S3 – Data structures

1: What is a data structure?

A: A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data in a computer's memory so that it can be accessed
and manipulated efficiently.

2: What are the main types of data structures?

A: The main types of data structures are arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, graphs, and hash tables.

3: What is the difference between an array and a linked list?

A: An array is a fixed-size data structure that stores elements of the same type contiguously in memory,
while a linked list is a dynamic data structure where elements are stored in separate nodes that contain a
reference to the next node.

4: What is a stack? How does it work?

A: A stack is a data structure that follows the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle. It has two main operations:
push (to insert an element at the top) and pop (to remove the top element). It works like a stack of plates,
where the last plate placed is the first one to be removed.

5: Explain the concept of recursion in data structures.

A: Recursion is a programming technique where a function calls itself to solve a smaller version of the same
problem. It is commonly used in data structures like trees and linked lists, where a recursive function can be
used to traverse or manipulate the data structure.

6: What is a binary tree?

A: A binary tree is a hierarchical data structure in which each node has at most two children, referred to as
the left child and the right child. It is called a binary tree because each node can have a maximum of two
branches.

7: How is a binary search tree different from a binary tree?

A: A binary search tree (BST) is a binary tree with an additional property: for every node, the values in its
left subtree are less than its value, and the values in its right subtree are greater than its value. This property
enables efficient searching and sorting operations on the BST.

8: What is a hash table?

A: A hash table is a data structure that uses a hash function to map keys to values. It provides efficient
insertion, deletion, and retrieval of elements. The hash function calculates an index where the value is
stored, allowing for fast access.
9: What is the difference between a queue and a stack?
A: A queue is a data structure that follows the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle, where elements are
inserted at the rear and removed from the front. In contrast, a stack follows the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO)
principle, where elements are inserted and removed from the top.

10: What is the difference between a linked list and an array?

A: In a linked list, elements are stored in separate nodes with each node containing a reference to the next
node, while an array stores elements in contiguous memory locations. Linked lists have dynamic size and
efficient insertion/deletion at any position, while arrays have fixed size but offer direct access to elements.

11: What is a doubly linked list?

A: A doubly linked list is a linked list in which each node contains references to both the next and the
previous nodes. This allows for traversal in both directions (forward and backward) and enables efficient
insertion and deletion at both ends.
12: What is the difference between a graph and a tree?
A: A graph is a collection of nodes (vertices) connected by edges, where nodes can have multiple
connections. In contrast, a tree is a type of graph that is acyclic (no cycles) and has a hierarchical structure
with a root node and child nodes.
13: What is the time complexity for accessing an element in an array?
A: The time complexity for accessing an element in an array is O(1). Since the array provides direct access
to elements based on their index, the time taken to access an element is constant.
14: What is a queue?
A: A queue is an abstract data type that follows the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle. It is a collection of
elements where insertions happen at one end (rear) and removals occur at the other end (front).

15: What are the main operations performed on a queue?

A: The main operations performed on a queue are:
Enqueue: Insert an element at the rear of the queue.
Dequeue: Remove and return the element from the front of the queue.
Peek or Front: Retrieve the value of the element at the front without removing it.
IsEmpty: Check if the queue is empty.
Size: Determine the number of elements in the queue.

S3- Logical System Design

1. What do u mean by universal gate?
A:The universal gates are those gate from which we can make any gate by using them. The universal gates
are- NAND & NOR
2. What is different between Ex-or & Ex-nor gate?
A: The basic difference between this two gate is that Ex-or gate gives o/p when both the i/p is different &
Ex-nor gate give o/p when both i/p same.
3. What is a multiplexer?
A: A multiplexer is a combinational circuit which selects one of many input signals and directs to the only
output.
4. What is a demultiplexer?
A : Conversely, a demultiplexer (or demux) is a device taking a single input signal and selecting one of
many data-output-lines, which is connected to the single input. A multiplexer is often used with a
complementary demultiplexer on the receiving end.
5. What is difference between the half and full adder?
A: In half adder only 2bits can be use but in full adder we can use 3 bit data
6. How many half substractor are required to construct a full adder?
A: Two half substractor are required to construct a full adder.
7. What is magnitude comparator?
A: A digital comparator or magnitude comparator is a hardware electronic device that takes two numbers as
input in binary form and determines whether one number is greater than, less than or equal to the other
number. Comparators are used in a central processing units (CPU) and microcontrollers
8. Explain operation of AND gate?
A: AND gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical conjunction - it behaves according to the truth
table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results only if both the inputs to the AND gate are HIGH (1). If neither
or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a LOW output results. In another sense, the function of AND
effectively finds the minimum between two binary digits, just as the OR function finds the maximum.
9. What is flip-flop?
A: Flip-flop is a 1 bit storing element. A flip-flop is a sequential digital electronic circuit having two stable
states that can be used to store one bit of binary data.
10. What is counter?
A: In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number
of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal.
11. what is the types of counter?
A: In practice, there are two types of counters:
1. Up counters, which increase (increment) in value
2. Down counters, which decrease (decrement) in value.
12. What is the ring counter?
A: A ring counter is a shift register (a cascade connection of flip-flops) with the output of the last one
connected to the input of the first, that is, in a ring. Typically a pattern consisting of a single 1 bit is
circulated, so the state repeats every N clock cycles if N flip-flops are used. It can be used as a cycle counter
of N states.
13. What is the shift resistor?
A: Shift resistor is a device which is used for storing and processing the bit in series or parallel.
14. What are Types of shift resistor?
A: Serial-in/serial-out shift register (FIFO or LIFO) Serial-in/parallel-out shift register Parallel-in/parallel-
out shift register Parallel-in/serial-out shift register
15. What do you mean by up down counter?
A: A counter that can change state in either direction, under the control of an up–down selector input, is
known as an up–down counter. When the selector is in the up state, the counter increments its value; when
the selector is in the down state, the counter decrements the count.

