Hinged armature type
(ii) Plunger type
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

34 Power System Protection and Switchgear

(iii) Balanced beam type

(iv) Moving-coil type
(v) Polarised moving-iron type
(vi) Reed type
Hinged Armature-Type Relays
Figure 2.2(a) shows a hinged armature-type construction. The coil is energised by
an operating quantity proportional to the system current or voltage. The operating
quantity produces a magnetic flux which in turn produces an electromagnetic force.
The electromagnetic force is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap or
the square of the current. The attractive force increases as the armature approaches
the pole of the electromagnet. This type of a relay is used for the protection of small
machines, equipment, etc. It is also used for auxiliary relays, such as indicating flags,
slave relays, alarm relays, annunciators, semaphores, etc.

To trip circuit To trip circuit

Electromagnet

Coil
I C
Armature R Armature

I
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.2 (a) Hinged armature-type relay (b) Modi ied hinged armature-type relay

The actuating quantity of the relay may be either ac or dc. In dc relay, the electro-
magnetic force of attraction is constant. In the case of ac relays, sinusoidal current
flows through the coil and hence the force of attraction is given by
1
F = K I2 = K (Imax sin wt)2 = __ K (I2max – I2max cos 2wt)
2
From the above expression, it is evident that the electromagnetic force consists
of two components. One component is constant and is equal to ½ K I2max. The other
component is time dependent and pulsates at double the frequency of the applied ac
quantity. Its magnitude is ½ K I2max cos 2wt. The total force is a double frequency
pulsating force. This may cause the armature to vibrate at double the frequency.
Consequently, the relay produces a humming sound and becomes noisy. This
difficulty can be overcome by making the pole of the electromagnet of shaded
construction. Alternatively, the electromagnet may be provided with two coils. One
coil is energised with the actuating quantity. The other coil gets its supply through a
phase shifting circuit.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 35

The restraining force is provided by a spring. The reset to pick-up ratio for
attracted armature type relays is 0.5 to 0.9. For this type of a relay, the ratio for
ac relays is higher as compared to dc relays. The VA burden is low, which is
0.08 W at pick-up for the relay with one contact, 0.2 W for the relay with four
contacts. The relay is an instantaneous relay. The operating speed is very high. For a
modern relay, the operation time is about 5 ms. It is faster than the induction disc and
cup type relays. Attracted armature relays are compact, robust and reliable. They are
affected by transients as they are fast and operate on both dc and ac. The fault current
contains a dc component in the beginning for a few cycles. Due to the presence of dc
transient, the relay may operate though the steady state value of the fault current may
be less than its pick-up. A modified construction as shown in Fig. 2.2(b) reduces the
effect of dc transients.
Plunger-Type Relays
Figure 2.3 shows a plunger-type relay.
In this type of a relay, there is a solenoid Solenoid
and an iron plunger which moves in and
Plunger
out of the solenoid to make and break the
contact. The movement of the plunger Contacts
is controlled by a spring. This type of
Spring
construction has however become obsolete
as it draws more current.
Fig. 2.3 Plunger-type relay
Balanced Beam Relays
Figure 2.4 shows a balanced beam relay which is also a kind of attracted armature
type relay. As its name indicates, it consists of a beam carrying two electromagnets
at its ends. One gives operating torque while the other retraining torque. The beam
is supported at the middle and it remains horizontal under normal conditions. When
the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque, an armature fitted at one end of
the beam is pulled and its contacts are closed. Though now obsolete, this type of a
relay was popular in the past for constructing impedance and differential relays. It
has been superseded by rectifier bridge comparators and permanent magnet moving
coil relays. The beam type relay is robust and fast in operation, usually requiring only
1 cycle, but is not accurate as it is affected by dc transients.

Armature Control spring

Contacts

Ir Pivote Io

Io- Operating current

Ir- Restraining current

Fig. 2.4 Balanced beam relay

Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

36 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Moving Coil Relays

Figure 2.5 shows a permanent magnet mov-
ing coil relay. It is also called a polarised dc
Fixed
moving coil relay. It responds to only dc actu- contact
ating quantities. It can be used with ac actuat- Moving
ing quantities in conjunction with rectifiers. contact
Moving coil relays are most sensitivity type
electromagnetic relays. Modern relays have a
sensitivity of 0.1 mW. These relays are cost-
lier than induction cup or moving iron type Permanent Coil
relays. The VA burden of moving coil relays magnet
is very small. These are used as slave relays Fig. 2.5 Rotating moving coil relays
with rectifier bridge comparators.
There are two types of moving coil relays: rotary moving coil and axially moving
coil type. The rotary moving coil type is similar to a moving coil indicating instru-
ment. Figure 2.5 shows a rotary moving coil type construction. The components are: a
permanent magnet, a coil wound on a non-magnetic former, an iron core, a phosphor
bronze spiral spring to provide resetting torque, jewelled bearing, spindle, etc. The
moving coil assembly carries an arm which closes the contact. Damping is provided
by an aluminum former. The operating time is about 2 cycles. A copper former can
be used for heavier damping and slower operation. The operating torque is produced
owing to the interaction between the field of the permanent magnet and that of the
coil. The operating torque is proprtional to the current carried by the coil. The torque
exerted by the spring is proportional to deflection. The relay has an inverse operating
time/current characteristic.
Axially
Figure 2.6 shows an axially moving coil supported coil
type construction. As this type has only one
air gap, it is more sensitive than the rotary
moving coil relay. It is faster than the S N To trip
rotary moving coil relay because of light circuit
parts. An operating time of the order of
30 msec can be obtained. Sensitivities as
low as 0.1 mW can be obtained. Its coils
are wound on a cylindrical former which is
suspended horizontally. The coil has only Fig. 2.6 Axial moving coil relay
axial movement. The relay has an inverse operating time/current characteristic. The
axially moving coil relay is a delicate relay and since the contact gap is small, it has
to be handled carefully.
Polarised Moving Iron Relays
Figure 2.7 shows a typical polarised moving iron relay. There are different types of
constructions of this type (see Ref. 1). The construction shown in the figure is a flux
shifting attracted armature type construction. Polarisation increases the sensitivity
of the relay. A permanent magnet is used for polarisation. The permanent magnet
produces flux in addition to the main flux. It is a dc polarised relay, meant to be
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 37

used with dc only. However, it can be To trip

used with ac with rectifiers. Modern circuit
relays have sensitivities in the range of
0.03 to 1mW, depending on their con-
struction. Using transistor amplifiers,
a relay’s sensitivity can be increased to I
1 mW for pick-up. It is used as a slave N S Spring
relay with rectifier bridge comparators.
As its current carrying coil is stationary, Fig. 2.7 Polarised moving iron relay
it is more robust than the moving coil type dc polarised relay. Its operating time is
2 msec to 15 msec depending upon the type of construction. An ordinary attracted
armature type relay is not sensitive to the polarity of the actuating quantity whereas a
dc polarised relay will only operate when the input is of the correct polarity.
Reed Relays
A reed relay consists of a coil and nickel-iron strips Coil
Seal
(reeds) sealed in a closed glass capsule, as shown
in Fig. 2.8. The coil surrounds the reed contact.
When the coil is energised, a magnetic field is
produced which causes the reeds to come together
and close the contact. Reed relays are very reliable
and are maintenance free. As far as their construc- Reed Contact
tion is concerned, they are electromagnetic relays. opening
But from the service point of view, they serve as
Fig. 2.8 Reed relay
static relays. They are used for control and other
purposes.
They can also be used as a protective relays. They are quite suitable to be used
as slave relays. Their input requirement is 1 W to 3 W and they have speed of 1 or
2 msec. They are completely bounce free and are more suitable for normally-closed
applications. Heavy duty reed relays can close contacts carrying 2 kW at 30 A maxi-
mum current or at a maximum of 300 V dc supply. The voltage withstand capacity
for the insulation between the coil and contacts is about 2 kV. The open contacts can
withstand 500 V to 1 kV.

2.2.2 Induction Relays

Induction relays use electromagnetic induction principle for their operation. Their
principle of operation is same as that of a single-phase induction motor. Hence they
can be used for ac currents only. Two types of construction of these Relays are fairly
standard: one with an induction disc and the other with an induction cup. In both
types of relays, the moving element (disc or cup) is equivalent to the rotor of the
induction motor. There is one contrast from the induction motor, i.e., the iron associ-
ated with the rotor in the relay is stationary. The moving element acts as a carrier of
rotor currents, whereas the magnetic circuit is completed through stationary magnetic
elements. Two sources of alternating magnetic flux in which the moving element
may turn are required for the operation of induction-type relays. In order to produce
an operating torque, the two fluxes must have a phase difference between them.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

38 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Induction Disc Relay

There are two types of construction of induction disc relays, namely the shaded pole
type, as shown in Fig. 2.9; and watt hour meter type, as shown in Fig. 2.10.
Figure 2.9(a) shows a simple theoretical figure, whereas Fig. 2.9(b) shows the
construction which is actually used in practice. The rotating disc is made of alu-
minium. In the shaded pole type construction, a C-shaped electromagnet is used. One
half of each pole of the electromagnet is surrounded by a copper band know as the
shading ring. The shaded portion of the pole produces a flux which is displaced in
space and time with respect to the flux produced by the unshaded portion of the pole.
Thus two alternating fluxes displaced in space and time cut the disc and produce
eddy currents in it. Torques are produced by the interaction of each flux with the eddy
current produced by the other flux. The resultant torque causes the disc to rotate.

Shading
ring
I
Disc
N Brake
S magnet

(a) Simple construction

Disc

I
N S

S N
Plug setting
(PS) Brake
magnet

(b) Construction in practice

Fig. 2.9 Shaded pole type induction disc relay

In wattmetric type of construction, two electromagnets are used: upper and lower
one. Each magnet produces an alternating flux which cuts the disc. To obtain a phase
displacement between two fluxes produced by upper and lower electromagnets, their
coils may be energised by two different sources. If they are energised by the same
source, the resistances and reactances of the two circuits are made different so that
there will be sufficient phase difference between the two fluxes.
Induction disc type construction is robust and reliable. It is used for overcurrent
protection. Disc type units gives an inverse time current characteristic and are slow
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 39

compared to the induction cup and attracted armature type relays. The induction disc
type is used for slow-speed relays. Its operating time is adjustable and is employed
where a time-delay is required. Its reset/pick-up ratio is high, above 95% because its
operation does not involve any change in the air gap. The VA burden depends on its
application, and is generally of the order of 2.5 VA. The torque is proportional to the
square of the actuating current if single actuating quantity is used.

Plug setting (PS)

Relay
coil

Secondary
coil

Disc
N To trip circuit
S

Fig. 2.10 Wattmetric type induction-disc relay

A spring is used to supply the resetting torque. A permanent magnet is employed

to produce eddy current braking to the disc. The magnets should remain stable with
age so that its accuracy will not be affected. Magnets of high coercive force are used
for the purpose. The braking torque is proportional to the speed of the disc. When
the operating current exceeds pick-up value, driving torque is produced and the disc
accelerates to a speed where the braking torque balances the driving torque. The disc
rotates at a speed proportional to the driving torque.
It rotates at a constant speed for a given current. The disc inertia should be as
small as possible, so that it should stop rotating as soon as the fault current disap-
pears when circuit breaker operates at any other location or fault current is for a short
moment (i.e. transient in nature). After the cessation of the fault current, the disc will
travel to some distance due to inertia. This distance should be minimum. It is called
the over-run of the disc. A brake magnet is used to minimise over-run. The over-run
is usually not more than 2 cycles on the interruption of a current which is 20 times
the current setting.
At a current below pick-up value, the disc remains stationary by the tension of
the control spring acting against the normal direction of disc rotation. The disc rests
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

40 Power System Protection and Switchgear

against a backstop. The position of the backstop is adjustable and therefore, the dis-
tance by which the moving contact of the relay travels before it closes contacts, can
be varied. The distance of travel is adjusted for the time setting of the relay.
The rotor (disc) carries an arm which is attached to its spindle. The spindle is
supported by jewelled bearings. The arm bridges the relay contacts. In earlier
constructions, there were two contacts which were bridged when the relay operated.
In modern units however, there is a single contact with a flexible lead-in.
Current Setting
In disc type units, there are a number of tapping provided on coil to select the desired
pick-up value of the current. These tapping are shown in Fig. 2.10. This will be
discussed in the next chapter.
Time Setting
The distance which the disc travels before it closes the relay contact can be adjusted
by adjusting the position of the backstop. If the backstop is advanced in the normal
direction of rotation, the distance of travel is reduced, resulting in a shorter operating
time of the relay. More details on time-setting will be discussed in the next chapter.
Printed Disc Relay
Figure 2.11 shows the construction of a printed disc inverse time relay. Its operating
principle is the same as that of a dynamometer type instrument.

Trip

Torque

Fig. 2.11 Printed disc inverse time relay

There is a permanent magnet to produce a magnetic field. The current from the
CT is fed to the printed disc through a rectifier. When a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, a force is developed, thereby a torque is exerted on it. On
this very principle, torque is produced in a printed disc relay.
Figure 2.12 shows the construction of a printed disc extremely inverse time relay
(I2t = K relay). To obtain I2t = K characteristic, an electromagnet and a printed disc
are used. The electromagnet is energised from the CT through a rectifier.
Printed disc relays give a much more accurate time characteristic. They are also
very efficient. A printed disc relay is 50 to100 times more efficient than the induction
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 41

disc type. The maximum efficiency that an induction disc relay can have is only
about 0.05%, which is extremely poor. Characteristics other than inverse time-
current characteristic can be obtained by including a non-linear network in between
the printed circuit of the disc and the rectified current input.

