SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING SCIENCES

© 2023

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 Chapter One
1. History and Characteristics of Computing Sciences

Overview
This chapter introduces the students to the history and characteristics of computing
sciences, which are some of the topics for beginners in computing. It also explains
the key concepts in the areas of computer science, cybersecurity, data science,
information and communication technology, information systems, information
technology, and software engineering. The chapter presents the importance of these
various branches of computing to society. At the end of this chapter are test items
designed to stimulate learning and possibly redirect the attention of readers to grey
areas for proper understanding.

Objectives
By the end of this chapter, students should possess the capability to:

1. Get fundamental knowledge of the history and characteristics of computing

science
2. Point out the development of computer science together with the major
breakthroughs and vital developments in history
3. Gain knowledge of the different fields of computing sciences such as
information and communication technology, cybersecurity, computer
science, data science, information systems, information technology, and
software engineering
4. Answer the chapter's self-study exercises

1.1 History of Computing Sciences

The history of computing dates back as far as the dawn of human civilization itself.
Men in ancient times used their fingers and toes as a rudimentary computing

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machine for counting. They also used stones and sticks as primitive calculating tools.
Most African countries, most especially West African countries, traditionally used
cowrie shells to perform mathematical calculations. Cowrie shells were used as a
type of abacus, with the shells representing different numbers. For instance, a single
cowrie shell might signify the number one, while a group of four cowrie shells might
signify the number four. By operating the cowrie shells and moving them around,
people could compute addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers.

In Nigeria, the Yoruba people developed the "Odu Ifa," which is a binary number
system that was used for divination, computation, and other purposes. The abacus,
which was developed in Asia between 2700 and 2300 before the common era (BCE)
in Sumer, is a prime example of a computing tool that was widely used in ancient
times. John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, developed the logarithm in 1614 for
the easy computation of numbers. Fourteen significant digits table was developed
by him in 1624 for the logarithms of numbers from 1 to 20,000. In 1632, William
Oughtred, a clergyman and a mathematician, invented the slide rules based on John
Napier's ideas. Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician and Philosopher, built the first
calculating machine, which later became commercially viable between 1642 and
1644. The machine is named Pascaline, Adding machine or Arithmetic machine.
Pascaline was good in addition and subtraction but elementary in multiplication and
division. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, a German mathematician and philosopher,
studied the work of Blaise Pascal in 1671 and came up with the discovery of the Step
Reckoner calculating machine in 1673. The work improved on Pascal's invention with
the addition of multiplication by repeated addition and shifting.

Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar of France, in 1820, made it a task to build an

arithmometer. The arithmometer was the first precision commercial mechanical
calculator that could accomplish elementary mathematical processes such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in addition to performing complex
tasks. In 1804, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented another mechanical machine called
the Jacquard loom, which marked the beginning of the automated system. The
Jacquard loom was built to advance the automation of the process of weaving
complex patterns into fabric in the textile industry. Charles Babbage, a scientist,
inventor, and mathematician, developed the difference engine in the 1820s. A

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different engine was used to make difficult mathematical tables, which were needed
for a variety of scientific and engineering computations of those days. Lady Lovelace,
an English mathematician and author, also known as Duchess of Lovelace, was an
associate of Babbage, who invented the Analytical Engine in the 19th century. She
was well known as the first computer programmer because of her close work with
Charles Babbage.

Herman Hollerith, an American inventor who was employed in the United States (US)
Census Bureau in the year 1880 as a statistician, developed the first
electromechanical tabulating machine displayed for the US Census Bureau in the
year 1890. The census of 1890 could be counted within a year, as opposed to
counting it several years previously. The breakthrough of census computation led to
the establishment of Tabulating Machine Company (TMC), which was renamed
International Business Machine (IBM), the beginning of developing business
machines. In 1930, Alan Turing, a British mathematician, proposed a computational
model that can simulate any computer algorithm or computational process. Turing
proposed the concept of a universal machine in his 1936 paper, which laid the
foundations of modern computer science. The first electronic digital computer was
manufactured in the late 1930s and early 1940s by John Atanasoff, a physicist and
mathematician, and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College (now
Iowa State University). The name of the computer was Atanasoff-Berry Computer
(ABC). It was developed to find solutions to systems of simultaneous linear
equations.

During the Second World War, there was a need for a calculating machine, especially
in the area of ballistic missile trajectory calculation, where trajectory tables and
other essential data were produced. Different groups all over Europe and America
started independent efforts to design computers. There was no awareness among
these groups as to what others were doing. Between the Second World War and
now, several computers have been designed and manufactured. They have very
great capacities in speed, memory, and versatility. They are, however, grouped into
generations. The generation to which a computer belongs depends on the
technology upon which it was fabricated.