S3- Object Oriented Programming using java

1: What is Java?
A: Java is a high-level, object-oriented programming language known for its platform independence.

2: Explain the difference between JDK and JRE.

A: JDK (Java Development Kit) is a software development environment that includes the necessary tools to
compile, debug, and run Java programs. JRE (Java Runtime Environment) is the runtime environment
required to run Java applications.

3: What is an object in Java?

A: An object in Java is an instance of a class that encapsulates data and behavior.

4: What is a class in Java?

A: A class in Java is a blueprint for creating objects. It defines the properties and methods that an object will
have.

5: What is the difference between an instance variable and a class variable?

A: An instance variable is associated with a specific instance of a class, while a class variable is shared
among all instances of a class.

6: Explain the concept of inheritance in Java.

A: Inheritance is a mechanism in Java where a class inherits the properties and methods of another class,
allowing for code reuse and creating a hierarchy of classes.

7: What is the difference between method overloading and method overriding?

A: Method overloading is when multiple methods in a class have the same name but different parameters.
Method overriding is when a subclass provides its own implementation of a method inherited from its
superclass.
8: What is the purpose of the "static" keyword in Java?
A: The "static" keyword is used to declare class-level variables and methods that can be accessed without
creating an instance of the class.

9: What are access modifiers in Java?

A: Access modifiers determine the visibility and accessibility of classes, methods, and variables. The main
access modifiers in Java are "public," "private," "protected," and "default."

10: What is the difference between an abstract class and an interface?

A: An abstract class can have both concrete and abstract methods and allows for single inheritance. An
interface can only have abstract methods and supports multiple inheritance.

11: Explain the concept of polymorphism in Java.

A: Polymorphism is the ability of an object to take on many forms. In Java, it allows a variable to refer to
objects of different classes and determine the appropriate method to invoke at runtime.

12: What is the use of the "final" keyword in Java?

A: The "final" keyword can be used to make a class, method, or variable unchangeable or restrict
inheritance.

13: What is an exception in Java? Give an example of a checked and unchecked exception.
A: An exception in Java is an event that disrupts the normal flow of a program. An example of a checked
exception is IOException, while an unchecked exception is NullPointerException.

14: What is the purpose of the "finally" block in exception handling?

A: The "finally" block in exception handling is used to define code that should be executed regardless of
whether an exception is thrown or caught.

15: What is the difference between "throw" and "throws" in Java?

A: "throw" is used to explicitly throw an exception, while "throws" is used in the method signature to
declare that a method may throw an exception that needs to be handled by the calling code.

S4 - Database management Systems

1: What is a database management system (DBMS)?
A: A DBMS is a software system that enables the management, organization, and retrieval of data in a
database.

2: What are the advantages of using a DBMS?

A: Some advantages of using a DBMS include data consistency, data integrity, data security, data sharing,
efficient data retrieval, and data independence.

3: What is a database?
A: A database is a structured collection of data that is organized and managed by a DBMS.

4: What are the different types of database models?

A: The different types of database models include the hierarchical model, network model, relational model,
and object-oriented model.

5: What is a primary key?

A: A primary key is a unique identifier for a record in a database table. It ensures that each record in the
table can be uniquely identified.

6: What is a foreign key?

A: A foreign key is a field in a table that establishes a link to the primary key of another table. It is used to
create relationships between tables.

7: What is normalization in database design?

A: Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to minimize redundancy and improve data
integrity. It involves breaking down tables into smaller, more manageable ones.

8: What is DML?
A: DML (Data Manipulation Language) is a set of SQL statements used to manipulate data within the
database. It includes commands like INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

9: Give examples of DML statements.

A: Examples of DML statements include:
INSERT INTO: Inserts new rows into a table.
UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table.
DELETE FROM: Removes rows from a table.
SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables.
10: What is DDL?
A: DDL (Data Definition Language) is a set of SQL statements used to define and manage the structure of
the database objects. It includes commands like CREATE, ALTER, and DROP.