Trip

N N

S
S

Torqu
e

Fig. 2.12 Printed disc extremely inverse time relay

Induction Cup Relay

Figure 2.13 shows an induction cup relay.
A stationary iron core is placed inside the Rotor
rotating cup to decrease the air gap with-
out increasing inertia. The spindle of the
cup carries an arm which closes contacts.
A spring is employed to provide a reset-
ting torque. When two actuating quantities
are applied, one may produce an operat- Stationary
core
ing torque while the other may produce
restraining torque. Brake magnets are not
used with induction cup type relays. It Fig. 2.13 Induction cup relay
operates on the same principle as that of an induction motor. It employs a 4 or 8-pole
structure.
The rotor is a hollow cylinder (inverted cup). Two pairs of coils, as shown in the
figure, produce a rotating field which induces current in the rotor. A torque is pro-
duced due to the interaction between the rotating flux and the induced current, which
causes rotation. The inertia of the cup is much less than that of a disc. The magnetic
system is more efficient and hence the magnetic leakage in the magnetic circuit is
minimum. This type of a magnetic system also reduces the resistance of the induced
current path in the rotor. Due to the low weight of the rotor and efficient magnetic
system its torque per VA is about three times that of an induction disc type construc-
tion. Thus, its VA burden is greatly reduced. It possesses high sensitivity, high speed
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

42 Power System Protection and Switchgear

and produces a steady non-vibrating torque. Its parasitic torques due to current or
voltage alone are small. Its operating time is to the order of 0.01 second. Thus with
its high torque/inertia ratio, it is quite suitable for higher speeds of operation.
Magnetic saturation can be avoided by proper design and the relay can be made to
have its characteristics linear and accurate over a wide range with very high reset to
pick-up ratio. The pick-up and reset values are close together. Thus this type is best
suited where normal and abnormal conditions are very close together. It is inherently
self compensating for dc transients. In other words, it is less sensitive to dc transients.
The other system transients as well as transients associated with CTs and relay cir-
cuits can also be minimised by proper design. However, the magnitude of the torque
is affected by the variation in the system frequency. Induction cup type relays were
widely used for distance and directional relays. Later, however, they were replaced
by bridge rectifier type static relays.
Theory of Induction Relay Torque
Fluxes f1 and f2 are produced in a disc type construction by shading technique. In
watt-metric type construction, f1 is produced by the upper magnet and f2 by the
lower magnet. A voltage is induced in a coil wound on the lower magnet by trans-
former action. The current flowing in this coil produces flux f2. In case of the cup
type construction, f1 and f2 are produced by pairs of coils, as shown in Fig. 2.13. The
theory given below is true for both disc type and cup type induction relays. Figure
2.14 shows how force is produced in a rotor which is cut by f1 and f2. These fluxes
are alternating quantities and can be expressed as follows.
f1 = f1m sin wt f2 = f2m sin (wt + q)
where q is the phase difference between f1
and f2. The flux f2 leads f1 by q. f2 f1
Voltages induced in the rotor are: i2 i1
df1 i2
e1 μ ___ F2
dt i1 F1
μ f1m cos wt
df2
e2 μ ___
dt Fig. 2.14 Torque produced in an
μ f2m cos (wt + q) induction relay
As the path of eddy currents in the rotor has negligible self-inductance, with negli-
gible error it may be assumed that the induced eddy currents in the rotor are in phase
with their voltages.
i1 μ f1m cos wt
i2 μ f2m cos (wt + q)
The current produced by the flux interacts with other flux and vice versa. The
forces produced are:
F1 μ f1 i2
μ f1m sin wt ◊ f2m cos (wt + q)
μ f1m f2m cos (wt + q) ◊ sin wt
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 43

F2 μ f2 i1
μ f2m sin (wt + q) ◊ f1m cos wt
μ f1m f2m sin (wt + q) ◊ cos wt
As these forces are in opposition, the resultant force is
F = (F2 – F1)
μ f1m f2m [sin (wt + q) cos wt – cos (wt + q) ◊ sin wt]
μ f1m f2m sin q
The suffix m is usually dropped and the expression is written in the form of
F = Kf1 f2 sin q. In this expression, f1 and f2 are rms values.
If the same current produces f1 and f2 the force produced is given by
F = K I2 sin q
where q is the angle between f1 and f2. If two actuating currants M and N produce
f1 and f2, the force produced is
F = KMN sin q

2.2.3 Thermal Relays

These relays utilise the electro-thermal effect of the actuating current for their opera-
tion. They are widely used for the protection of small motors against overloading and
unbalanced currents. The thermal element is a bimetallic strip, usually wound into a
spiral to obtain a greater length, resulting in a greater sensitivity. A bimetallic element
consists of two metal strips of different coefficients of thermal expansion, joined
together. When it heats up one strip expands more than the other. This results in the
bending of the bimetallic strip. The thermal element can be heated directly by passing
the actuating current through the strip, but usually a heater coil is employed. When the
bimetallic element heats up, it bends and deflects, thereby closing the relay contacts.
For the ambient temperature compensation, a dummy bimetallic element shielded
from the heater coil and designed to oppose the bending of the main bimetallic strip
is employed. When the strip is in a spiral form, the unequal expansions of the two
metals causes the unwinding of the spiral, which results in the closure of the contacts.
Fig. 2.15(a) shows a simple arrangement to indicate the operating principle. Figure
2.15(b) shows a spiral form. Unimetallic strips are also used as thermal elements in
a hair-pin like shape, as shown in Fig. 2.15(c). When the strip gets heated it expands
and closes the contacts.
For the protection of 3-phase motors, three bimetallic strips are used. They are
energised by currents from the three phases. Their contacts are arranged in such a
way that if any one of the spirals moves differently from the other, due to an unbal-
ance exceeding 12%, their contacts meet and cause the circuit breakers to trip. These
spirals also protect the motor against overloading.
Thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors are also used in protection.
In the protection of a large generator, such elements are placed in the stator slots.
The element forms an arm of a balancing bridge. In normal condition, the bridge is
balanced. When the temperature exceeds a certain limit, the bridge becomes unbal-
anced. The out-of-balance current energises a relay which trips a circuit breaker. This
will be discussed in detail in the chapter dealing with protection of machines.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

44 Power System Protection and Switchgear

To trip
circuit To trip
circuit
Bimetallic
strip

Heater coil

(a) (b)

To trip
circuit

Heating Unimetallic
element strip
(c)

Fig. 2.15 (a) Bimetallic thermal relay (b) Bimetallic spiral type thermal relay
(c) Unimetallic thermal relay

2.2.4 Auxiliary Relay, Auxiliary Switch and Flag

A protective relay is assisted by auxiliary relays for a number of important opera-
tions. A protective relay performs the task of measurement and under the required
condition, it closes its contacts. It is relieved of other duties such as tripping, time
lag, breaking of trip circuit current, giving alarm, showing flags etc. These duties are
performed by auxiliary relays. Auxiliary relays repeat the operations of protective
relays, control switches, etc. Repeat contact and auxiliary switches are also used to
assist protective relays. The reasons for employing auxiliary relays, repeat contactors
and auxiliary switches are:
(i) Protective relay contacts are delicate and light in weight. They are not capable
of carrying large amount of current for a long period.
(ii) The protective relays do not have enough contacts to perform all duties re-
quired in a protective scheme.
The commonly used auxiliary relays have been described below.
Seal-in Relay
A seal-in relay is an auxiliary relay which is employed to protect the contacts of
a protective relay. Once the protective relay closes its contacts, the seal-in relay is
energized. Its contacts bypass the contacts of the protective relay, close and seal the
circuit while the tripping current flows. It may also give an indication by showing a
flag (target). It is an instantaneous relay, operates on attracted armature principle.
Time-lag Relays
Time-lag relays operate after a preset time-lag. They are used in protection schemes
as a means of time discrimination, for example, time graded schemes which will be
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 45

discussed in Chapter 5. They are also used in control and alarm circuits to allow time
for the required sequence of operations to take place. The principle of producing time
delays will be discussed later (see sec. 2.2.6).
Alarm Relays
An alarm relay gives both an audible and a visual indication. At a substation, it is
sufficient to provide a trip alarm and one non-trip alarm, which is common to the
whole substation. In the control room of a generating station, the trip alarm and non-
trip alarm should be separate for each primary circuit. There is an arrangement for
alarm cancellation by pressing a button. The alarm circuit is interrupted on pushing
this button. When the relay is de-energised, the initiating contact of the cancellation
mechanism is reset so that it can receive another alarm.
Repeat Contactors
A repeat contactor repeats the operation of a protective relay. It is sometimes needed
because a protective relay may not have a sufficient number of contacts. It may also
be required to take over the operation from the initiating relay if the contacts of
the latter are not designed for carrying current for long periods. Its most important
requirements are that it should be fast and absolutely reliable. It should also be robust
and compact. It is usually mounted in the same case as the relay for which it is
required to repeat the operation.
Repeat contactors operate on the attracted armature principle. It may be connected
either in series or in parallel with the relay. It contains a number of contacts which
are placed in parallel. However, having more than three contacts in parallel is usually
not pratical.
Flag or Target
When a relay operates, a flag is indicated to show its operation. When on a relay
panel there are several relays, it is the flag that indicates, the relay that has operated.
This helps the operator to know the cause of the tripping of the circuit breaker. It is
also called the target or indicator. Its coil is connected in series with the trip coil of
the circuit breaker, as shown in Fig. 2.16. The resetting of a flag indicator is usually
manual. There is a button or knob outside the relay case to reset the flag indicator. A
flag indicator may either be electrical or mechanical. In a mechanical flag indicator,
the movement of the armature of the relay pushes a small shutter to expose the flag.
In an electrically operated flag indicator there is a solenoid which is energised when
relay contacts are closed. Electrical flags being more reliable are preferred.
Auxiliary Switch
An auxiliary switch is connected in series with the trip-coil circuit, as shown in
Fig. 2.16. It is mechanically interlocked with the operating mechanism of the circuit
breaker so that the auxiliary switch opens when the circuit breaker opens. The open-
ing of the auxiliary switch prevents unnecessary drainage of the battery.
When the trip-coil of the circuit breaker is energised, it actuates a mechanism of
the circuit breaker, which causes the operating force to come into action to open the
circuit breaker.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

46 Power System Protection and Switchgear

2.2.5 Connections for Seal-in Relay, Auxiliary Switch and

Circuit Breaker Trip-Coil
Figure 2.16(a) shows the connection for a seal-in relay, circuit breaker trip-coil and
auxiliary switch. In order to protect the contacts of the protective relay, a seal-in
relay is employed. Its contacts bypass the contacts of the protective relay and seal the
circuit closed, while the tripping current flows. Some relays employ a simple hold-
ing coil in series with the relay contacts, as shown in Fig. 2.16(b). The holding coil
is wound on a small soft iron core which acts on a small armature on the moving-
contacts assembly to hold the contacts tightly closed, once they have established the
flow of current through the trip coil. The holding coils are used to protect the relay
contacts against damage which may be caused due to the make and break action of
the contacts.
+ +
Seal-in Protective-relay Protective-relay
relay contact contact
contact Flag Flag

Seal-in relay coil Holding coil

Circuit breaker Circuit breaker

trip coil trip coil
Circuit breaker Circuit breaker
auxiliary switch auxiliary switch
– –
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.16 Circuit breaker trip coil circuit (a) With seal-in relay (b) With holding coil

2.2.6 Techniques to Produce Time-delays

Sometimes, a protective relay is required to operate after a preset time delay.
Intentional time delays are necessary for such relays. The intentional time delay may
be caused by inherent design features of the relay or by a delay producing component
of the relay. Sometimes, a starting relay or instantaneous relay is used in conjunction
with a timing relay to perform certain operations after a preset time. A time-lag relay
(timing relay) is an auxiliary relay designed to operate after a preset time-delay.
Mechanical Time-delay
The time delay may be produced by mechanical, electrical or electronic components.
Oil dashpots, pneumatic damping, toothed gears, cams, mercury switches, etc. are
some examples of mechanical devices which are used to produce a time delay. In an
oil dashpot, there is a mechanically operated plunger. Oil flowing through an orifice
in the cylinder retards the relay movement. The pneumatic timer contains a metal
chamber, a diaphragm and solenoid. These mechanical devices are crude devices
and do not produce accurate delays. The mercury switch, however, gives an accurate
delay. The mercury tube has two sections. One section contains mercury and the
other section contains contacts. The tube is tilted so that mercury flows from one
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 47

section to the other and bridges the contacts. The flow of mercury is impeded by a
construction between the two sections of the tube. The time setting is fixed by the
design of the tube. It is not possible to have a range of time settings on a particular
mercury switch. Toothed gears or cams are also used to produce time delay.
Thermal Time-delay
Thermal devices employing expansion of bimetal strip or spiral, unimetal (brass)
strips, etc. are also used to produce time-delay.
Electrical Time-delay
Time delay can be produced by employing a short-circuiting ring around a solenoid
pole; a circuit containing reactance, capacitance or non-linear resistance; a resonant
circuit, etc.
Short-circuiting Ring
A short-circuiting copper band is fitted around the pole piece of an attracted arma-
ture hinged-type relay. This arrangement provides eddy current path for damping. To
obtain a time-delay on pick-up, the band is placed at the armature end of the core. By
this technique, a delay of about 0.1 s can be produced in pick-up with a large arma-
ture gap, and a stiff restraining spring. To obtain a delayed reset, the band is placed at
the frame end of the solenoid. A delay up to 0.5 s in drop out can be obtained with a
short lever arm and a light spring load. Time-delay can also be produced by employ-
ing a copper tube inside the coil.
Capacitance
A capacitor which is connected in parallel with the relay coil is changed through a
resistor, as shown in Fig. 2.17(a). A longer time-delay is obtained by this technique.
A delay of up to 0.5 s can be obtained on pick-up with a capacitor of reasonable size.
For ac applications, a rectifier should be included.
Resonant Circuit
A resonant circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.17(b) can be employed to produce a delay of
up to 3 cycles.

To trip circuit To trip circuit

C
C L
R

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.17 (a) Capacitor charge delay (b) Resonance build-up delay
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

48 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Ballistic Resistance
This technique is based on the principle of To trip circuit
delaying the build-up of operating voltage. This
includes thermistors or filament lamps. Figure
2.17(c) shows a metal filament lamp connected
across the relay coil. A resistance is also placed
in the circuit as shown in the figure. The hot
resistance of the lamp filament is 10 times its
cold resistance. The relay coil is short-circuited
by the lamp, thereby keeping the magnetic
flux to zero for a short time until the filament
a.c. or d.c.
becomes incandescent.
Alternatively, a thermistor or a carbon fila- Fig. 2.17 (c) Lamp filament
ment can be placed in series with the relay coil. heating delay
The thermistor resistance being high at room
temperature limits the coil current. As the current drawn by the relay coil heats the
thermistor, its resistance decreases until the relay current becomes sufficient for
pick-up.
Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor, geared to a reduced speed can be also used on ac to produce
more precise, long time delays.
Electronic Time Delay
Longer time delays are obtained with R-C circuits. R-C circuits are also used with
electromagnetic relays, as shown in Fig. 2.17(a). Longer time delays can be obtained
with R-C circuits when used with electronic relays rather than with electromagnetic
relays. This is due to the face that a smaller current is needed with electronic relays,
which in turn takes longer time to charge the capacitor.
Figure 2.18 shows a time-delay circuit employing a transistor. A constant dc volt-
age is applied to an R-C network to charge the capaci- tor C through resistor R. When
the voltage of capacitor C reaches a suitable VCC
value, the transis- tor starts conducting. A realy
+
is placed in the collector circuit. This relay oper-
ates when the transistor starts conducting. The
time delay depends on the value of the capacitor R
and the magnitude of the charging current. As
Relay
the charging current is small in a transistor cir-
cuit, a delay of several minutes can be obtained C
with a capacitor of only few microfarads. Delays
–
of several hours can be obtained with tantalum
capacitors of a few hundred microfarads. Fig. 2.18 Static time delay circuit

Counter
For obtaining even more accurate time-delays, electronic counters are used. A crystal
oscillator or some suitable electronic circuitry is employed to generate a train of high
frequency pulses. Counters are used as frequency dividers. A number of counters
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 49

may be connected in cascade and different time-lags may be obtained from different
stages of the cascaded counters.
2.2.7 Bearings
The pivot and jewel bearing is commonly used for precision relays. Spring-mounted
jewels are used in modern relays. The design is such that shocks are taken on a shoul-
der and not on a jewel.
For high sensitivity and low friction, a single ball bearing between two cup-shaped
sapphire jewels is used.
Multi-ball bearings provide friction as low as the jewel bearings and have greater
resistance to shock. They are also capable of combining side-thrust and end-thrust in a
single bearing. Miniature bearings less than 1.6 mm in diameter are now available.
Knife-edge bearings, pin bearings or resilient strips are used in hinged armature
relays.
2.2.8 Backstops
When the moving part of the relay is stationary, it rests against a backstop. The mate-
rial of a backstop should be chosen carefully so that it should not be sticky. To avoid
magnetic adherence, the material should be non-metallic. The molecular adherence
can be overcome using a hard surface rounded to a large radius. Smooth backstops
made of agate or nylon are used.