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1.1.1 Generation of Computers
A. The First Generations of Computers (1940s – 1950s)

Computers first emerged in the 1940s, and their first generation spanned until the
1950s. These sets of computers were big, costly, and used vacuum tubes for their
operations. This era of computing brought about the invention of the first digital
electronic computers, which were used for scientific and military purposes. Machine
and assembly languages were introduced during the first generation of computers,
which were characterized by their large size, high cost, limited performance, and
slow operational speed. The first generation of computers, which included the
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), Universal Automatic
Computer I (UNIVAC I), International Business Machines (IBM), and Ferranti Mark I,
is exemplified in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC)

Characteristics of the first generation of Computers

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The characteristic features of the earliest phase in the development of computing
technology are:

1. Vacuum tube
The first generation of computers was made up of glass tubes called vacuum tubes
that could be used as electronic switches. The vacuum tubes were very big and
needed much energy to function and were used for computations and switching
operations. They are often prone to failure due to the intensity of temperatures
produced.

2. Machine Language:
During the first generation of computers, machine language, the lowest-level
programming language, was utilized. This language consisted of binary code, a
sequence of 0s and 1s, which is the only language that the computer can
comprehend. The code is time-consuming and difficult to understand. The binary
code had to be manually keyed into the computer.

3. Magnetic Drum Memory

The first generation of computers achieved the storage of data through the use of
magnetic drum memory, which was a non-volatile memory that used magnetic fields
to keep output information. Magnetic drums, while slow, have limited storage
capacity.

4. Punch Cards
Punch cards were used to input data and instruction into the first generation of
computer systems. A punch card was a piece of rigid paper that had holes
perforated in precise places to signify data or instructions. The punch cards were
input into the computer, and the computer would read the holes to control the
data or instructions.

5. Limited Applications
The first generation of computers could not be used for many applications. They
were only used for scientific and military needs, such as the computation of complex
mathematical equations and the simulation of the behavior of physical systems.

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 6. Batch Processing
In the first generation of computing, all the input data are collected and then
processed together. The process of collecting and then processing input together is
called batch processing.

B. Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s )

The second generation of computing started from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s.
In this second generation of computing, vacuum tubes were replaced with smaller
and more dependable transistors. The second generation of computers was smaller,
faster, and more efficient. Magnetics core memory, which replaces the vacuum tube
memory and drum memory, was faster and more dependable. However, machine
and assembly languages were used in UNIVAC 1. At the same time, IBM 704 was
developed in 1954 to use transistors instead of vacuum tubes and had a magnetic
core memory that allowed for larger storage capacity and faster processing. IBM 704
was also the first computer to have a Fortran compiler, which gave room for
programmers to write high-level language code that could be translated into
machine language. Some examples of computers developed in this period are IBM
7090 and IBM System/360, Control Data Corporation 6600 (CDC 6600), UNIVAC
1108, and Digital Equipment Corporation Programmed Data Processor-8 (DEC PDP-
8). An example of the second generation of computers is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: The Second-Generation Computer

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Many programming languages were developed in the second generation of
computers. Such programming Languages are Formula Translation (FORTRAN),
developed in 1954 and released in 1957 by John Backus and his team at IBM;
Common Business-Oriented Language (COBOL), produced by Grace Hopper in 1959
as a business application programming language; and Algorithmic Language (ALGOL)
developed in 1958 by a committee of computer scientists, among whom were John
Backus and Peter Naur. In addition to machine and assembly languages, other
programming languages emerged during the first generation of computers. Among
these were Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC), created by
John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz at Dartmouth College in 1964, and List
Processing (LISP), produced by John McCarthy of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) in 1962 specifically for use in artificial intelligence (AI) research.

Characteristics of second-generation computers

The second generation of computers is defined by a distinct set of features, which

include:

1. Use of Transistors
The most significant development of the second generation of computers was the
replacement of vacuum tubes with transistors. Transistors were well reduced in
size, faster, and more dependable than vacuum tubes, and they gave room for
computers to be made much smaller than earlier generations.

2. Magnetic Core Memory

Magnetic core replaced the Vacuum Tube Memory, Delay Line Memory, and Drum
Memory, which were used in the first generation of computers to store data.
Magnetic core memory that came into vogue in the second generation of
computing was faster and more dependable than the memory technologies of the
first generation, and it gives room for the storage of more data in a smaller space.