11: Give examples of DDL statements.

A: Examples of DDL statements include:
CREATE TABLE: Creates a new table in the database.
ALTER TABLE: Modifies the structure of an existing table.
DROP TABLE: Deletes a table from the database.
CREATE INDEX: Creates an index on a table for faster data retrieval.

12: What is ACID in the context of database transactions?

A: ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability. It is a set of properties that guarantee
reliable processing of database transactions.

13: How do you update data in a table using the UPDATE statement in DML?
A: The UPDATE statement is used to modify existing data in a table by specifying the columns to be
updated and the new values.

14: What is the purpose of the DELETE statement in DML?

A: The DELETE statement is used to remove one or more rows from a table in the database.

15: What is the difference between the TRUNCATE TABLE and DELETE statements?
A: The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete all rows from a table in a single operation, whereas
the DELETE statement allows for selective row deletion based on specified conditions.

S4- Computer Architecture and Organization

1. What is computer architecture?

A: Computer architecture refers to the design and organization of a computer system, including its hardware
components and how they interact to perform computations.

2. What is the difference between computer architecture and computer organization?

A: Computer architecture refers to the conceptual structure and functional behavior of a computer system,
while computer organization deals with the physical arrangement and implementation of these concepts.
3. What is the purpose of an instruction set in computer architecture?
A: The instruction set is a collection of machine-level instructions that define the operations a computer can
perform. It provides the interface between the software and hardware components of a computer system.

4. What is the role of a control unit in computer architecture?

A: The control unit is responsible for coordinating and controlling the activities of the computer system. It
interprets instructions, generates control signals, and manages the execution of instructions.

5. What is the von Neumann architecture?

A: The von Neumann architecture is a computer architecture design that includes a central processing unit
(CPU), memory, and input/output devices. It is characterized by the storage of instructions and data in a
single memory unit.

6. What is the difference between RISC and CISC architectures?

A: RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architectures have a simplified and streamlined instruction set,
focusing on executing instructions quickly. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) architectures support
a wide range of complex instructions, trading off simplicity for increased functionality.

7. What is pipelining in computer architecture?

A: Pipelining is a technique that allows multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously, overlapping
the execution of different stages of the instruction cycle. It improves the overall performance of a processor.

8. What is cache memory?

A: Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located closer to the CPU. It stores frequently accessed
data and instructions to reduce the average time taken to access them from the main memory.

9. What is the difference between primary memory and secondary memory?

A: Primary memory, such as RAM (Random Access Memory), is directly accessible by the CPU and is used
for storing data and instructions during program execution. Secondary memory, such as hard disk drives,
provides long-term storage but is slower to access.

10. What is virtual memory?

A: Virtual memory is a technique that allows a computer to compensate for the limited physical memory by
using a combination of RAM and disk storage. It provides the illusion of having more memory than is
physically available.

11. What is the purpose of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU)?

A: The ALU is a fundamental component of the CPU responsible for performing arithmetic and logical
operations, such as addition, subtraction, AND, OR, etc.

12. What is the role of the memory management unit (MMU)?

A: The MMU is responsible for translating virtual addresses to physical addresses in a computer system. It
enables the use of virtual memory and manages the memory hierarchy.

13. What is the difference between microprogramming and hardwired control?

A: Microprogramming involves using a control store to store microinstructions that control the behavior of
the CPU. Hardwired control uses a fixed set of logic gates to implement the control functions.

14. What is the purpose of an interrupt in computer architecture?

A: An interrupt is a signal generated by a device or program that halts the normal execution of the CPU to
handle a specific event or condition. It allows for asynchronous handling of events and improves system
responsiveness.
15. What is the difference between little-endian and big-endian byte ordering?
A: In little-endian byte ordering, the least significant byte of a word is stored at the lowest address, while in
big-endian byte ordering, the most significant byte is stored at the lowest address. The choice of byte
ordering affects how multi-byte data is stored and retrieved.

S4- Operating System

1: What is an operating system?

A: An operating system is a software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and
provides services for computer programs.

2: What are the main functions of an operating system?

A: The main functions of an operating system include process management, memory management, file
system management, device management, and user interface management.

3: What is multitasking in an operating system?

A: Multitasking is the ability of an operating system to run multiple tasks or processes concurrently,
allowing users to switch between them seamlessly.

4: What is virtual memory?

A: Virtual memory is a technique used by operating systems to extend the available memory by using disk
storage as an extension of RAM.
5: What is a file system?
A: A file system is a method used by operating systems to organize and store files on a storage device, such
as a hard drive or solid-state drive.

6: What is a device driver?

A: A device driver is a software component that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware
devices, enabling them to function correctly.

7: What is the difference between a process and a thread?

A: A process is an instance of a program in execution, while a thread is a subset of a process that can be
scheduled and executed independently.

8: What is a shell in an operating system?

A: A shell is a user interface that allows users to interact with the operating system by executing commands
and managing files and directories.