2.2.9 Contacts
The reliability of protective relays depends on their contact performance. The follow-
ing are the requirement of good contacts.
(i) Low contact resistance
(ii) High contact pressure
(iii) Freedom from corrosion
(iv) Bounce free
(v) Self-clearing action
(vi) Freedom from sparking
(vii) Dust proof
Silver is the most commonly used material for relay contacts. It has the lowest
resistance. Copper is not used because of its higher resistance. Silver cadmium oxide
is used where high currents are to be handled. It has low resistance like silver but
does not weld or become sticky. An alloy consisting of 67% gold, 26% silver and 7%
platinum is used for small currents and very light contact pressure. Non-corroding
materials like gold, palladium or rhodium can be used for sensitive relays where the
contact pressure needs to be very low. These materials are not recommended for
protective relays where high contact pressure is required.
The most reliable relay contact are cylindrical contacts at right angles, as they give
the optimum high pressure, bounce-proof contacts, hard smooth contact surfaces and
dust proof relay cases minimise the maintenance of protective relays.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

50 Power System Protection and Switchgear

On silver contacts silver oxide does not form readily. Even when formed, its
thickness does not exceed 10 Å and hence can easily be moved aside by high pres-
sure or wiping action. Humid sulphurous and high temperature atmosphere causes
corrosion. In polluted atmospheres where coal fires are used, silver sulphide is formed
readily, especially in the presence of heat and humidity. It is not breakable like oxides
but it is soft and thus can be squeezed aside by high pressure. A thin petrolatum coat-
ing can reduce corrosion of contacts without increasing their resistance. It is helpful
in polluted atmospheres.
A dust-proof casing is usually used for modern relays. A filter is provided at the
back to trap any dust and to allow the relay to breathe. A relay with such a casing is
quite suitable for a dusty or otherwise dirty atmosphere. In a relay with poor ventila-
tion, particularly in a sealed relay, high resistance polymers may appear on contacts.
This is due to organic emanations from the coil insulation material. All insulating
materials, except teflon give off organic vapour to a certain degree. Phenolic resin
gives off organic vapours more than others. Polyester and epoxide varnishes now
available have good performance and are quite satisfactory for coil insulation. Relay
casings with good ventilation and having dust filters minimise the collection of high
resistance polymers on the contacts. Encapsulated contacts as in the case of reed
relays provide the best solution to the problem. Alternatively, the relay coil can also
be encapsulated.
An electromechanical relay used with comparators is usually of a small rating.
When such relays control auxiliary relays and timing units, they are to be protected
with spark quenching circuits. A series resistor and capacitor connected across the
contacts is a simple spark quenching circuit.

2.3 STATIC RELAYS

In a static relay, the comparison or measurement of electrical quantities is performed
by a static circuit which gives an output signal for the tripping of a circuit breaker.
Most of the present day static relays include a dc polarised relay as a slave relay. The
slave relay is an output device and does not perform the function of comparison or
measurement. It simply closes contacts. It is used because of its low cost. In a fully
static relay, a thyristor is used in place of the electromagnetic slave relay. The elec-
tromechanical relay used as a slave relay provides a number of output contacts at low
cost. Electromagnetic multicontact tripping arrangements are much simpler than an
equivalent group of thyristor circuits.
A static relay (or solid state relay) employs semiconductor diodes, transistors,
zener diodes, thyristors, logic gates, etc. as its components. Now-a-days, integrated
circuits are being used in place of transistors. They are more reliable and compact.
Earlier, induction cup units were widely used for distance and directional relays.
Later these were replaced by rectifier bridge type static relays which employed dc
polarised relays as slave relays. Where overcurrent relays are needed, induction disc
relays are in universal use throughout the world. But ultimately static relays will
supersede all electromagnetic relays, except the attracted armature relays and dc
polarised relays as these relays can control many circuit at low costs.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 51

2.3.1 Merits and Demerits of Static Relays

The advantages of static relays over electromechanical relays are as follows.
(i) Low burden on CTs and VTs. The static relays consume less power and in
most of the cases they draw power from the auxiliary dc supply
(ii) Fast response
(iii) Long life
(iv) High resistance to shock and vibration
(v) Less maintenance due to the absence of moving parts and bearings
(vi) Frequent operations cause no deterioration
(vii) Quick resetting and absence of overshoot
(viii) Compact size
(ix) Greater sensitivity as amplification can be provided easily
(x) Complex relaying characteristics can easily be obtained
(xi) Logic circuits can be used for complex protective schemes
The logic circuit may take decisions to operate under certain conditions and not to
operate under other conditions.
The demerits of static relays are as follows:
(i) Static relays are temperature sensitive. Their characteristics may vary with the
variation of temperature. Temperature compensation can be made by using
thermistors and by using digital techniques for measurements, etc.
(ii) Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients. The semiconductor components
may get damaged due to voltage spikes. Filters and shielding can be used for
their protection against voltage spikes.
(iii) Static relays need an auxiliary power supply. This can however be easily sup-
plied by a battery or a stabilized power supply.

2.3.2 Comparators
When faults occur on a system, the magnitude of voltage and current and phase
angle between voltage and current may change. These quantities during faulty con-
ditions are different from those under healthy conditions. The static relay circuitry
is designed to recognise the changes and to distinguish between healthy and faulty
conditions. Either magnitudes of voltage/current (or corresponding derived quanti-
ties) are compared or phase angle between voltage and current (or corresponding
derived quantities) are measured by the static relay circuitry and a trip signal is sent
to the circuit breaker when a fault occurs. The part of the circuitry which compares
the two actuating quantities either in amplitude or phase is known as the comparator.
There are two types of comparators—amplitude comparator and phase comparator.
Amplitude Comparator
An amplitude comparator compares the magnitudes of two input quantities, irrespec-
tive of the angle between them. One of the input quantities is an operating quantity
and the other a restraining quantity. When the amplitude of the operating quantity
exceeds the amplitude of the restraining quantity, the relay sends a tripping signal.
The actual circuits for comparators will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

52 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Phase Comparator
A phase comparator compares two input quantities in phase angle, irrespective of
their magnitudes and operates if the phase angle between them is £ 90°.

2.3.3 Duality between Amplitude and Phase Comparators

An amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase comparator and vice versa if
the input quantities to the comparator are modified. The modified input quantities
are the sum and difference of the original two input quantities. To understand this
fact, consider the operation of an amplitude comparator which has two input signals
M and N as shown in Fig. 2.19(a). It operates when |M| > |N|. Now change the input
quantities to (M + N) and (M – N) as shown in Fig. 2.19(b). As its circuit is designed
for amplitude comparison, now with the changed input, it will operate when |M + N|
> |M – N|. This condition will be satisfied only when the phase angle between M and
N is less than 90°. This has been illustrated with the phasor diagram shown in Fig.
2.20. It means that the comparator with the modified inputs has now become a phase
comparator for the original input signals M and N.

M (M + N )
Amplitude Output Amplitude Output
Inputs Inputs
comparator comparator
N (M – N )

Operates when |M + N | > |M – N |

Operates when |M | > |N | This condition is satisfied when f < 90°

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.19 (a) Amplitude comparator (b) Amplitude comparator used for
phase comparison

M–N M M+N
M–N M M+N

f
f

–N f > 90° N –N f = 90° N

Comparison: (M + N ) < (M – N ) Comparison: (M + N ) = (M – N )

(a) (b)

M–N M M+N

f
–N f < 90° N

Comparison: (M + N ) > (M – N )

Fig. 2.20 Phasor diagram for amplitude comparator used for phase comparison
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 53

Similarly, consider a phase comparator shown in Fig. 2.21(a). It compares the

phases of input signals M and N. If the phase angle between M and N, i.e. angle f is
less than 90°, the comparator operates. Now change the input, signals to (M + N) and
(M – N), as in Fig. 2.21(b). With these changed inputs the comparator will operate
when phase angle between (M + N) and (M – N), i.e. angle l is less than 90°. This
condition will be satisfied only when |M| > |N|. In other words, the phase comparator
with changed inputs has now become an amplitude comparator for the original input
signals M and N. This has been illustrated with phasor diagrams as shown in Fig.
2.22.

M (M + N )
Phase Output Phase Output
Input Input
comparator comparator
N (M – N )

Operates when l < 90°

Operates when f < 90° This condition is satisfied when |M | > |N |
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.21 (a) Phase comparator (b) Phase comparator used for amplitude comparison

Figure 2.20 shows three phasor diagrams for an amplitude comparator. The phase
angle between the original inputs M and N is f. Now the inputs to the amplitude com-
parator are changed to (M + N) and (M – N) and its behaviour is examined with the
help of three phasor diagrams. The three phasor diagrams are with phase angle f (i)
greater than 90°, (ii) equal to 90° and (iii) less than 90°, respectively. When f is less
than 90°, |M + N| become greater than |M – N| and the relay operates with the modi-
fied inputs. When f is equal to 90° or greater than 90°, the relay does not operate.
The phasor diagrams show that |M + N| becomes greater than |M – N| only when f
is less than 90°. This will be true irrespective of the magnitude of M and N. In other
words, this will be true whether |M| = |N| or |M| > |N| or |M| < |N|. The figures have
been drawn with |M| = |N|. The reader can draw phasor diagrams with |M| < |N| or
|M| > |N|. The results will remain the same. This shows that with changed inputs, the
amplitude comparator is converted to a phase comparator for the original inputs.
Figure 2.22 shows three phasor diagrams for a phase comparator. The original
inputs are M and N. Now the inputs of the phase comparators are changed to (M + N)
and (M – N), and its behavior is examined with the help of three phasor diagrams
drawn for (i) |M| < |N|, (ii) |M| = |N| and (iii) |M| > |N|. The angle between (M + N)
and (M – N) is l. The angle l becomes less than 90° only when |M| > |N|. As the
comparator under consideration is a phase comparator, the relay will trip. But for the
original inputs M and N, the comparator behaves as an amplitude comparator. This
will be true irrespective of the phase angle f between M and N. The figure has been
drawn with f less than 90°. The reader can check it by drawing phasors with f = 90°
or f > 90°. The result will remain the same.

2.3.4 Types of Amplitude Comparators

As the ratio of the instantaneous values of sinusoidal inputs varies during the cycle,
instantaneous comparison of two inputs is not possible unless at least one of the
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

54 Power System Protection and Switchgear

M–N M M+N

M–N M M+N
l l

–N N –N N
M < N M = N

Comparision: l > 90° Comparision: l > 90°

(a) (b)

M–N M M+N

–N N
M>N

Comparison: l < 90°

(c)

Fig. 2.22 Phase comparator used for amplitude comparison

signals is rectified. There are various techniques to achieve instantaneous compari-

son. In some techniques both inputs are rectified, while in some methods, only one of
the inputs is rectified. When only one input signal is rectified, the rectified quantity
is compared with the value of the other input at a particular moment of the cycle.
Besides instantaneous (or direct) comparison, the integrating technique is also used.
The amplitude comparison can be done in a number of different ways. The follow-
ing are some important methods which will be described to illustrate the principle.
(i) Circulating current type rectifier bridge comparators
(ii) Phase splitting type comparators
(iii) Sampling comparators.
Rectifier Bridge Type Amplitude Comparator
The rectifier bridge type comparators are widely used for the realisation of overcur-
rent and distance relay characteristics. The operating and restraining quantities are
rectified and then applied to a slave relay or thyristor circuit. Figure 2.23(a) shown a
rectifier bridge type amplitude comparator. There are two full wave rectifiers, one for
the operating quantity and the other for the restraining quantity. The outputs of these
bridges are applied to a dc polarised relay. When the operating quantity exceeds the
restraining quantity, the relay operates. Figure 2.23(b) shows a rectifier bridge type
amplitude comparator with the thyristor circuit as an output device.
To get more accurate results the bridge rectifier can be replaced by a precision
rectifier employing an operational amplifier. The circuit for the precision rectifier has
been discussed while describing microprocessor based relays.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 55

Sensitive polarised relay

Io

Ir

Aux/ CTs
Isolating

Io Ir

(a) With slave relay

+VCC

C
To thyristor

CT CT

Io Ir

(b) With thyristor circuit

Fig. 2.23 Rectif er bridge type amplitude comparator

Phase Splitting Type Amplitude Comparators

Figure 2.24 shows a phase splitting of inputs before rectification. The input is split into
six components 60° apart, so that output after rectification is smoothed within 5%.
Relay

–120° –120°
– –120° – –120°

M N

Fig. 2.24 Phase splitting type amplitude comparator

Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

56 Power System Protection and Switchgear

As both input signals to the relay are smoothed out before they are compared, a con-
tinuous output signal is obtained. The operating time depends on the time constant of
the slowest arm of the phase-splitting circuit and the speed of the output device.
Sampling Comparators
In sampling comparators, one of the inputs is rectified and it is compared with the
other input at a particular moment. The instantaneous value of the other input is
sampled at a particular desired moment. Such comparators are used to realise
reactance and MHO relay characteristics as discussed in Chapter 6 Section 6.7.1 and
6.7.2.

2.3.5 Types of Phase Comparators

Phase comparison can be made in a number of different ways. Some important tech-
niques are described below.
(i) Vector product phase comparators
(ii) Coincidence type phase comparators.
(i) Vector Product Phase Comparators
In these comparators, the output is proportional to the vector product of the ac input
signals. The Hall effect phase comparator and magneto-resistivity phase comparator
come under this category of phase comparators.
Hall effect phase comparator
Hall effect is utilised to realise this phase comparator. Indium antimonide (InSb) and
indium arsenide (InAs) have been found suitable semiconductors for this purpose.
Of which indium arsenide is considered better. Protective relays based on Hall effect
have been used mainly in the USSR only. These devices have low output, high cost
and they can cause errors due to rising temperatures.
Magneto-resistivity
Some semiconductors exhibit a resistance variation property when subjected to a
magnetic field. Suppose two input signals are V1 and V2. V1 is applied to produce a
magnetic field through a semiconductor disc. V2 sends a current through the disc at a
right angle to the magnetic filed. The current flowing through the disc is proportional
to V1 V2 cos f, where f is the phase angle between the two voltages. Therefore, this
can be used as a phase comparator. This device is considered to be better than the
Hall effect type comparator because it gives a higher output, its construction and
circuitry are simpler and no polarising current is required. This device is also used
only in the USSR.
(ii) Coincidence Circuit Type Phase Comparators
In a coincidence circuit type phase comparator, the period of coincidence of positive
polarity of two input signals is measured and compared with a predetermined angle,
usually 90°. Figure 2.25 shows the period of coincidence represented by an angle y.
If the two input signals have a phase difference of f, the period of coincidence y =
180 – f. If f is less than 90°, y will be greater than 90°. The relay is required to trip
when f is less than 90°, i.e. y > 90°. Thus, the phase comparator circuit is designed
to trip signal when y exceeds 90°.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 57

Various techniques have been developed to measure the period of coincidence.