3. Batch Processing
During the second generation of computers, Batch Processing was utilized as a
means of running programs. This involved processing assignments of data together

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in a single batch, as opposed to processing them individually or in real-time. The
method is used when dealing with large assignments of data that can be
automatically executed, such as processing large-scale scientific and engineering
simulations, besides commercial applications, such as payroll processing.

4. High-Level Programming Languages

High-Level Programming Languages such as Formula Translation (FORTRAN) and
Common Business-oriented languages (COBOL) were developed on second-
generation computers. These languages open the door to easy programming of
complex codes by programmers. It also commenced the development of
contemporary programming languages.

5. Operating Systems (OS)

Operating systems such as IBM's OS/360 that permit many users to run programs on
the same computer at the same time were developed when computer technology
shifted from vacuum tube-based to transistor-based systems.

C. Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s)

The third phase or era in the evolution of computing technology began from the early
1960s to the 1970s. It is generally believed that the introduction of the IBM
System/360 mainframe computer in 1964 marked the beginning of the third phase
in the evolution of computing technology, while the commencement of the use of
the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which was released in 1971, marked the end of the
third era in the evolution of computing technology. The third phase in the evolution
of technology brought in the development of integrated circuits, which gave an
avenue for greater reduction and the formation of smaller and more powerful
computers. Thus, the use of transistors was replaced with the use of integrated
circuits (ICs), which permits the development of smaller and more powerful
computers. The idea of time-sharing, which permits many users to access a single
computer at the same time, was introduced by the computers of the third era. There
were lots of improvements in hardware and software technology, which led to more
powerful, accessible, and user-friendly computers. The first personal computer (PC)
Altair 8800, based on the Intel 8080 microprocessor and came with 256 bytes of

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memory designed by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), was
introduced in 1975. Examples of third-era computers are IBM System/360, Digital
Equipment Corporation Programmed Data Processor-11 (DEC PDP-11), Cray-1, HP
3000, and Virtual Address eXtension (VAX-11). Figure 1.3 displays an example of the
third generation of computers.

Figure 1.3: IBM 360 (Minicomputer)

The third-generation languages (3GL) were the first to be used for structured
programming. They were developed in the 1960s and were closer to natural
language than the previous generations and made programming easier for non-
experts. The C Programming Language was created at Bell Labs in 1972 by Dennis
Ritchie, while Pascal was invented in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth. COBOL, FORTRAN, and
BASIC are other programming languages that played a significant role in advancing
the development of third-generation computers.

Many advances in the field of programming were linked to 3GL. Some of them are
structured programming, the ability to handle large data sets, and improved error

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checking. Third-generation languages (3GLs) have paved the way for the emergence
of more advanced programming languages like Python, Ruby, and Java.

The features of third-generation computers.

The features of computers that are of the third generation are:

1. Integrated circuits
Third-generation computers were characterized by their use of integrated circuits,
which revolutionized computing by allowing multiple transistors and other
components to be combined on a single silicon chip. This breakthrough greatly
reduced the size and complexity of computers while simultaneously improving their
reliability and performance.

2. Operating systems
This generation of computers developed an operating system that made it easier to
use and program computers. Two widely used operating systems during the third
generation of computing were IBM's OS/360 and DEC's TOPS-10.

3. High-level programming languages

During the advent of 3rd generation programming languages (3GL), several high-
level programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, and BASIC were developed.
These languages enabled programmers to write more expressive and concise code,
thus making programming easier and more accessible to a wider range of people. In
addition, the development of software and maintenance is very easy. It also assisted
in widening the user base of computers.

4. Time-sharing
With the introduction of third-generation computers, multiple system users were
able to access a computer simultaneously. This was a significant improvement over
earlier generations, where only one user could access the computer at a time. This
increased accessibility and made computing more efficient, allowing for greater
collaboration and productivity among users. The method that enables multiple

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computer system users to access a computer simultaneously is known as time-
sharing.

5. Mainframes and minicomputers

There was massive development of mainframes and minicomputers in the third-
generation computers. These computers were very large and costly computers
used by businesses and government establishments, and minicomputers, which
were smaller and inexpensive, and used by smaller establishments and research
organizations.

D. Computing's fourth generation features ( 1970s – 1980s )

The fourth generation of computers saw sporadic changes in computer technology

from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, with the development of microprocessors
and personal computers revolutionizing the industry. It featured the production of
integrated circuits, which made it possible to miniaturize and mass-produce
computer components, leading to a significant increase in computing power. Thus,
it was possible to build computers using large-scale integration (LSI) and very large-
scale integration (VLSI) technology. This knowledge permits the development of
microprocessors, which made computers even smaller and more powerful. Personal
computers (PCs) were also introduced in this era. Examples of fourth-generation
computers are IBM Personal Computer (PC), IIBM System/370, Apple Macintosh,
Commodore 64 (C64), and Atari 800. The fourth-generation programming languages
known as 4GLs were developed to allow the production of complex business
applications. These high-level languages were developed in the 1980s so that non-
programmers could develop applications that would handle large amounts of data.
Examples are Structured Query Language (SGL), Visual Basic, and PowerBuilder, Ada.
An example of this generation of computers is shown in Figure 1.4.