9: What is the role of an interrupt in an operating system?

A: An interrupt is a signal generated by hardware or software that interrupts the normal execution of a
program, allowing the operating system to respond to events or handle errors.

10: What is a deadlock in an operating system?

A: A deadlock is a situation where two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting for a
resource that the other processes hold.

11: What is the purpose of a scheduler in an operating system?

A: A scheduler is responsible for allocating system resources, such as CPU time, to different processes or
threads based on priority, fairness, and other scheduling policies.

12: What is the booting process in an operating system?

A: The booting process is the sequence of events that occurs when a computer is powered on, including
loading the operating system into memory and initializing system components.

13: What is the difference between preemptive and non-preemptive scheduling?

A: Preemptive scheduling allows the operating system to interrupt a running process and allocate the CPU to
another process, while non-preemptive scheduling does not allow such interruptions.
14. Explain demand paging?
Demand paging is a method that loads pages into memory on demand. This method is mostly used in virtual
memory. In this, a page is only brought into memory when a location on that particular page is referenced
during execution. The following steps are generally followed:
Attempt to access the page.
If the page is valid (in memory) then continue processing instructions as normal.
If a page is invalid then a page-fault trap occurs.
Check if the memory reference is a valid reference to a location on secondary memory. If not, the process is
terminated (illegal memory access). Otherwise, we have to page in the required page.
Schedule disk operation to read the desired page into main memory.
Restart the instruction that was interrupted by the operating system trap.

15. What is different between main memory and secondary memory.

Main memory: Main memory in a computer is RAM (Random Access Memory). It is also known as primary
memory or read-write memory or internal memory. The programs and data that the CPU requires during the
execution of a program are stored in this memory.
Secondary memory: Secondary memory in a computer are storage devices that can store data and programs.
It is also known as external memory or additional memory or backup memory or auxiliary memory. Such
storage devices are capable of storing high-volume data. Storage devices can be hard drives, USB flash
drives, CDs, etc.

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Data can be directly accessed by the processing Firstly, data is transferred to primary memory and after
unit. then routed to the processing unit.

It can be both volatile and non-volatile in nature. It is non-volatile in nature.

It is more cost-effective or less costly than primary

It is more costly than secondary memory.
memory.

It is temporary because data is stored temporarily. It is permanent because data is stored permanently.

In this memory, data can be lost whenever there is In this memory, data is stored permanently and
a power failure. therefore cannot be lost even in case of power failure.

It is much faster than secondary memory and saves It is slower as compared to primary memory and saves
data that is currently used by the computer. different kinds of data in different formats.

It can be accessed by data. It can be accessed by I/O channels.

S5- Formal language and Automata theory
1.Can you explain what an NFA is and why they’re important?
A: NFA stands for “nondeterministic finite automaton.” They are important in the theory of computation
because they provide a way to model systems with nondeterministic behavior. This means that they can be
used to represent systems where there is more than one possible outcome for a given input.

2.What is a ambiguous grammar?

A: A grammar is said to be ambiguous if it has more than one derivation trees for a sentence or in other
words if it has more than one leftmost derivation or more than one rightmost derivation.

3.What are the three ways to simplify a context free grammar?

A: By removing the useless symbols from the set of productions.
By eliminating the empty productions.
By eliminating the unit productions.

4.What is the Language accepted by a Turing Machine known as?

A: Recursively Enumerable Languages

5.For a given language L, what is the operation that is denoted as L*?

A: Kleene closure

6.Which one is used to check if a given Language L is a Regular Language or not?

A; Pumping Lemma

7.What is a parser?
A: A parser for grammar G is a program that takes as input a string w and produces as output either a parse
tree for w ,if w is a sentence of G or an error message indicating that w is not a sentence of G.

8.When is a string accepted by a PDA?

A: The input string is accepted by the PDA if: The final state is reached and the stack is empty.

9.When are 2 finite states equivalent?

A: Same number of states as well as transitions
10.Which computation model is used to decide if a string in a Regular Language?
A: Finite State Automaton

11.Which language in Theory of Computation is undecidable?

A:Turing Machine

12. What Is Meant By Equivalent Finite automata?

A:Finite automata that accept the same set of languages are called Equivalent finite automata

13.The set of all strings over the alphabet S = {a, b} (including e) is denoted by?
A:(a + b)*

14.What is the purpose of converting a context-free grammar (CFG) into Chomsky normal form (CNF)?
A:Chomsky normal form is a specific form of a context-free grammar. Converting a CFG into CNF has
several purposes:
It simplifies the grammar by eliminating unnecessary productions and ambiguity.
It allows for more efficient parsing algorithms.
It provide
15. What are the components of cfg?
A: Terminals, non-terminals, production rules, and start symbol

S5- Computer Networks

1. What is a computer network?

- Answer: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices (such as computers, servers,
routers) that are linked together to facilitate communication and resource sharing.