The following are some important ones which will be described to illustrated the
principle.
(a) Phase-splitting type phase comparator
(b) Integrating type phase comparator
(c) Rectifier bridge type phase comparator
(d) Time-bias type phase comparator.

M N

(a)

Y
f

Trip

(b)

Block

Fig. 2.25 Period of coincidence of sine wave inputs

Phase-splitting Type Phase Comparator

In this technique, both inputs are split into two components shifted ± 45° from the
original wave, as shown in Fig. 2.26(a). All the four components, which are now
available, are fed into an AND gate as shown in Fig. 2.26(b). The tripping occurs
when all the four signals become simultaneously positive at any time during the
cycle. An AND gate is used as a coincidence detector. The coincidence of all the
four signals occurs only when f is less than 90°. The full range of operation is
– 90° < f < 90°
It is a technique of direct comparison.
Integrating Type Phase Comparator
In this technique, the coincidence time is measured for each cycle by integrating the
output of an AND gate (coincidence detector) to which input signals are applied.
Figure 2.25(a) shows two sinusoidal input signals. The hatched area shows the time
of overlap (time of coincidence) of the two inputs. During this period, both inputs
are positive. This period is represented by y. The phase difference between the two
inputs is f. The angle y = 180 – f. If f is less than 90°, y is greater than 90°. If these
two inputs are applied to an AND gate, the output of the gate is a series of square
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

58 Power System Protection and Switchgear

pulses. We get a square wave output during the period of coincidence and no output
for the rest of the period of a cycle,. as shown in Fig. 2.25 (b).

M – 45° M M –– 45°

N – 45°
N
f N – – 45°

(a)

Phase M – 45°
M shifting
circuit M – – 45°

AND Trip

Phase N – 45° Coincidence

N shifting detector
circuit N – – 45°
(b)

Fig. 2.26 Phase-comparator with phase-split inputs

Figure 2.27(a) shows the block diagram of a phase comparator. The sinusoidal
inputs are first converted into square waves and then are applied to an AND gate.
The output of the AND gate is a chain of pulses as shown in Fig. 2.27(b). This is for
f < 90°, i.e. y > 90°. The relay will provide a trip output. The output of the AND gate
is applied to an integrator. The output of the integrator is shown in Fig. 2.27(c). This
output is applied to a level detector which finally gives a TRIP signal. The integrating
circuit may be employed as shown in Fig. 2.28. The level detector may be a thyristor
circuit.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 59

Figure 2.27(d) and (e) show the outputs of the AND gate and the integrator,
respectively. This situation is for y = 90° and is the limiting condition. The relay
may be set to operate at y = 90°.

Sine to
square wave
converter
Inputs Integrator Level
AND
detector Trip
Sine to
square wave Coincidence
converter detector

(a)

(b) V
10 ms
Operate
(c) reset

Output of
coincidence
(d) Detector at
the boundary
10 ms
Operate
reset
(e) Output of
integrator

(f)

10 ms
Operate
Reset
(g)

Fig. 2.27 Integrating type phase comparator

Figure 2.27(f) and (g) show the outputs of the AND gate and the integrator, respec-
tively, for y < 90°. For this condition, the relay does not operate.

+VCC

R C
To thyristor
Input

Fig. 2.28 Integrating circuit

Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

60 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Rectifier Bridge Type Phase Comparator

Rectifier bridge type comparators are widely used for the realisation of distance relay
characteristics. For more accurate results the bridge rectifier can be replaced by a
precision rectifier employing operational amplifiers. Figure 2.29(a) shows a rectifier
bridge phase comparator. There are two signals M and N. To compare the phases of M
and N, the bridge compares the amplitudes of ( M + N) and (M – N). This circuit gives
two tripping signals per cycle. Figure 2.29(b) is the alternative way of drawing the
same circuit. Figure 2.29(c) shows a half-wave phase comparator with the directions
of current to illustrate how phase comparison is made by amplitude comparison. This
circuit gives one tripping signal per cycle. The direction shown is true for a particular
moment during the whole cycle when M > N and both have a positive polarity. At other
moments, the direction may change but every time the amplitudes of (M + N) and
(M – N) are compared. The current flowing in the polarised relay is IR = [|M + N| – |M – N|].
Therefore, the phase of M and N is compared. The output device shown in these
figures is a polarised dc relay. It can be replaced by an integrator circuit and thyristor.

Polarised
M
relay

R R
N

Polarised relay
N
(a) (b)

M N
|M + N |
IR P.R.-polarised
M
relay
|M – N |
P.R.
M N
N

(c)

Fig. 2.29 Recti ier bridge type phase comparator

Time-bias Type Phase Comparator

A time-bias type phase comparator has been shown in Fig. 2.30(a). In this technique,
the inputs are applied to an AND gate which gives a square block output during the
coincidence period of the two sinusoidal inputs. The output from the AND gate is
fed to another AND gate through two different channels: one directly and the other
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 61

through a delay circuit. The delay circuit gives a delayed output. The output is delayed
by an angle d from the staring point of the block as shown in Fig. 2.30(b) and (c). The
delay d is kept 90°. If the block and pulse (output of the delay circuit) still coincide.
the second AND gate will give an output, as shown in Fig. 2.30(b). If the block and
pulse do not coincide, the second AND gate does not give any output as shown in
Fig. 2.30(c). This means that the output of the first gate has to persist for a period d so
that the second gate may operate and send a tripping signal. This technique is more
suitable for multi-input comparators. However, it is subject to false tripping by a false
transient signal whereas phase comparators discussed earlier are not.

M
AND d AND Trip
N
Pulse
(a)

M N M N

y y
f f

d d

(b) (c)

Fig. 2.30 Time bias type phase comparator

2.4 NUMERICAL RELAYS

With the tremendous developments in VLSI and computer hardware technology,
microprocessors that appeared in the seventies have evolved and made remarkable
progress in recent years. Fast and sophisticated microprocessors, microcontrollers,
and digital signal processors (DSPs) are available today at low prices. Their applica-
tion to power system protection have resulted in the availability of compact, faster,
more accurate, flexible and reliable protective relays, as compared to the conven-
tional ones.
Numerical relays which are based on numerical (digital) devices e.g. micropro-
cessors, microcontrollers. DSPs etc. are the latest development in the area of power
system protection. In these relays, the analog current and voltage signals monitored
through primary transducers (CTs and VTs) are conditioned, sampled at specified
instants of time and converted to digital form for numerical manipulation, display
and recording. Thus, numerical relays, having monitored the current and voltage
signals through transducers, acquire the sequential samples of these ac quantities in
numeric (digital) data form through the data acquisition system, and process the data
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

62 Power System Protection and Switchgear

numerically using an algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip
decisions. With the continuous reduction in digital circuit costs and increases in their
functionality, considerable cost-benefit improvement ensues. At present micropro-
cessor/microcontroller-based numerical relays are widely used. There is a growing
trend to develop and use numerical relays for the protection of various components
of the modern complex power system. Numerical relaying has become a viable alter-
native to the traditional relaying systems employing electromechanical and static
relays. Intelligent numerical relays using artificial intelligence techniques such as
artificial neural networks (ANNs) and Fuzzy Logic Systems are presently under
active research and development stage.
The main features of numerical relays are their economy, compactness, flexibility,
reliability, self-monitoring and self-checking capability, adaptive capability, multiple
functions, metering and communication facilities, low burden on transducers (instru-
ment transformers) and improved performance over conventional relays.
The schematic diagram of a typical numerical relay is shown in Fig. 2.31

Signal S/H
I CT Microprocessor
conditioner CKt
system
Analog
Multiplexer ADC

Signal S/H
V VT Microcomputer/
conditioner CKt
Microcontroller

Trip signal

Fig. 2.31 The schematic diagram of a typical numerical relay

The levels of voltage and current signals of the power system are reduced by
voltage and current transformers (VT and CT). The outputs of the CT and VT (trans-
ducers are applied to the signal conditioner which brings real-world signals into digi-
tizer. The signal conditioner electrically isolates the relay from the power system,
reduces the level of the input voltage, converts current to equivalent voltage and
remove high frequency components from the signals using analog filters. The output
of the signal conditioner are applied to the analog interface, which includes sample
and hold (S/H) circuits, analog multiplexer and analog-to-digital (A/D) converters.
These components sample the reduced level signals and convert their analog levels
to equivalent numbers the are stored in memory for processing.
The signal conditioner, and the analog interface (i.e., S/H CKt, analog multiplexer
and A/D converter) constitute the data acquisition system (DAS).
The acquired signals in the form of discrete numbers are processed by a numeri-
cal relaying algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants and make trip decisions. If
there is a fault within the defined protective zone, a trip signal is issued to the circuit
breaker.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Relay Construction and Operating Principles 63

2.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTROMECHANICAL

RELAYS AND NUMERICAL RELAYS
Sr. No. Feature Electromechanical Relay Numerical Relay
1. Size Bigger Compact
2. Characteristics Fixed Selectable
3. Flexibility No flexibility Flexibility due to
programmability.
4. Communication feature Not available Available
5. Blocking feature Not available Available
6. Self-supervision Not available Available
7. Adaptability Not adaptable Adaptable to changing
system condition.
8. Multiple-functions Not possible Possible
9. Accuracy ± 5% or more ± 2%
10. Speed of operation Slow Fast
11. Burden on Transducers Very high Extremely low
(CTs and VTs)
12. Consistancy of Deteriorate No effect on calibration even
calibration with time after use of 20-25 years
13. Setting Through plug Software based settings.
setting in fix steps.
14. Memory feature No memory of any Several memory features
type is available. are available.
15. Maintenance Cumbersome and Maintenance free relays
frequent mainte-
nance required.
16. Output relay programming Not available Available
17. Accessibility of relay Not possible Remote accessibility is
from remote place available
18. Status of service values Not available Available
19. Safety of personnel Not adequate due Adequate safety is provided.
to non-accessibility
at remote location.
20. Spares requirement There is need to Universal designs minimise
stock several items the spares requirement.
as spare.
21. Upward connectivity Not possible Possible
for a present or future
system such as SCADA,
EMS etc.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

64 Power System Protection and Switchgear

EXERCISES
1. Draw a neat sketch of an induction disc relay and discuss its operating
principle.
2. For what type of protective relay will you recommend (i) an induction disc
type (ii) induction cup type construction? What measures are taken to minimise
the overrun of the disc?
3. What are the merits of induction cup construction over the induction disc
construction?
4. Derive an expression for torque produced by an induction relay.
5. Discuss the working principle of a permanent magnet moving coil relay with
a neat sketch. State the area of its applications.
6. Describe the operating principle of a moving iron type dc polarised relay.
Suggest some suitable area of its applications.
7. What are the different types of electromagnetic relays? Discuss their field of
applications.
8. Explain why attracted armature type relays are noisy. What measures are taken
to minimize the noise?
9. Discuss why the ratio of reset to pick up should be high.
10. Discuss the working principle, types and applications of thermal relays.
11. What are the advantages of static relays over electromechanical relays?
12. Explain what are amplitude and phase comparators.
13. Discuss how an amplitude comparator can be converted to a phase comparator,
and vice versa.
14. Discuss the operating principle of a rectifier bridge phase comparator.
15. Discuss the principle of a coincidence circuit for phase comparator.
16. With a neat sketch, describe the principle of a reed relay. Where is it used?
17. What is a numerical relay? What are its advantages over conventional type
relays?
18. Draw the schematic diagram of a numerical relay and briefly describe the
functions of its various components.
19. Compare a numerical relay with an electromechanical relay.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and
Voltage Transformers
3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Current and voltage transformers (CTs and VTs) are collectively known as trans-
ducers or instrument transformers. They are used to transform the power system
currents and voltages to lower magnitudes and to provide isolation between the high-
voltage power system and the relays and other measuring instruments (meters) con-
nected to the secondary windings of the transducers. In order to achieve a degree of
interchangeability among different manufacturers of relays and meters, the ratings
of the secondary windings of the transducers are standardized. The standard current
ratings of the secondary windings of the current transformers (CTs) are 5 or 1
ampere. The secondary windings of the voltage transformers (VTs) are rated at 110
V line to line. The current and voltage ratings of the protective relays and meters are
same as the current and voltage ratings of the secondary windings of the CTs an VTs
respectively. The transducers should be able to provide current and voltage signals to
the relays and meters which are faithful reproductions of the corresponding primary
quantities. Although in most of the cases the modern transducers are expected to
do so, but they can’t be ideal and free from the errors of transformation. Hence the
errors of transformation introduced by the transducers must be taken into account,
so that the performance of the relays can be assessed in the presence of such errors.
As the operating time of modern protective relays has reduced to the order of few
milliseconds, the transient behavior of current transformers and voltage transformers
require more attention.