2. What is the purpose of a router in a network?

- Answer: The purpose of a router is to connect multiple networks together and forward data packets
between them based on the destination IP address.

3. Define the term "IP address."

 - Answer: An IP address is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network. It
serves as a unique identifier for the device and enables communication between different devices on the
network.

4. What is the difference between TCP and UDP?

- Answer: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable
and ordered delivery of data, while UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that
provides faster but unreliable delivery of data.

5. Explain the role of DNS in computer networks.

- Answer: DNS (Domain Name System) translates human-readable domain names (such as
www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand, enabling users to access websites
using domain names instead of IP addresses.

6. What is the function of an Ethernet switch?

- Answer: An Ethernet switch is a networking device that connects multiple devices in a local area network
(LAN) and forwards data packets between them based on their MAC addresses.

7. What is a subnet mask?

- Answer: A subnet mask is a 32-bit number that is used to divide an IP address into network and host
portions. It helps determine which part of the IP address represents the network address and which part
represents the host address.

8. What is the purpose of ARP in a network?

- Answer: ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to map an IP address to its corresponding MAC
address in a network. It enables devices to communicate with each other at the data link layer using MAC
addresses.

9. Define the term "firewall" in the context of computer networks.

- Answer: A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between an internal network and
external networks, protecting against unauthorized access and potential threats.

10. What is the difference between a LAN and a WAN?

- Answer: A LAN (Local Area Network) is a network that covers a small geographical area, typically
within a building or a campus. A WAN (Wide Area Network) is a network that spans across large distances
and connects multiple LANs together, often through public networks like the internet.

11. What is the significance of the OSI model in networking?

 - Answer: The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that defines how
different network protocols and technologies interact with each other. It consists of seven layers, each with
its specific functions, which help in understanding and troubleshooting network communication.

12. Define the terms "bandwidth" and "throughput."

- Answer: Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network
connection in a given time. Throughput, on the other hand, is the actual amount of data transmitted over a
network connection in a specific period, which may be lower than the bandwidth due to factors like network
congestion or protocol overhead.

13. Explain the concept of packet switching.

- Answer: Packet switching is a method of network communication where data is divided into smaller
packets before transmission. Each packet contains a portion of the data, along with addressing information.
These packets are then individually routed through the network and reassembled at the destination.

14. What is the purpose of a MAC address?

- Answer: A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to the network interface
of a device. It is used at the data link layer to ensure that data is delivered to the correct device within a local
network.

15. Define the term "network protocol."

- Answer: A network protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern the communication and
interaction between devices in a computer network. It defines the format, timing, sequencing, and error
handling mechanisms for data exchange between networked devices.

S5- System software

1. What is system software?

- Answer: System software refers to a collection of programs that manage and control the operation of a
computer system. It includes the operating system, device drivers, utility programs, and other software
components necessary for the system's functioning.

2. What is the role of an operating system?

- Answer: The operating system acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer hardware. It
manages system resources, provides an interface for user interaction, and enables the execution of software
applications.

3. What are the primary functions of an operating system?

 - Answer: The primary functions of an operating system include process management, memory
management, file system management, device management, and user interface management.

4. What is process management?

- Answer: Process management involves creating, executing, and terminating processes or programs. It
includes scheduling, synchronization, and communication mechanisms to ensure efficient utilization of
system resources.

5. Explain the concept of memory management.

- Answer: Memory management involves allocating and managing memory resources for processes in the
system. It includes techniques such as memory allocation, deallocation, and virtual memory management.

6. What is a device driver?

- Answer: A device driver is a software component that allows the operating system to communicate with
hardware devices. It provides an interface for the operating system to control and access device
functionalities.

7. What are utility programs?

- Answer: Utility programs are system software tools that perform specific tasks to assist in system
management and maintenance. Examples include antivirus software, disk cleanup tools, and backup utilities.

8. What is the booting process?

- Answer: The booting process refers to the sequence of steps performed by the computer system to start
up and load the operating system into memory. It involves power-on self-test (POST), bootloader execution,
and operating system initialization.

9. What is an interrupt?
- Answer: An interrupt is a signal generated by hardware or software to interrupt the normal execution of a
program. It allows the operating system to handle events, such as hardware device requests or error
conditions.

10. What is a file system?

- Answer: A file system is a method used by the operating system to organize and store files on a storage
device. It provides a structure for naming, accessing, and organizing data in a hierarchical manner.

11. What is the purpose of a scheduler in process management?

- Answer: A scheduler is responsible for allocating system resources to processes in an efficient and fair
manner. It determines which processes are executed and for how long, based on scheduling algorithms.
12. What is the difference between single-user and multi-user operating systems?
- Answer: A single-user operating system allows only one user to interact with the system at a time, while
a multi-user operating system enables multiple users to access and use the system simultaneously.

13. Explain the concept of virtual memory.

- Answer: Virtual memory is a memory management technique that allows the operating system to use
secondary storage (such as the hard disk) as an extension of physical memory. It enables running more
programs than the available physical memory can accommodate.

14. What is the role of an interpreter in system software?

- Answer: An interpreter is a program that translates and executes high-level code instructions directly,
line by line. It is commonly used for scripting languages and provides an interactive environment for code
execution.

15. What is system configuration management?

- Answer: System configuration management involves the management and control of system
configuration settings, software versions, and dependencies. It ensures consistency and stability in the
system's software environment.

S5- Micro Controllers and Micro processors

1. What is a microprocessor?
- Answer: A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that serves as the central processing unit (CPU) of a
computer system, capable of executing instructions and performing arithmetic and logic operations.

2. What is the difference between a microprocessor and a microcontroller?

- Answer: A microprocessor is a standalone chip that requires external memory and peripheral devices,
whereas a microcontroller integrates a microprocessor, memory, and peripherals on a single chip.

3. What is the purpose of a program counter (PC) in a microprocessor?

- Answer: The program counter holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed by the
microprocessor, allowing it to sequentially process instructions.

4. What is the role of an accumulator in a microprocessor or microcontroller?

- Answer: The accumulator is a special register used to store intermediate results and perform arithmetic
and logical operations in a microprocessor or microcontroller.
5. What is the difference between volatile and non-volatile memory in microcontrollers?
- Answer: Volatile memory loses its stored data when power is removed, while non-volatile memory
retains data even when power is turned off, allowing for persistent storage of program code and data.

6. What is the purpose of input/output (I/O) ports in microcontrollers?

- Answer: I/O ports in microcontrollers allow communication with external devices, such as sensors,
actuators, and displays, enabling input and output operations for interacting with the surrounding
environment.

7. What is the role of a watchdog timer in microcontrollers?

- Answer: A watchdog timer is used to monitor the normal operation of a microcontroller. If the software
execution fails to reset the timer within a specified time interval, the watchdog timer triggers a system reset
to recover from potential errors.

8. What is the difference between synchronous and asynchronous serial communication in microcontrollers?
- Answer: Synchronous serial communication requires a clock signal to synchronize the data transmission
between the microcontroller and external devices, while asynchronous serial communication uses start and
stop bits to delimit data packets.

9. What is the purpose of the reset pin in microcontrollers?

- Answer: The reset pin initializes the microcontroller by restoring it to a known state. When the reset pin
is asserted, the microcontroller restarts its execution from the beginning.

10. What is the difference between parallel and serial data transmission in microcontrollers?
- Answer: Parallel data transmission sends multiple bits simultaneously on separate lines, while serial data
transmission sends bits one at a time on a single line.

11. What is the role of an interrupt in microcontrollers?

- Answer: Interrupts are signals that temporarily suspend the normal execution of a program and transfer
control to a specific interrupt service routine (ISR) to handle time-critical events or external device requests.

12. What is the purpose of timers in microcontrollers?

- Answer: Timers in microcontrollers are used to measure time intervals, generate precise delays, and
trigger events at specific intervals, enabling time-dependent operations.

13. What is the difference between RAM and ROM in microcontrollers?

 - Answer: RAM (Random Access Memory) is a volatile memory that stores data and program instructions
temporarily during execution, while ROM (Read-Only Memory) is non-volatile memory that stores
permanent data or program code.

14. What is the difference between an 8-bit and a 16-bit microcontroller?

- Answer: An 8-bit microcontroller processes data in 8-bit chunks, while a 16-bit microcontroller
processes data in 16-bit chunks, allowing for larger data manipulation and more complex operations.

15. What is the role of the crystal oscillator in microcontrollers?

- Answer: The crystal oscillator provides a stable clock signal to synchronize the operations of the
microcontroller, ensuring accurate timing and synchronization of instructions.

S5- Management of Software system

1. What is software engineering?

- Answer: Software engineering is a discipline that applies engineering principles and practices to design,
develop, and maintain software systems.

2. What is the difference between software requirements and software specifications?

- Answer: Software requirements capture the needs and expectations of stakeholders, while software
specifications define the detailed design and behavior of the software system.

3. What is the purpose of software testing?

- Answer: The purpose of software testing is to identify defects and ensure that the software system meets
the specified requirements, functions correctly, and behaves as expected.

4. What is the waterfall model in software development?

- Answer: The waterfall model is a linear sequential approach to software development, where each phase
(requirements, design, implementation, testing, deployment) is completed before moving to the next.

5. What is the Agile software development methodology?

- Answer: Agile is an iterative and incremental approach to software development, focusing on flexibility,
collaboration, and delivering working software in short iterations.

6. What is the role of a software architect?

- Answer: A software architect is responsible for designing the overall structure and components of a
software system, ensuring its integrity, scalability, and adherence to design principles.
7. What is version control in software engineering?
- Answer: Version control is a system that helps manage and track changes made to software code and
other files, enabling collaboration, maintaining different versions, and facilitating team coordination.

8. What is software maintenance?

- Answer: Software maintenance involves modifying, updating, and enhancing a software system to
address defects, accommodate changes, and improve performance or usability.