3.2 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTS)

Current transformers are used to perform two tasks. Firstly, they step down the heavy
power system currents to low values that are suitable for the operation of the relays
and other measuring instruments (meters) connected to their secondary windings.
Secondly, they isolate the relays and meters circuits from the high voltages of the
power system. The standard current ratings of the secondary windings of the CTs
used in practice are 5A or 1A. Since the current ratings of CT secondary windings
are standardized, current ratings for relays and meters are also standardized, so that
a degree of interchangeability among different manufacturers of relays and meters
can be achieved. A conventional CT of electromagnetic type is similar to a power
transformer to some extent since both depend on the same fundamental principle of
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

66 Power System Protection and Switchgear

electromagnetic induction but there are considerable differences in their design and
operation. A power transformer is a shunt-operated device while a CT is a series-
operated device. Current transformers are connected with their primaries in series
with the power system (protected circuit) and, because the primary currents are so
large, the primary winding has very few turns.
The VA rating of current transformers is small as compared with that of a
power transformer. Though the nominal (Continuous) current ratings of the sec-
ondary windings of the CTs are 5A or 1A but they must be designed to toler-
ate higher values for short time of few seconds under abnormal system condi-
tions, e.g., fault conditions. Since the fault currents may be as high as 50 times
full-load current, current transformers are designed to withstand these high cur-
rents for a few seconds. Protective relays require reasonably accurate repro-
duction of the normal and abnormal conditions in the power system for correct
sensing and operation. Hence, the current transformers should be able to provide
current signals to the relays and meters which are faithful reproductions of the
primary currents. The measure of a current transformer performance is its ability to
accurately reproduce the primary current in secondary amperes. Ideally, the current
transformer should faithfully transform the current without any error. But, in prac-
tice, there is always some error. The error is both in magnitude and in phase angle.
These errors are known as ratio error and phase angle error. The exciting current is
the main source of these errors of a CT.
Depending on application, CTs are broadly classified into two categories:
(1) measuring CTs, and (2) protective CTs. CTs used in conjunction with measuring
instruments (meters) are popularly termed as measuring (metering) CTs’ and those
used in conjunction with protective devices are termed as protective CTs.
3.2.1 Difference Between Measuring and Protective CTs
CTs which are used to step down the primary currents to low values suitable for the
operation of measuring instruments (meters) are called measuring or metering CTs.
Secondary of the measuring CTs are connected to the current coils of ammeters,
wattmeters, energy meters, etc. Since the measurements of electrical quantities are
performed under normal conditions and not under fault conditions, the performance
of measuring CTs is of interest during normal loading conditions. Measuring CTs are
required to give high accuracy for all load currents upto 125% of the rated current.
These CTs may have very significant errors during fault conditions, when the cur-
rents may be several times their normal value for a short time. This is not significant
because metering functions are not required during faults. The measuring CTs should
get saturated at about 1.25 times the full-load current so as not to reproduce the fault
current on the secondary side, to avoid damage to the measuring instruments.
CTs used in association with protective devices i.e. relays, trip coils, pilot wires
etc. are called protective CTs. Protective CTs are designed to have small errors dur-
ing fault conditions so that they can correctly reproduce the fault currents for sat-
isfactory operation of the protective relays. The performance of protective relays
during normal conditions, when the relays are not required to operate, may not be as
accurate. When a fault occurs on a power system, the current tends to increase and
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 67

voltage tends to collapse. The fault current is abnormal and may be 20 to 50 times the
full-load current. It may have dc offset in addition to ac component. The fault current
for a CT secondary of 5A rating could be 100 to 250 A. Therefore, the CT secondary
having a continuous current rating of 5A should have short-time current rating of
100 to 250 A, so that the same is not damaged. Since the ac component in the fault
current is of paramount importance for the relays, the protective CT should correctly
reproduce it on the secondary side in spite of the dc offset in the primary winding.
Hence the dc offset should also be considered while designing the protective CT. The
protective CT should not saturate upto 20 to 50 times full-load current.

3.2.2 Core Material of CTs

Figure 3.1 shows the magnetisation Characteristics of (a) cold-rolled grain-oriented
silicon steel (3%), (b) hot-rolled silicon steel (4%) and (c) nickel-iron (77% Ni, 14%
Fe). It is seen that the nickel-iron core has the qualities of highest permeability, low
exciting current, low errors and saturation at a relatively low flux density. Measuring
CTs are required to give a high accuracy for all load currents up to 125% of the rated
current. Nickel-iron gives a good accuracy up to 5 times the rated current and hence,
it is quite a suitable core material for CTs used for meters and instruments. The
excessive currents being fed to instruments and meters are prevented during faults on
power system due to almost absolute saturation at relatively low flux density.
Cold-rolled grain-oriented silicon steel (3%), which has a high permeability, high
saturation level, reasonably small exciting current and low errors is used for the core
of the CTs used for protective relays. Such core material has reasonably good accu-
racy up to 10-15 times the rated current, but when we consider currents that are five
times under the rated current, the core material made from nickel-iron alloy fares
batter.

Cold-rolled silicon steel

1.5
Flux density Bmax (Wb/m )
2

Hot-rolled silicon steel

1.0

High-nickel steel

0.5

0 1 2 3
Exciting Force (At/cm)

Fig. 3.1 Magnetisation characteristics of CT cores

Hot-rolled silicon steel has the lowest permeability. So it is not suitable for CTs.
In order to achieve the desired characteristics, composite cores made of laminations
of two or more materials are also used in CTs.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

68 Power System Protection and Switchgear

3.2.3 CT Burden
The CT burden is defined as the load connected across its secondary, which is usually
expressed in volt amperes (VA). It can also be expressed in terms of impedance at the
rated secondary current at a given power factor, usually 0.7 lagging. From the given
impedance at rated secondary current, the burden in VA can be calculated. Suppose
the burden is 0.5 W at 5 A secondary current. Its volt amperes will be equal to I2R =
52 × 0.5 = 1.25 VA. The total burden on the CT is that of the relays, meters, connect-
ing leads and the burden due to the resistance of the secondary winding of the CT.
The relay burden is defined as the power required to operate the relay. The burden
of relays and meters is given by the manufactures or it can be calculated from the
manufacturer’s specifications as the burden depends on their type and design. The
burden of leads depends on their resistance and the secondary current. Lead resis-
tance is appreciable if long wires run from the switchyard to the relay panels placed
in the control room. Lead burden can also be reduced using low secondary currents.
Usually secondary current of 5 A are used, but current of 2 A or even 1 A can be used
to reduce the lead burden. Suppose, the lead resistance is 5 W. Then lead burden at
5 A will be 52 × 5 = 125 VA. The burden at 1 A is only 12 × 5 = 5 VA. The economy
in CT cost and space requirement demands shorter lead runs and sensitive relays. The
rating of a large CT is 15 VA. For a 5 A secondary current, the corresponding burden
is 0.6 W, and for a 1 A secondary current it is 15 W.
If rated burden be PVA at rated secondary current IS amperes, the ohmic imped-
ance of the burden Zb can be calculated as follows:
P
Zb = __2 ohms (3.1)
Is
If burden power factor is cos f, the values of resistance and reactance of the bur-
den can be calculated as follows:
Rb = Zb cos f (3.2)
_______
Xb = ÷Z2b – R2b (3.3)
The impedance of the relay coil changes with current setting. The values of power
consumption of relays, trip coil etc. are given by their manufacturers. The CT of
suitable burden can be selected after calculating the total burden on the CT.
When the relay is set to operate at current different from the rated secondary cur-
rent of the CT, the effective burden of the relay can be calculated as follows:

()Is 2
Pe = Pr __
Ir
(3.4)

where, Pe = Effective VA burden of the relay on CT

Pr = VA burden of relay at given current setting Ir
Is = Rated secondary current of CT
Ir = Current setting of the relay
The rated VA output of the CT selected should be the higher standard value near-
est to the calculated value. If the VA rating of the CT selected is very much in excess
of the burden, it makes the choice uneconomical and the CT becomes unduly large.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 69

Example 3.1 Calculate the VA output required for a CT of 5 A rated secondary

current when burden consists of relay requiring 7.5 VA at 5 A and connecting
lead resistance of 0.08 ohm. Suggest the choices of the CT.
Solution: The simplified connection diagram is shown in Fig. 3.2.

Connecting
load resistance

0.008 W 5 A Relay
7.5 VA

Fig. 3.2 System for Example 3.1

VA required to compensate connection lead resistance

= I2 R = 52 × 0.08 = 25 × 0.08 = 2.0 VA
VA required by the relay = 7.5 VA
Hence total VA output required for CT
= 7.5 VA + 2.0 VA = 9.5 VA
Hence a CT of rating 10 VA and secondary current 5 A may be selected.

Example 3.2 The rated secondary current of a CT is 5 A. The plug setting of a

relay is 3.75 A. The power consumption of the relay at this plug setting is 4 VA.
Calculate the effective VA burden on the CT.
Solution: Following values are given
Pr = VA burden of the relay at 3.75 A plug setting
= 4 VA
Is = Rated secondary current of CT = 5 A
Ir = Current setting of the relay = 3.75 A
Pe (The effective VA burden on the CT) is to be calculated.

() (
Is 2
Pe = Pr __
Ir
5
= 4 × ____
3.75 ) = 7.11 VA
2

Hence a CT having a rated VA output of 10 VA can be selected.

3.2.4 Technical Terms of CTs
The following are some of the commonly used terms for current transformers (CTs)
(i) Rated primary current The value of the primary current which is marked
on the rating plate of the transformer and on which the performance of the
CT is specified by the manufacturer.
(ii) Rated secondary current The value of the secondary current which is marked
on the rating plate of the transformer and on which the performance of the
CT is specified by the manufacturer.
(iii) Rated transformation ratio The ration of the rated primary current to rated
secondary current. It is also called nominal transformation ratio.
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70 Power System Protection and Switchgear

(iv) Actual transformation ratio The ratio of the actual primary current to the
actual secondary current.
(v) Burden The value of the load connected across the secondary of CT, ex-
pressed in VA or ohms at rated secondary current.
(vi) Rated burden The value of the load to be connected across the secondary of
CT including connecting lead resistance expressed in VA or ohms on which
accuracy requirement is based.
(vii) Rated short-time current The r.m.s value of the a.c. component of the
current which the CT is capable of carrying for the rated time without being
damaged by thermal or dynamic effects.
(viii) Rated short-time factor The ratio of rated short-time current to the rated
current.
(ix) Rated accuracy limit primary current The highest value of primary current
assigned by the CT manufacturer, upto which the limits of composit error are
complied with.
(x) Rated accuracy limit factor The ratio of rated accuracy limit primary current
to the rated primary current.
(xi) Composit error The r.m.s. value of the difference (N is – ip), given by
__________

÷
T
100 1
Composit error = ____ __ Ú (Nis – ip) (3.5)
Ip T 0
Where N = Rated transformation ratio
Ip = r.m.s value of the primary current
ip = Instantaneous values of the primary current
is = Instantaneous values of the secondary current
T = Time period of one cycle in seconds
(xii) Knee-point voltage The sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency (system
frequency) applied to the secondary terminals of CT, with all other winding
being open-circuited, which when increased by 10 per cent, causes the exciting
current to increase by 50 per cent. Minimum knee point voltage is specified
by the following expression.
Vk = KI (RCT + Zs) (3.6)
Where K = A parameter to be specified by the purchaser depending on the
system fault level and the characteristic of the relay intended to be used.
I = Rated relay current (1 A or 5 A)
RCT = Resistance of CT secondary winding corrected to 75° C
Zs = Impedance of the secondary circuit (to be specified by
the purchaser)
(xiii) Rated short-circuit current The r.m.s. value of primary current which the
CT will withstand for a rated time with its secondary winding short-circuited
without suffering harmful effects.
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Current and Voltage Transformers 71

(xiv) Rated primary saturation current The maximum value of primary current
at which the required accuracy is maintained
(xv) Rated saturation factor The ratio of rated primary saturation current to rated
primary current.

3.2.5 Theory of Current Transformers

Conventional electromagnetic current transformers (CTs) are single primary and
single secondary magnetically coupled transformers. Hence, their performance can
be analysed from and equivalent circuit commonly used in the analysis of transform-
ers. The equivalent circuit of CT as viewed from secondary side is shown in Fig. 3.3.
It is convenient to put the exiting shunt circuit on the secondary side and to refer all
quantities to that side, so that I¢p denotes the primary current referred to the secondary
side. The exciting current I0 is deducted from I¢p to excite the core and induce voltage
Es which circulates current Is.

Ip = NI¢p
I p¢ = Ip /N I p¢
1:N
Io
R p¢ X p¢ RS XS
IC Im
RC ES VS Zb
Xm

Ideal CT for
ratio only
Practical CT

Fig. 3.3 Equivalent circuit of CT as viewed from secondary side

An ideal (perfect) transformer shown in Fig. 3.3 is to provide the necessary ratio
change, it has no loss or impedance. All the quantities are referred to the secondary
side. In an ideal CT, the primary ampere-turns (AT) is exactly equal in magnitude
to the secondary AT and is in precise phase opposition to it. But in practical (actual)
CTs errors are introduced both in magnitude and in phase angle. These errors are
known as ratio error and phase angle error. The exciting current I0 is the main source
of these errors. Practical CTs do not reproduce the primary currents exactly in mag-
nitude and phase due to these errors.
The errors of practical CTs can best be considered through the study of the phasor
diagram shown in Fig. 3.4
In the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.3 and phasor diagram of Fig. 3.4,
N = Nominal (rated) transformation ratio or Nominal (rated) CT ratio
Rated primary current Number of secondary turns
= ____________________ = _______________________
Rated secondary current Number of primary turns
Rp, Xp = Primary resistance and leakage reactance respectively.
Rs and Xs = secondary resistance and leakage reactance
R¢p and X¢p = Primary resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the
secondary side
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

72 Power System Protection and Switchgear

90°
Io

Ip NIS
NIS
– Ep
b qS

IC
a Io IC
Im fm

r
d
qS

IS
VS
S
R
IS

ES
IS XS

Fig. 3.4 Phasor diagram of a current transformer

Ip and Is = Primary and secondary currents

Ip
I¢P = __ = Primary current as referred to secondary side
N
Es = Secondary induced voltage
Vs = Secondary terminal voltage
Ep = Primary induced voltage
I0 = CT secondary excitation current
Is = I¢p – I0 = Ip/N – I0
= Secondary current delivered to the burden (load)
Im = Magnetising component of the exciting current I0 required to
produce flux.
Ic = Iron (core) loss component of the exciting current I0 supplying
core losses (eddy current and hysteresis)
fm = Main core flux
d = Phase angle due to secondary winding
g = Phase angle due to burden
qs = Total secondary phase angle (qs = d + g ) phase angle between
secondary current and secondary induced voltage.
a = Loss angle due to core excitation
b = Phase angle between primary and reversed secondary current
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 73

Zb = Load impedance (burden on the CT)

Since the core flux fm is common to both primary and secondary windings, it is
taken as reference phase. The induced voltages Es and Ep lag behind the flux by 90°
and their magnitudes are proportional to the secondary and primary turns respec-
tively. The excitation current I0 is made up of two components Im and Ic. The sec-
ondary current is transferred to the primary side by reversing Is and multiplying by
the turns ratio N. The resultant current flowing in the primary winding 1p is then the
phasor sum of NIs and I0.
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.4,
I2p = (Ic + NIs cos qs)2 + (Im + NIs sin qs)2
= (I0 sin a + NIs cos qs)2 + (I0 cos a + NIs sin qs)2
Hence, Ip = [(I0 sin a + NIs cos qs)2 + (I0 cos a + NIs sin qs)2]1/2
= (I20 sin2 a + 2 I0 sin a ◊ NIs cos qs + N2 I2s cos2 qs + I20 cos2 a
+ 2 I0 cos a ◊ NIs sin qs + N2 I2s sin2 qs)1/2
Neglecting terms containing I20, this becomes
Ip = [N2 I2s (cos2 qs + sin2 qs) + 2NIs I0 (sin a ◊ cos qs + cos a sin qs)]1/2
= [N2 I2s + 2NIs sin (a + qs)]1/2
which, to a very close approximation,
= NIs + I0 sin (a + qs)
Since I0 is small compared with NIs.
Hence Ip = NIs + I0 sin (a + qs) (3.7)
Actual Transformation Ratio
The actual transformation ratio (actual ratio)
Na is given by,
Ip NIs + I0 sin (a + qs)
Na = __ = ________________
Is Is
I0
or Na = N + __ sin (a + qs) (3.8)
Is
Though this expression is only approximate, but it is sufficiently accurate for
almost all purposes. The expression can be further expanded as
I0
Na = N + __ (sin a cos qs + cos a sin qs)
Is
(I0 sin a cos qs + I0 cos a sin qs)
or Na = N + ___________________________
Is
(Ic cos qs + Im sin qs
or Na = N + _________________ (3.9)
Is
Since I0 sin a = Ic and I0 cos a = Im
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