9. What is the difference between verification and validation in software engineering?

- Answer: Verification ensures that the software is built correctly according to its specifications, while
validation ensures that the software meets the needs and expectations of the stakeholders.

10. What is a software development life cycle (SDLC)?

- Answer: The software development life cycle (SDLC) is a structured process that defines the stages and
activities involved in developing a software system, from inception to deployment and maintenance.

11. What is the importance of documentation in software engineering?

- Answer: Documentation in software engineering is crucial for conveying system design, functionality,
and maintenance information, ensuring clarity, knowledge transfer, and facilitating future enhancements or
troubleshooting.

12. What is the difference between functional and non-functional requirements?

- Answer: Functional requirements specify what the software system should do, while non-functional
requirements define the qualities or characteristics it should possess, such as performance, usability, and
security.

13. What is the significance of software configuration management?

- Answer: Software configuration management involves managing and controlling changes to software
artifacts, ensuring version control, traceability, and enabling reproducibility of software builds.

14. What is the role of a software quality assurance engineer?

- Answer: A software quality assurance engineer is responsible for ensuring that the software development
process follows defined standards and processes, and that the resulting software meets the expected quality
standards.

15. What is software deployment?

 - Answer: Software deployment is the process of installing, configuring, and making a software system
available for use in a specified environment, ensuring its proper integration and readiness.

S6- Compiler Design

1. What is the action of parsing the source program into proper syntactic classes known as?
Interpretation analysis
General syntax analysis
Syntax analysis
Lexical analysis
Answer: Lexical analysis

2. What does a bottom-up parser generate?

Rightmost derivation in reverse
Rightmost derivation in reverse
Leftmost derivation in reverse
Leftmost derivation
Answer: Rightmost derivation in reverse

3.What is the bottom-up parsing method also known as?

Predictive parsing
Shift reduce parsing
Recursive descent parsing
None
Answer: Shift reduce parsing

4. Identify the method which merges the bodies of two loops?

Constant folding
Loop unrolling
Loop jamming
None
Answer: Loop jamming

5. Which of the compiler allows the only modified sections of source code to be recompiled?
Incremental compiler
Dynamic compiler
Reconfigurable compiler
Subjective compiler
Answer: Incremental compiler

6. Identify the data structure which has minimum access time in case of symbol table implementation?
Self-organizing list
Hash table
Search tree
Linear
Answer: Hash table

7. What does a top-down parser generate?

Rightmost derivation in reverse
Rightmost derivation in reverse
Leftmost derivation in reverse
Leftmost derivation
Answer: Leftmost derivation

8. Identify the most powerful parser?

LALR
SLR
Canonical LR
Operator-precedence
Answer: Canonical LR

9.Through which type of grammar can synthesized attributes can be simulated?

Ambiguous grammar
LR grammar
LL grammar
None
Answer: LR grammar

10. Another name of top-down parsing is?

Predictive parsing
Shift reduce parsing
Recursive descent parsing
None
Answer: Recursive descent parsing

11.Identify the most general phase of structured grammar.

Regular
Context-sensitive
Context-free
None
Answer: None

12.
Identify the technique used to replace run-time computations with compile-time computations.
Code hoisting
Pee hole optimization
Invariant computation
Constant folding
Answer: Constant folding

13.
Identifying the class of statement when compiled does not produce any executable code.
Structural statement
I/O statement
Assignment statement
Declaration
Answer: Structural statement

14. What does the lexical analyzer take as input?

Tokens
Source code
Machine code
Both a and c.
Answer: Source code

15. What does the lexical analyzer take as output?

List of tokens
List of source code
List of mnemonic
None
Answer: List of tokens

16. What is a linear analysis called in a compiler?

Testing
Lexical analysis
Scanning
Both b and c
Answer: Both b and c

17. Identify the correct definition of lexical analysis?

Breaking sequence of characters into packets.
Breaking sequence of characters into groups.
Breaking sequence of characters into tokens.
Breaking sequence of characters into lines.
Answer: Breaking sequence of characters into tokens.

18. On what basis is the phase syntax analysis modeled?

Context-free grammar
High-level language
Low-level language
Regular grammar
Answer: Regular grammar

19. What is the role of optimizing the compiler?

Optimized to take less time for execution
Optimize the code
Optimize to occupy less space
None
Answer: Optimize the code

S6- Computer Graphics and image processing

1. What is computer graphics?

- Answer: Computer graphics refers to the creation, manipulation, and rendering of visual content using
computer algorithms and hardware.
2. What is image processing?
- Answer: Image processing involves the manipulation and analysis of digital images to enhance their
quality, extract information, or perform specific tasks.

3. What is a pixel?
- Answer: A pixel is the smallest unit of an image, representing a single point and holding color or
intensity information.

4. What is raster graphics?

- Answer: Raster graphics uses a grid of pixels to represent images. Each pixel stores color or intensity
information, enabling the creation of detailed and realistic images.