74 Power System Protection and Switchgear

If the angle qs which is usually fairly small, is assumed zero, then the actual ratio
is
Ic
Na = N + __ (3.10)
Is
Phase-angle Error
The angle by which the secondary current phasor, when reversed, differs in phase
from the primary current phasor, is the phase angle error of the current transformer.
From the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.4
I0 sin [90° – (a + qs)]
tan b = _______________________
NIs + I0 cos [90° – (a + qs)]
I0 cos (a + qs)
= ________________
NIs + I0 sin (a + qs)
Since the phase angle error b is very small, in practice tan b = b
Hence, from above expression
I0 cos (a + qs)
b = ________________ (3.11)
NIs + I0 sin (a + qs)
I0 (cos a ◊ cos qs – sin a ◊ sin qs)
or b = ___________________________
NIs + Io sin (a + qs)
Im cos qs – Ic sin qs
________________
NIs
Since I0 sin (a + qs) is small compared with NIs. Hence phase-angle error b is
given by
Im cos qs – Ic sin qs
b = ________________ (3.12)
NIs
If the angle qs, which is usually fairly small is assumed zero, then the phase angle
eror is
Im
b = ___ (3.13)
NIs
3.2.6 CT Errors
In an ideal (perfect) CT, the secondary current is given by
Ip
Is = __
N
But in a practical (actual) CT, it is
Ip
Is = __ – I0 (3.13a)
N
Thus, the actual CT does not reproduce the primary current exactly in secondary
side both in magnitude and phase due to exciting current I0. The exciting current I0 is
the main source of errors in both measuring and Protective CTs. The error in magni-
tude is due to error in CT ratio which is called “ratio error” and the error in phase is
called “phase-angle error.”
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 75

Ratio Error (Current Error)

The actual transformation ratio (Na) is not equal to the rated (nominal) transforma-
tion ratio (N) since the primary current is contributed by the exciting current. The
error introduced due to this difference in CT ratios is termed as ratio error or current
error. The ratio error in percentage is expressed as
Nominal ratio – Actual ratio
Per cent ratio error = _______________________ × 100
Actual ratio
N – N
= ______ × 100
a
Na
N – Ip/Is
or Per cent ratio error = _______ × 100
Ip/Is
NIs – Ip
or Per cent ratio error = _______ × 100 (3.14)
Ip
Where N = Nominal (rated) ratio
Rated primary current
= ____________________
Rated secondary current
Number of secondary turns
= _______________________
Number of primary turns
Ip
Na = Actual ratio = __
Is
Ip = Primary Current
Is = Secondary current
Ip can be calculated by using Equation (3.7) and Na by using Equation (3.9) or
(3.10)
The ratio error is largely dependant upon the value of the iron-loss component Ic
of the exciting current.
The ratio error is considered to be positive when the actual ratio of the CT is less
than the nominal ratio, i.e., when the secondary current, for a given primary current,
is high.
Phase-Angle Error
For a perfect (ideal) current transformer, the phase difference between the primary
and reversed secondary phasors is zero. But for an actual transformer, there is always
a difference in phase between the two phasors due to the fact that primary current has
to supply the components of the exciting current. The phase difference between the
primary current phasor and the reversed secondary current phasor is termed as the
‘phase-angle error’ of the CT. For sinusoidal current, it is said to be positive when the
reversed secondary current phasor leads the primary current phasor. The phase angle
error b can be calculated by using Equation (3.12) or (3.13).
The phase-angle error is largely dependant upon the value of the magnetizing
component Im of the exciting current.
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76 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Ratio Correction Factor

The term ‘ratio correction factor’ is defined as that factor by which nominal (rated)
ratio of a CT is multiplied to obtain the actual (true) ratio. In other words, this factor
can be defined as ratio of the actual ratio (Na) to the nominal ratio (N).
The ratio error in per unit is expressed as
N – Na
e = ______ (3.15)
Na
N
or e = ___ – 1
Na
N
or 1 + e = ___
Na
Na _____
___ 1
or =
N 1+e
Hence,
1
Ratio correction factor (Rcf) = _____ (3.16)
1+e
3.2.7 Accuracy Class of CTs
The accuracy of any CT is determined essentially by how accurately the CT repro-
duces the primary current in the secondary. Accuracy class is assigned to the CT with
the specified limits of ratio error and phase angle error.
The accuracy of a current transformer is expressed in terms of the departure of its
ratio from its true ratio. This is called the ratio error, and is expressed as:

[ ]
NIs – Ip
Per cent error = _______ × 100
Ip
rated primary current
N = Nominal ratio = ___________________
rated secondary current
Is = Secondary current
Ip = Primary current
The ratio error of a CT depends on its exciting current. When the primary cur-
rent increases, the CT tries to produce the corresponding secondary current, and
this needs a greater secondary emf, core flux density and exciting current. A stage
comes when any further increase in primary current is almost wholly absorbed in an
increased exciting current, and thereby the secondary current hardly increases at all.
At this stage, the CT becomes saturated. Thus the ratio error depends on saturation.
An accuracy of about 2% to 3% of the CT is desirable for distance and differential
relays, whereas for many other relays, a higher percentage can be tolerated.
According to standards followed in U.K., protective CTs are classified as S, T and
U type. The errors of these types of CT s are shown in Table 3.1.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 77

Table 3.1 CT Errors

Class Ratio Error I0/Isat Phase Angle Error in Degrees
S ± 3% 3% 2
T ± 10% 10% 6
U ± 15% 15% 9
I0 = Exciting current,
Isat = Saturating current

When the primary current increases, at a certain value the core commences to
saturate and the error increases. The value of the primary current at which the error
reaches a specified limit is known as its accuracy limit primary current or satura-
tion current. The maximum value of the primary current for a given accuracy limit
is specified by the manufacturer. The CT will maintain the accuracy at the specified
maximum primary current at the rated burden. This current is expressed as a multiple
of the rated current. The ratio of accuracy limit primary current and rated primary
current is known as the rated accuracy limit factor or saturation factor, the standard
values of which are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30. The performance of a CT is given at certain
multiples of the rated current. According to BSS 3938, rated primary currents of CTs
are up to 75 kA and secondary currents 5 A or 1 A.
3.2.8 Transient Behaviour of CTS
For fast relaying (within one or two cycles after the fault inception), it is very essen-
tial to know the behaviour of the CT during the first few cycles of a fault, when it
carries the transient component in addition to the steady-state component of the fault
current. For calculation of the fault current, the power system is considered as a
lumped R, L series circuit, and the effect of shunt admittance is neglected.
When a fault occurs on a power system, the fault current is given by
Vpm Vpm
ip = ____ sin (wt + a – fp) + e–(Rp/Lp)t ◊ ____ sin (fp – a) (3.17)
Zp Zp
where, the subscript p indicates the primary side of the CT.
wLp
( )
fp = tan–1 ____ is the phase angle of the primary circuit. The fault is assumed to
Rp
occur at t = 0. The parameter a controls the instant on the voltage wave at which the
fault occurs.
In Eq. 3.17 for the fault current, the first term is the sinusoidal steady-state current
which is called the symmetrical ac component, while the second term is the unidirec-
tional transient component which starts at a maximum and decays exponentially and
is called the dc offset current. The dc offset current causes the total fault current to be
unsymmetrical till the transient decays. The waveform of the fault current is shown
in Fig. 3.5.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

78 Power System Protection and Switchgear

i d. c. Offset current (Transient component)

Total fault current Symmetrical a.c. current

(Steady-state component)

Fig. 3.5 Waveform of the fault current

The dc offset current (the transient current) will have a maximum value when fp
– a = p/2 radians and Eq. (3.17) reduces to
ip = Ipm [– cos wt + e–(Rp/Lp)t] (3.18)
Vpm __________
where Ipm = ____, and Zp = ÷R2p + (wLp)2
Zp
Normally, as the system rated voltage rises above 100 kV, the circuit becomes
highly inductive with negligibly small resistance and the phase angle fp tending to
p/2 rad (or 90°) and a tending to be zero. In the limit where fp = p/2 rad, fault at
zero voltage (for a = 0) gives rise to the maximum fault current asymmetry (current
doubling).
The primary fault current referred to the secondary side is

( )
Np
i¢p = ip ___
Ns

and let ( )
Np
I¢pm = Ipm ___
Ns
where Np and Ns are the number of turns in the primary and secondary, respectively.
In order to estimate the transient flux in the core, the magnetizing current will be
neglected as this is one of the worst cases and Eq. (3.18) will be used, i.e. the case of
maximum transient primary current.
The secondary voltage is
vs = zs is = Ns (df/dt) (3.19)
where, the subscript s indicates the secondary side of the CT and Zs is the CT
burden.
From Eq. (3.19), the maximum core flux is given by

( )
1
fm = ___ Ú vs dt
Ns
(3.20)

Thus, for the steady-state component of is, and integrating over a quarter cycle
p/2w
1
( )
fm = – ___
Ns
Ú
t=0
Zs I¢pm cos wt dt
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 79

( )
Zs I¢pm
= – _____
Nsw
(3.21)

For the transient component of is, and integrating from t = 0 to t = •

1
( )
fm = ___ Zs I¢pm
•
Ú e
( ) dt
Rp
– ___ t
Lp
Ns t=0

( )( )
Zs I¢pm
= _____
Ns w
wL
____p
Rp

( )( )
Zs I¢pm
= _____
Ns w
X
___p
Rp
(3.22)

Therefore, the component of the core flux due to the transient component of the
fault current is Xp/Rp times the component of the core flux due to the steady-state
component of the fault current. Considering the worst case of a fault near a large
power station, Xp/Rp could be as high as 30, corresponding to a primary-circuit time
constant of Lp/RP = 0.1 s, or about 5 cycles.
Assuming that the two fluxes can be added numerically (the worst case), the total
core flux is equal to the steady-state component multiplied by the factor

()
Xp 2p f Lp
1 + ___ = 1 + ______ = 1 + 2pTp
Rp Rp
where Tp is the primary circuit time-constant in cycles. The flux waveforms are
shown in Fig. 3.6

Total flux

Transient component
Flux

Steady-state component

1 2 3 4 5
Cycles

Fig. 3.6 CT core luxes during transient period

The value of Xp/Rp increases with the system voltage because of the increased
spacing of the conductors. The component of the core flux due to transient dc off-
set current increases Xp/Rp times the flux due to the symmetrical (steady-state) ac
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

80 Power System Protection and Switchgear

current. Therefore, it is clear that there is a large transient flux swing in the magnetic
core of the CT. With this large flux-swing during the transient period, the magnetic
core of the CT of conventional design will get saturated causing undesirable effects
on the performance of the protective relays connected to the secondary of the CT.
In current transformers of conventional design, saturation of the cores due to the
transient dc component of the fault current is possible within a few milliseconds,
after which their secondary current is fully distorted, resulting in an inaccurate mea-
surement of the fault current by the relay. In order to prevent an adverse effect upon
the performance of the relays, the current transformer cores must be greatly enlarged
or air-gaps should be provided in the cores.
The choice of the appropriate current transformer design depends upon the protec-
tive system requirement. Where the operation of the protective system is not affected
by the CT core saturation, as in the case of a plain overcurrent relay, the conven-
tional type of CT may be used. But where a saturation-free current transformation
is essential for correct and rapid working of the system protection, the dimension of
the CT core must be greatly increased. The increase of core section in such cases
leads us to unreasonable core sizes with the use of iron-enclosed cores in high-power
systems. Therefore, for such cases, cores having air-gaps, called linear cores have
been developed. By providing such air gaps, the time constant of the CT is reduced
to a great extent since the current main flux density is diminished. Generally, the flux
due to the dc component assumes smaller values, if the CT time constant is reduced.
Therefore, CT cores with air gaps are almost free from the problem of saturation and
consequent distortion of the secondary current.
The linear cores provide an entirely new solution to a wide range of protective
system providing saturation free transformation of transient phenomena with dc off-
set components of great time constants.
3.2.9 Linear Couplers
The CT core may be of iron or non-ferrous material, usually air or plastic. An iron-
cored CT has substantial power output which is adequate for electromagnetic relays.
A CT having non-ferrous material as core has low power output which is suitable for
static relays but is inadequate for electromagnetic relays. An air or plastic-cored CT
has a linear characteristic and is called a linear coupler. Such CTs have no saturation
limit and hence show no transient errors, i.e ratio and phase angle errors which arise
due to saturation. Problems caused by dc transients are also reduced to a great extent.
Such CTs do not have lead resistance problem. A CT with a small air gap in its iron
core has also linear characteristic, and has no transient errors. Such CTs are called
transactors.
3.2.10 Classi ication of CTs
Current transformers can be classified in various ways depending on the technology
used for their construction and operation, their application, their location, etc.
Classification of CTs Based on Technology
CTs can be broadly classified into the following categories, depending on the tech-
nology they use for their construction and operation
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 81

(i) Electromagnetic CTs

(ii) Opto-electronic CTs
(iii) Rogowski Coil
These CTs are described in subsequent sections.
Classification of CTs Based on Application
Depending on application, CTs are broadly classified into following two categories
(i) Measuring or metering CTs
(ii) Protective CTs
These CTs are described in detail in Section 3.2.1.
Classification of CTs Based on Location
Depending on location for application in the field, CTs are broadly classified into
following two categories.
(i) Indoor CTs
(ii) Outdoor CTs
Indoor CTs
CTs designed for mounting inside metal cubicles are known as indoor CTs. Depending
upon the method of insulation, these can be further classified as (a) tape insulated,
and (b) cast resin (epoxy, polyurethene or polycrete).
In terms of constructional aspects, these can be further classified into three types
(a) Bar type CTs (b) slot/window/Ring Type CTs, and (c) wound type CTs.
Outdoor CTs
These CTs are designed for outdoor applications. They use transformer oil or any
other suitable liquid for insulation and cooling.

3.2.11 Electromagnetic CTs

Conventional CTs are of electromagnetic type. Electromagnetic CTs work on the
fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction. These CTs can be classified into
the following two categories:
(i) Bar primary CTs or Toroidal CTs
(ii) Would primary CTs
Bar Primary CTs
Bar primary-type CTs do not contain a primary winding and instead a straight con-
ductor (wire) which is a part of the power system and carries the current acts as the
primary. In this type of CTs, the primary does not necessarily form a part of the CT.
The primary conductor (wire) that carries the current is encircled by a ring type iron
core on which the secondary winding is wound uniformly over the entire periphery
to form a toroid. A small gap is left between start and finish leads of the winding for
insulation. If the winding requires more than one layer of wire, each layer should be
complete. If however, the number of turns of adequate wire gauge would not occupy
a whole layer, the turns may be spaced slightly apart so that the winding can be
uniformly distributed. Since the secondary winding of this type of CT is toroidally
wound, it is also called toroidal CT. Figure 3.7 shows a CT of this type.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

82 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Ring Bar

Relay

C.T.

Fig. 3.7 CT Primary-bar and secondary-ring

This type of construction has a negligible leakage flux of both primary and
secondary and hence, possesses low reactance. As there is only one primary turn, the
primary current should be high enough (about 400 A) to produce sufficient exciting
ampere-turns (AT) to give reasonable output. A bushing CT is a sub-class of the bar
primary type CT. It is placed over an insulator bushing enclosing a straight conduc-
tor. The bushing CT has comparatively more exciting current and a large magnetic
path owing to the large diameter of the bushing.
Wound Primary CTs
Wound primary CTs have the primary and secondary windings arranged concentri-
cally, the secondary winding invariably being the inner winding. The core is com-
posed either of hot-rolled silicon steel stampings or, in recent most technique, of cold
rolled grain-oriented steel or of nickel-iron alloy. Cores are usually assembled from
stampings of E, I, L or C shape depending on whether the core is a simple rectangle
or of the three-limb shell-type. Cores of grain-oriented materials should be arranged
as far as possible with the flux direction along the grain.
The primary windings of wound primary CTs usually take the form of edge-
wound copper strip because this method of winding results in coils best capable of
withstanding the electromagnetic forces produced by high values of the primary cur-
rent. Secondary windings are usually wound from round section enamelled copper
wire.

3.2.12 Opto-Electronic CTs

Opto-electronic CTs use light to measure the magnetic field surrounding a current
carrying conductor and, based on this measurement, electronics associated with the
optics calculate the current flowing in the conductor. Opto-electronic CTs are also
known as ‘optical current sensors’.
Opto-electronic CTs consist of a light source, photo-detector, optics and electron-
ics coupled to a fibre-sensing head wound around a current carrying conductor. The
optical phase modulator is the ‘heart’ of the optical current sensor technology and
it, along with the electronics and optics, provide a highly accurate measurement of
current.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 83

Opto-electronic CTs generate two lin-

early polarized light beams by sending light
through a waveguide to a linear polarizer,
then to a polarization splitter, and finally
to an optical phase modulator. The two lin-
early polarized light beams are then applied
to a polarizing retaining optical fiber that (a) (b)
takes them to the “sensing head”. A circular
polarizer converts one beam to a left circu- Fig. 3.8 (a) Left polarized beam
(b) Right polarized beam
larly polarized beam and the other to a right
circularly polarized beam, as shown in Fig
3.8(a) and (b).
The circular polarized beams travel around the phase conductor many times.
While encircling the conductor, the magnetic field induced by the current flow-
ing in the conductor creates a differential optical phase shift between the two light
beams due to the Faraday effect. As a result of this, one beam is accelerated and the
other beam is decelerated. After having gone around the conductor many times, the
beams are reflected by a mirror. The reflection changes the polarization, and as a
result, the right polarized beam becomes a left polarized beam and the left polarized
beam becomes a right polarized beam. The beams travel back around the conductor
towards the polarizer. The travel on the return path further accelerates the acceler-
ated beam and further decelerates the decelerated beam. The polarizer changes the
circular polarizations to linear polarization.
When there is no current in the conductor, the beams are neither accelerated nor
decelerated. In this case, the returning beams are in phase as shown in Fig. 3.9(a).
When there is a current in the conductor, the acceleration of one beam and decelera-
tion of the other beam manifests in a phase shift between the two beams as shown in
Fig. 3.9(b).
The two light beams are finally routed to the optical detector where the electron-
ics de-modulate them to determine the phase shift. The phase shift between the two
light beams is proportional to current in the conductor. An analog or digital signal
representing the current is provided by the electronics to the end user.
Opto-electronic CTs provide a reliable method of measuring very high fault
currents with significant dc offsets without any type of saturation, as is understood
with conventional electromag-
netic CTs.

3.2.13 Rogowski Coil

A Rogowski Coil, named after
Walter Rogowski, is an ‘air-
cored’ toroidal coil of wire
used for measuring alternating
current (ac) or high frequency
(a) (b)
current pulses. It is the mod-
ern current sensor. It consists Fig. 3.9 (a) Beams in phase (b) Acceration of one
of a helical coil of wire with beam and deceleration of the other beam
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

84 Power System Protection and Switchgear

the lead from one end returning through the centre of

the coil to the other end, so that both terminals are at
the same end of the coil, as shown in Fig. 3.10. It is
wrapped around the straight conductor whose current Current

is to be measured. Such an arrangement is shown in

Fig. 3.11. The voltage induced in the Rogowski coil is
proportional to the rate of change (derivative) of cur-
rent in the straight conductor. In order to get an output
voltage proportional to the current, the output of the
Rogowski coil is usually connected to an integra-
tor which may be either active or passive. An active
integrator using operational amplifier as shown in Fig. Voltage
3.12 is a common solution. Such a simple idea of sens-
Fig. 3.10 Rogowski coil
ing ac current could not be put into common practice
earlier as the electronic integrator design was not so
advanced.

Vin R
Conductor –
Vout
+
Vcoil

Rogowski coil
Fig 3.12 An active integrator using
Fig. 3.11 Rogowski coil wrapped around op-amp
the straight conductor

One advantage of a Rogowski coil over other types of current transformers is

that it can be made open-ended and flexible, so that it can be wrapped around a live
conductor without disturbing it. Since a Rogowski coil has an air core rather than an
iron core, it has a low inductance and does not saturate. Being of low inductance it
can respond to very fast changing currents. Since it has no iron core to saturate, it
responds linearly to extremely large currents. A conventional current transformer can
have its core saturated at very high currents, and the inductance limits its frequency
response. Since Rogowski coils are very accurate and do not saturate, protection
levels can be set to lower thresholds, increasing the sensitivity of the scheme with-
out affecting reliability of operation. This reduces the stress on protected equipment
during faults. The system is immune to external magnetic fields, is simple and user
friendly, requires less wiring and space, and can provide metering class accuracy. A
correctly formed Rogowski coil, with equally spaced windings, is largely immune
to electromagnetic interference. Hence it is important to ensure that the winding of
the Rogowski coil is as uniform as possible. A non-uniform winding makes the coil
susceptible to external electromagnetic interference due to adjacent conductors or
other sources of magnetic frields.
Theory of Rogowski coil is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
which states that the total voltage induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the
rate of change of total magnetic flux linking the circuit.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 85

Each turn of the Rogowski coil produces a voltage proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux through the turn. Assuming a uniform magnetic flux
density throughout the turn, the rate of change of magnetic flux is equal to the rate
of change of magnetic flux density (B) times the cross-sectional area (A) of the turn
(one of the smallest loops).
The voltage induced in one turn of the Rogowski coil is given by
df dB
vturn = ___ = A ___ (3.23)
dt dt
For a coil with N turns, the voltage induced in the coil is
dB
vcoil = NA ___ (3.24)
dt
The flux density B at radial distance r due to a long straight conductor carrying
current i is
m0i
B = ____ (3.25)
2pr
Where r is the perpendicular radial distance from the conductor to the point at
which the magnetic flux (field) density is calculated. The direction of the magnetic
field being perpendicular to the current i and the radius r, and determined by using
the right hand rule.
By substituting the value of B from Eq. (3.25) in Eq. (3.24), the voltage of the
whole coil is given by
NA m0 di
vcoil = ______ __ (3.26)
2pr dt
where N = Number of turns on the coil
A = Cross-sectional area of the turn (one of the smallest loops) in m2
m0 = 4p × 10–7 H/m is the permeability of the free space
r = Radius of the coil in m
di
__ = Rate of change of the current
dt
Equation (3.26) can also be written in the following form
di
vcoil = m0 nA __ (3.27)
dt
N N
where n = ____ = __ is the turns per unit length of the winding (coil) in turns/m as
2pr l
l = 2pr is the length of the winding (circular coil)
In order to get an output voltage proportional to the current, the output voltage of
the Rogowski coil must be integrated.
An active integrator, using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 3.12.
The output of the integrator is given by
1
vout = ___ Ú vin dt (3.28)
Rc
where vin = vcoil
After integrating the signal of Eq. (3.27) the total output voltage is
m0 nA
vout = _____ i (3.29)
Rc
The r.m.s value of the output voltage (vout) is given by
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

86 Power System Protection and Switchgear

m0 nA
Vout = _____ I (3.30)
Rc
Traditional Rogowski coils consist of wire wound on a nonmagnetic core. Strict
design criteria must be followed to obtain a coil immune from nearby conductors
and independent of conductor location inside the coil loop. In order to achieve the
design criteria to prevent the influence of nearby conductors, the coil is designed
with two-wire loops connected in electrically opposite directions. Such design of the
coil cancels the electromagnetic fields coming from outside the coil loop. A recent
design of the Rogowski coil consists of two wound coils implemented on a pair of
printed circuit boards located next to each other as shown in Fig. 3.13(a) and (b).
The Rogowski coil output voltage is in the range of millivolt to several volts and
can reliably drive digital devices designed to accept low power signals. Integration
of the signals can be performed in the relay by using analog circuitry or digital signal
processing techniques or immediately at the coil. Connections to relays can be by
wires or through fibreoptic cables.

PCB 1 PCB 2

i
i

V
v

(a) (b)

Fig. 3.13 Recent design of Rogowski coil: (a) Front view (b) Side view

The Rogowski coil current sensor has the following characteristics.

(i) Measurement accuracy reaching 0.1%
(ii) Wide measurement range (the same coil can measure currents from 1A to
over 100 KA)
(iii) Frequency response linear up to 1 MHz
(iv) Short-circuit withstand is unlimited with the window-type design
(v) Galvanic isolation from the primary conductors (similar to current
transformers)
(vi) Can be encapsulated and located around bushings or cables avoiding the need
for high insulation
(vii) Can be custom sized for applications
(viii) Can be built as split core style for installation in existing systems
3.2.14 Auxiliary CTs
In many relaying applications, auxiliary CTs are used to provide isolation between
the main CT secondary and some other circuit. They are also used for providing
an adjustment to the overall current transformation ratio. CTs have standard ratios.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 87

When in any application other than a standard ratio is required, an auxiliary CT is

used to provide a convenient method of achieving the desired ratio. The auxiliary
CT, however contributes to the overall errors of transformation. The possibility of
auxiliary CT’s saturation should be taken into account. In order to provide a variable
turns ratio, auxiliary CTs with multiple taps are also available. The burden connected
into the auxiliary CT secondary is reflected into the main CT secondary, according
to the normal rules of transformation.
3.2.15 Flux-summing CT
Zero sequence current in a three-phase system can be obtained by using a single
CT, if three phase conductors are passed through the window of a toroidal CT
as shown in Fig. 3.14. In this case, the sec-
ondary current of the CT is proportional to Ia
(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 3I0. The CT secondary contains the a
true zero-sequence current, because this arrange- b Ib
ment effectively sums the flux produced by the Ic
three phase currents. Such a CT application is c
possible, if the three phase conductors may be
passed through the CT core in close proximity
to each other. Hence, such application of CT is
Zb
possible only in low voltage circuits.
Fig. 3.14 Flux summing CT
3.2.16 High-Voltage CTs
High-voltage CTs of separately mounted post-type are suitable for outdoor service.
They are installed in the outdoor switch yard. There are three basic forms of construc-
tion of these CTs as shown in Fig. 3.15(a), (b) and (c). In Type A, the cores and second-
ary windings are contained in an earthed tank at the base of a porcelain insulator and
the leads of the fully insulated primary winding are taken up to the top helmet through
the porcelain insulator. In Type B, the cores and windings are mounted midway inside
the porcelain housing usually with half the major insulation on the primary winding
and the other half on the secondary winding and cores. This form of construction is

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.15 (a) Type A CT (b) Type B CT (c) Type C CT

Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

88 Power System Protection and Switchgear

limited in the volume of cores and windings which can be accomodated without the
diameter of the porcelain insulator becoming uneconomically large, but for two or
three cores and secondary windings of modest output it offers a compact arrangement.
In Type C, the cores and secondary windings are housed in the helmet or live-
tank and the earthed secondary leads brought down the insulator. This form of con-
struction is particularly suitable for use when high primary currents are involved as
it permits the use of a short bar primary conductor with consequent easing of the
electrodynamics and flux leakage problems. The major insulation may be wholly on
the secondary windings and cores or partially on the primary conductor, while the
secondary leads require insulating to withstand the system voltage where they pass
through the bases of the live-tank and down the porcelain bushing.
The major insulation used in such CTs is usually oil-impregnated paper. An alter-
native method of insulating for high voltages employs sulphur-hexafluoride (SF6) gas,
usually at a pressure in the region of two to three times the atmospheric pressure.
3.2.17 Open-circuiting of the Secondary Circuit of a CT
If a current transformer has its secondary circuit opened when current is flowing
in its primary circuit, there is no secondary mmf (ampere-turns) to oppose that due
to the primary current and all the primary mmf acts on the core as a magnetizing
quantity. The unopposed primary mmf produces a very high flux density in the core.
This high-flux density results in a greatly increased induced voltage in the secondary
winding. With rated primary current flowing this induced voltage may be few hun-
dred volts for a small CT but may be many kilovolts for a large high ratio protective
CT. With system fault current flowing, the voltage would be raised in nearly direct
proportion to the current value.
Such high voltages are dangerous not only to the insulation of the CT and con-
nected apparatus but more important, to the life of the operator. Hence, the secondary
circuit of a CT should never be opened while current is flowing in its primary circuit.
If the secondary circuit has to be disconnected while primary current is flowing, it
is essential first to short-circuit the secondary terminals of the CT. The conductor
used for this purpose must be securely connected and of adequate rating to carry the
secondary current, including what would flow if a fault occurs in the primary system.
Most of the current transformers have a short circuit link or a switch at secondary
terminals for short-circuiting purpose.
3.2.18 Modern Trends in CT Design
High-voltage CTs are the oil-filled type. At a system voltage of 400 KV and above
there is a severe insulation problem. CTs for this range of system voltage become
extremely expensive. Their performance is also limited due to the large dimensional
separation of the secondary winding from the primary winding. These problems are
overcome using SF6(gas) and clophen (liquid) as insulation, thus reducing the size
and cost of CTs.
A new trend is to use opto-electronic CTs and Rogowski coil current sensors to
tackle this problem occuring in Extra High Voltage (EHV) and Ultra High Voltage
(UHV) systems. A Rogowski coil and a linear coupler encircle the EHV conductor.
A signal proportional to the secondary current is generated and transmitted via the
communication channel. Light beem, laser beam and radio frequency are being used
to transmit this signal.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 89