5. What is vector graphics?

- Answer: Vector graphics uses mathematical equations to represent images, using lines, curves, and
shapes. These images can be scaled without loss of quality.

6. What is the difference between bitmap and vector graphics?

- Answer: Bitmap graphics are resolution-dependent and represented by grids of pixels, while vector
graphics are resolution-independent and represented by mathematical equations.

7. What is anti-aliasing in computer graphics?

- Answer: Anti-aliasing is a technique used to smooth jagged edges or aliasing artifacts in images by
blending colors at the boundaries.

8. What is rendering in computer graphics?

- Answer: Rendering is the process of generating a visual representation of a 3D scene or object using
lighting, shading, and other effects.

9. What is texture mapping?

- Answer: Texture mapping is the process of applying an image or texture to the surface of a 3D object to
enhance its visual appearance.

10. What is the purpose of lighting in computer graphics?

- Answer: Lighting simulates the interaction of light with objects in a scene to create realistic shadows,
highlights, and depth perception.

11. What is a graphics pipeline?

 - Answer: A graphics pipeline is a series of stages that process and transform geometric data and images to
render a final 2D or 3D image on the screen.

12. What is edge detection in image processing?

- Answer: Edge detection is a technique used to identify and extract the boundaries or edges between
objects or regions in an image.

13. What is image segmentation?

- Answer: Image segmentation is the process of dividing an image into meaningful and distinct regions or
objects based on their properties or characteristics.

14. What is histogram equalization?

- Answer: Histogram equalization is a method used to adjust the contrast of an image by redistributing the
pixel intensity values to cover a wider range.

15. What is image compression?

- Answer: Image compression is the process of reducing the size of an image file by removing redundant
or irrelevant information while preserving important visual details.

S6- Algorithm analysis and design

1. What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules for solving a specific problem or accomplishing a
specific task.

2. What is algorithmic analysis?

Algorithmic analysis involves studying the efficiency and performance of algorithms, particularly in terms
of time complexity and space complexity.

3. What is time complexity?

Time complexity refers to the amount of time taken by an algorithm to run as a function of the input size. It
measures the efficiency of an algorithm in terms of the number of operations performed.

4. What is space complexity?

Space complexity refers to the amount of memory space required by an algorithm to solve a problem as a
function of the input size. It measures the efficiency of an algorithm in terms of memory usage.
5. What is the difference between best-case, worst-case, and average-case time complexity?
Best-case time complexity represents the minimum time required by an algorithm when the input is in the
most favorable condition. Worst-case time complexity represents the maximum time required when the input
is in the least favorable condition. Average-case time complexity represents the average time required for a
random input.

6. What is the Big O notation?

The Big O notation is used to describe the upper bound or worst-case time complexity of an algorithm. It
provides a way to compare the efficiency of different algorithms as the input size grows.

7. What is the significance of asymptotic analysis?

Asymptotic analysis allows us to focus on the growth rate of an algorithm's time or space complexity as the
input size increases. It helps us understand the scalability of algorithms and make informed decisions when
choosing between different algorithms.

8. What is the difference between O(1), O(n), O(log n), and O(n^2) time complexities?
O(1) represents constant time complexity, indicating that the algorithm's running time remains constant
regardless of the input size. O(n) represents linear time complexity, where the running time grows
proportionally with the input size. O(log n) represents logarithmic time complexity, where the running time
grows slowly as the input size increases. O(n^2) represents quadratic time complexity, where the running
time grows quadratically with the input size.

9. What is the significance of a sorting algorithm's time complexity?

The time complexity of a sorting algorithm determines how efficiently it can sort a given input. Sorting
algorithms with lower time complexities are generally preferred for large datasets.

10. What is the difference between stable and unstable sorting algorithms?
A stable sorting algorithm preserves the relative order of elements with equal keys during the sorting
process, while an unstable sorting algorithm does not guarantee the preservation of relative order.

11. What is a divide-and-conquer algorithm?

A divide-and-conquer algorithm solves a problem by dividing it into smaller subproblems, solving each
subproblem recursively, and then combining the results to obtain the final solution.

12. What is dynamic programming?

Dynamic programming is an algorithmic technique that solves complex problems by breaking them down
into overlapping subproblems, solving each subproblem only once, and storing the results for future use.
13. What is the difference between greedy algorithms and dynamic programming?
Greedy algorithms make locally optimal choices at each step in the hope of finding a global optimum,
whereas dynamic programming solves subproblems and uses the results to find an optimal solution for the
larger problem.

14. What is the significance of space complexity in algorithm analysis?

Space complexity helps us understand the memory requirements of an algorithm and evaluate its efficiency
in terms of memory usage. It is especially important when dealing with constrained memory environments.

15. What is the difference between in-place and out-of-place algorithms?

In-place algorithms modify the input data structure itself without requiring additional memory space, while
out-of-place algorithms create a separate data structure to store the output.