It is seen that the secondary voltage supply seldom creates any problem but prob-
lems with secondary current supply arise frequently.
3.3 VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VTS)
Voltage transformers (VTs) were previously known as potential transformers (PTs).
They are used to reduce the power system voltages to standard lower values and to
physically isolate the relays and other instruments (meters) from the high voltages
of the power system. The voltage ratings of the secondary windings of the VTs have
been standardized, so that a degree of interchangeability among relays and meters of
different manufacturers can be achieved. The standard voltage rating of __ the second-
ary windings of the VTs used is practice is 110 V line to line or 110/÷3 volts line to
neutral. Therefore, the voltage ratings of the voltage (pressure) coils of protective
__
relays and measuring instrument (meters) are also 110 V line to line or 110/÷3 V line
to neutral. The voltage transformers should be able to provide voltage signals to the
relays and meters which are faithful reproductions of the primary voltages.
The accuracy of voltage transformers is expressed in terms of the departure of its
ratio from its true ration.
3.3.1 Theory of Voltage Transformers
Theory of voltage transformers (VTs) is essentially the same as that of the ordinary
power transformer. An ideal (perfect) VT is that in which when rated burden is con-
nected across its secondary, the ratio of voltage applied across the primary to the sec-
ondary terminal voltage is equal to the ratio of primary turns to secondary turns and
furthermore the two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposition to each other.
But in practical (actual) VTs, the above relation doesn’t hold good and errors are
introduced both in ratio and in phase angle. This can best be explained by the equiva-
lent circuit and phasor diagram for a VT shown in Fig. 3.16 and 3.17 respectively.
Ip Ip
Io
Rp X p IC Im R ¢S X ¢S
IC
Vp RC Xm Ep V ¢S Z b¢

Fig. 3.16 Equivalent circuit of VT as viewed from primary side

The equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.16 is as viewed from primary side and all
quantities are referred to that side.
The symbols used in the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram are as follows.
K = Nominal (rated) transformation ratio or Nominal (rated) voltage ratio
Rated primary voltage Number of primary turns
= ____________________ = _______________________
Rated secondary voltage Number of secondary turns
vp = Primary terminal voltage
Ep = Primary induced voltage
vs = Secondary terminal voltage
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

90 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Es = Secondary induced voltage Ip X

p
Ip = Primary current
Rp
Is = Secondary current Ip
Rp, Xp = Primary resistance and leakage Ep
Xs

¢
Vp Is

¢
reactance respectively
s
Rs, Xs = Secondary resistance, and leak- R

¢
Is

¢
age reactance. V ¢s = KVs

Io = VT primary excitation current

b I ¢s Ip
Im = Magnetizing component of the
q
exiting current I0 required to
Io Ic
produce flux Im
fm
Ic = Iron (core) loss component of f
the exciting current I0 supplying Is R s V s
Is
core losses.

Is
V¢s = Secondary terminal voltage

Xs
Es
referred to the primary side =
kVs Fig. 3.17 Phasor diagram of a voltage
I¢s = Secondary current referred to transformer
primary side = Is/K
R¢s = Secondary resistance referred to primary side = K2 Rs
X¢s = Secondary leakage reactance referred to primary side = K2 Xs
Z¢b = Secondary burden referred to primary
= K2 Zb, f = Phase angle of the burden
b = Phase angle error
= Angle between Vp and reversed secondary voltage, V¢s
q = Angle between V¢s and Ip
fm = Core flux
The secondary terminal voltage is generated from induced voltage in secondary Es
after pahsor subtraction of voltage drops due to secondary winding’s resistance and
reactance. Secondary current Is lags Vs by the phase angle of burden. The primary
resistive and reactive drops (Ip Rp and Ip Xp) are supplied by applied voltage Vp and
are subtracted from Vp to derive primary induced voltage Ep. Ep is in opposition to
Es. The angle between Vp and reversed secondary voltage V¢s is termed as the phase
angle of transformer denoted by b.
3.3.2 VT Errors
The errors introduced by the use of voltage transformers are, in general, less serious
than those introduced by current transformers. It is seen from the phasor diagram
that, like current transformers, voltage transformers introduce an error, both in mag-
nitude and in phase, in the measured value of the voltage.
The voltage applied to the primary circuit of the VT cannot be obtained correctly
simply by multiplying the voltage across the secondary by the turns ratio K of the
transformer.
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 91

The divergence of the actual (true) ratio Vp/Vs from nominal (rated) ratio K depends
upon the resistance and reactance of the transformer windings as well as upon the
value of the exciting current of the transformer.
Ratio Error (Voltage Error)
The ratio error for VTs is defined as the error due to a difference in the actual trans-
formation ratio and the nominal (rated) transformation ratio.
In percentage, it is expressed as
Norminal ratio – Actual ratio
Percent ratio error = ________________________ × 100
Actual ratio
K – Ka K – Vp/Vs
= ______ × 100 = ________ × 100
Ka Vp/Vs
KVs – Vp
or Percent ratio error = ________ × 100 (3.31)
Vp
Number of primary turns
where K = Nominal voltage ratio = _______________________
Number of secondary turns
Vp
Ka = ___ = Actual transformation ratio
Vs
Vs = Secondary voltage, and
Vp = Primary voltage
Phase Angle Error
The phase difference between the primary voltage and the reversed secondary pha-
sors is the phase angle error of the VT. In order to keep the overall error within the
specified limits of accuracy, the winding must be designed to have:
(i) the internal resistance and reactance to an appropriate magnitude, and
(ii) mininum magnetizing and loss components of the exciting current required
by the core.
Limits of VT Errors for Protection
The accuracy of VTs used for meters and instruments is only important at normal
system voltages, where as VTs used for protection require errors to be limited over
a wide range of voltages under fault conditions. This may be about 5% to 150% of
nominal voltage. The ratio error and phase angle error for VTs required for protection
according to ISS : 3156 (Part III) 1966 are given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Limits of Voltages and Phase Angle Errors for VTs
0.05 to 0.9 times rated primary voltage
0.25 to 1.0 times rated output at unity p.f.
Class Ratio Error Phase Angle Error (in Degrees)
3.0 ± 3% 2
5.0 ± 5% 5

3.3.3 Type of VTs

Following are three types of voltage transformers.
(i) Electromagnetic type VTs
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

92 Power System Protection and Switchgear

(ii) Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CCVTs)

(iii) Opto-electronic VTs
Electromagnetic Type VTs
This type of a VTs is conveniently used up to 132 kV. It is similar to a conventional
wound type transformer with additional features to minimise errors. As its output is
low, it differs from power transformers in physical size and cooling techniques. In
the UK, a 3-phase construction with 5 limbs is used. While in the USA single phase
construction is more common. The voltage rating of a VT governs its construction.
For lower voltages, up to 3.3 kV, dry type transformers with varnish impregnated
and taped windings are quite satisfactory. For higher voltages, oil immersed VTs are
used. Recently VTs with windings impregnated and encapsulated in synthetic resins
have been developed for higher voltages. This technique has made it possible to use
dry type VTs for system voltages up to 66 kV. For voltages above 132 kV, if electro-
magnetic type VTs to be used, several VTs are connected in cascade. In cascade con-
nection, the primary windings of CTs are connected in series, though each primary is
on a separate core. Coupling coils are provided alongwith each primary to keep the
effective leakage inductance to a low value. They also distribute the voltage equally.
Such an arrangement is conveniently placed in a porcelain enclosure.
Electromagnetic type VTs are used at all power system voltages and are usually
connected to the bus. However coupling capacitor voltage transformers (CCVTs) are
more economical at higher system voltages.
As the voltage decreases, the accuracy of electromagnetic type VTs decreases but
is acceptable down to 1% of normal voltage.
Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CCVTs)
At higher voltages, electromagnetic type VTs become very expensive and hence it
is a common practice to use a capacitance voltage divider as shown in Fig. 3.18. V2
may be only about 10% or less of the system voltage. This arrangement is called a
coupling capacitor voltage transformer (CCVT) or a capacitor type VT and is used at
132 KV and above. CCVT is one of the most common voltage sources for relaying at
higher voltages. The reactor L is included to tune the capacitor VT to reduce the ratio
and phase angle errors with the variation of VA burden, frequency, etc.
The reactor is adjusted to such a value that at system frequency it resonates with
the capacitors. Capacitor VTs are more economical than electromagnetic type in this
range of system voltage, particularly where high voltage capacitors are used for car-
rier-current coupling. The transient performance of a capacitor type VT is inferior to
that of an electromagnetic type. A capacitor type VT has the tendency of introducing
harmonics in the secondary voltage. High
voltage capacitors are enclosed in a porce-
C1
lain housing. The performance of the volt-
Line voltage

age divider type capacitor VT is not as good L VT

as that of the electromagnetic type.
The performance of high speed distance V2 Vs
C2
relays is less reliable with capacitor type
VTs. Hence, the decision regarding the
choice of a VT will depend whether econ-
omy in VT cost or relay performance is more
important for a particular power line. Errors Fig. 3.18 Capacitance voltage divider
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 93

of capacitor type VTs can be reduced by reducing its burden. It is due to the fact that
the series connected capacitors perform the function of a potential divider if the cur-
rent drawn by the burden is negligible compared to the current flowing through the
capacitors connected in series.
An electronic amplifier having high input impedance and VA output high enough
to supply the VA burden can be included in the capacitor type VT arrangement. Such
an arrangement gives a good transient response.
Finally, it can be concluded that the secondary voltage supply seldom creates any
problem but problems with secondary current supply arise frequently.
Opto-Electronic VTs
The operation of an opto-electronic VT is based on the fact that the voltage differ-
ence between the conductor and the ground manifests in an electric field between the
two electrodes. The opto-electronics send a circular polarized light beam that travels
through an optical fiber up the column. The light beam passes through three strategi-
cally placed Pockels cells on the return path. The circular polarization changes to
elliptical polarization as the light passes through a cell. The elliptical polarized lights
from each cell are sent back to the opto-electronics at the ground level. The weighted
measurements of the change of polarization in the three cells is used to determine the
voltage difference between the conductor and the ground.

3.4 SUMMATION TRANSFORMER

On many occasions the need to derive a single-phase quantity from three-phase
quantities may arise. A summation transformer and sequence filters, etc. are used
for the purpose. Figure 3.19(a) shows a schematic diagram of a summation trans-
former where the primary windings are connected to the output terminals of the
line CTs Fig. 3.19(b) and (c) show corresponding phase diagrams. The number of
turns between R and Y phases is equal to those between Y and B. But more turns are
provided between B and neutral. Table 3.3 shows the output current in terms of the
CT rated current for a given fault current in each type of fault.
The output of a summation CT is given by
Ioutput = (N + 2) IR + (N + 1) IY + NIB (3.32)
This can be converted to their symmetrical components. Taking R phase as refer-
ence we get,
Ioutput = (N + 2) (I1 + I2 + I0) + (N + 1) (a2 I1 + aI2 + I0) + N (aI1 + a2I2 + I0)
IB
IR N+2
30°
IY 1 3
1 Output IR
1

IB N
N+
N

IY
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.19 (a) Summation transformer (b) Phasor diagram of 3-phase input current
(c) Phasor diagram of summated output for 3-phase balanced input current
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

94 Power System Protection and Switchgear

= 3I0 (N + 1) + I1 (2 + a2 + a2N + aN + N) + I2 (2 + a + a2N + aN + N)

= 3I0 (N + 1) + I1 (2 + a2) + I2 (2 + a)
= K0I0 + K1I1 + K2I2 (3.33)
Table 3.3 Output of Summation Transformer
Type of Fault R-G Y-G B-G R-Y Y-B B-R R-Y-B
Summation CT turns N+2 N+1 N 1 1 2 3
Output current 14% 16.5% 20% 90% 90% 45% 52%

Using the derived equation, Ioutput can be calculated for different types of faults.
Table 3.4 shows the constants K1, K2 and K0 for various types of faults for a summa-
tion transformer.

Table 3.4 Constants for different types of faults for summation transformer
Type of Fault K0 K1 K2
R-G, Y-B, Y-B-G 3(N + 1) 2 + a2 2+a
Y-G, B-R, B-R-G 3(N + 1) a(2 + a2) a2(2 + a)
B-G, R-Y, R-Y-G 3(N + 1) a2(2 + a2) a(2 + a)

Under certain fault conditions, Ioutput of a summation transformer is negligibly

small or is zero. This is the serious drawback of a summation transformer. To over-
come this difficulty, a special kind of sequence filter which gives an output of the
form 5I2 – I1, is used now-a-days.

3.5 PHASE-SEQUENCE CURRENT-SEGREGATING

NETWORK
A general type of phase-sequence filter network can be developed as shown in
Fig. 3.20(a). The output of the network or any other kind of summation device can be
written in the form given below.
R
Y
B
Ioutput
+ve Phase +ve Sequence I1
sequence filter K1I1 network

To CTs
R
–ve Phase Y Mixing
sequence filter K2I2 network K1I1 + K2I2
B
N

Zero phase – ve Sequence

sequence filter K0I0 I2
network

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.20 (a) Phase sequence ilter network (b) (K1 I1 + K2 I2) type phase sequence
f lter network
Dr. Raju Chintakindi EEE Vaagdevi

Current and Voltage Transformers 95

Ioutput = K0 I0 + K1 I1 + K2 I2 (3.34)
The constants K0, K1 and K2 depend on the device which is used to derive a single-
phase quantity from the 3-phase quantities.
The phase-sequence filter giving an output in the form of I1 – KI2 gives the most
uniform response for any type of fault. The value of K may be 5 or 6. Fig. 3.20(b)
shows a phase sequence filter of this type. Table 3.5 shows the values of constants for
general type phase sequence network and I1 – KI2 type phase-sequence filter.
Table 3.5 Value of Constants K0, K1 and K2, output of phase-sequence f lter
Type of Faults Any Summation Device (K1 – KI2) Type Device

K0 K1 K2 Output
R-G, Y-B, Y-B-G KZ Kp KN I1 – KI2
Y-G, B-R, B-R-G KZ aKP a2KN aI1 – a2KI2
B-G, R-Y, R-Y-G KZ a2KP aKN a2I1 – aKI2

K = 5 or 6
Kz = constant for zero-sequence component
KP = Constant for +ve sequence component
KN = Constant for –ve sequence component

EXERCISES
1. What are transducers? Why are they required in protection systems?
2. Explain the difference between a CT used for instrumentation and CT used for
protection.
3. Explain CT burden. How is it specified?
4. Discuss how saturation affects the accuracy of CTs. Explain the accuracy limit
factor or saturation factor.
5. Define the terms: (i) Rated short-time current (ii) Short-time factor (iii) Composit
error (iv) Knee point voltage (v) Rated short-circuit current
6. Discuss the theory of CT with the help of equivalent circuit and phasor diagram
and derive the expressions for actual transformation ratio and phase angle error.
7. Discuss the causes of ratio and phase angle errors in CTs. How can these errors
be minimized?
8. What do you mean by ratio correction factor in CTs? Derive an expression for
the same.
9. Discuss the various classification of CTs. Describe the construction of electro-
magnetic CTs.
10. What is an opto-electronic CT? Discuss its operation.
11. What is Rogowski coil current sensor? Describe its construction and operation
and derive the expression for the voltage induced. How can the voltage proportion
to the current be obtained?
12. Describe the characteristics of the Rogowski coil current sensor.
13. What is an auxiliary CT? Where is it used?
14. What is a linear coupler? Where is it used?
15. Discuss the different types of VTs with their areas of application.
16. What is a summation transformer? Where is it used?