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 Figure 1.4: Fourth-Generation Computers

Features of Fourth-Generation Computers

The features of the fourth generation of computers are:

1. Microprocessors
The discovery of microprocessors gave birth to the building of fourth-generation
computers in the late 1970s and mid-1980s. Several microprocessors were built by
different companies to contribute to the development of fourth-generation
computers. Intel developed the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which was the first
commercial microprocessor and was made available in 1971. The Intel 8008 and
8080, which were the foundation of the first personal computers, were made
available in 1972 and 1974, respectively.

Motorola produced the 6800 microprocessor in 1974, and Zilog announced the Z80
microprocessor in 1976. Motorola 6800 microprocessor enjoyed a lot of patronage
from early home computers and video game consoles, while Zilog microprocessors
gained popularity among early personal computers, such as the TRS-80 and the ZX
Spectrum.

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Microprocessors give room for better processing power and speed. They are much
smaller and more effective than the large, bulky vacuum tubes and transistors used
in earlier generations of computers.

2. Increased memory capacity

The fourth-generation computers witnessed the development of dynamic random-
access memory (DRAM) technology, which made it possible to construct extra
memory in computers, which then gave room for more complex and sophisticated
programs to be run in addition to permitting the formation of smaller, more reliable,
and cheaper memory chips. The introduction of microprocessors in fourth-
generation computers brings into play a single chip integrated into the central
processing unit (CPU) and memory, combining two vital computing components into
one, which led to the development of microprocessors. This increased the general
memory capacity and allowed faster processing speeds and reduced the need for
distinct memory components.

3. Operating systems
The development of microprocessors, integrated circuits, and personal computers
led to the advancement of more powerful operating systems (OS) with greater
functionality, efficiency, and user-friendliness. During that time, several operating
systems emerged, including MS-DOS, Macintosh System Software, Unix, MS
Windows, and OS/2, each offering unique features and capabilities to users. MS-DOS
was made available in the 1980s and used by IBM-compatible systems. It uses a
command-line interface and permits users to run programs, manage files, and access
hardware facilities. In 1984, Apple introduced Macintosh System Software, which
boasted a graphical user interface (GUI), allowing users to manage files through drag-
and-drop and access features via a menu bar. Unix operating system was introduced
in the 1970s and was generally used in the 1980s in workstations and minicomputers.
Featuring a command-line interface, it was designed as a multi-user, multi-tasking
operating system. MS Windows was first made available in 1985, and it was issued
as a GUI for IBM-compatible personal computers. In the late 1980s and early 1990s,
the popularity of the operating system increased with the release of Windows 3.0
and 3.1, which introduced advanced graphics support, virtual memory, and other

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features, making it more widely adopted. OS/2 was produced by the combined
efforts of IBM and Microsoft in 1987 to pave the way for an advanced operating
system for personal computers. It was developed to be a multi-tasking, multi-user
operating system with GUI. However, it was not generally accepted, hence
suspended in 2001. All these characteristics made it easier for users to interact with
the computer and perform a wide range of tasks.

4. User-friendly interfaces
The graphical user interface, which was first developed by Xerox in the 1970s and
became popular in the 1980s, made fourth-generation computer usage easier for
average individuals. Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers (WIMP) interface was
introduced in the 1980s, gained general acceptance among Windows OS users, and
featured a desktop with icons representing programs, files, and folders, as well as
drop-down menus and pointers to navigate. Command Line Interface (CLI), though
less user-friendly than the GUI, was still in use in the 4GL. Touchscreens were
developed in the 1980s, though not used until later. In all, GUI permits users to relate
with the computer using icons, windows, and menus rather than having to type in
complex commands.

5. Networking
Advanced networking technology was developed in the fourth generation of
computers, which gives room for computers to interface, communicate, and share
facilities more easily than ever before. Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox
Corporation's Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC) in 1973, enabling computers to
connect through a shared communication protocol for resource and data exchange.
Internet Protocol (IP), which allows communication between different devices over
a network, was first developed in the late 1970s by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn as a way
to connect multiple networks, creating a larger network of networks. Local Area
Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) were introduced during this
period for businesses to connect their computers and share data across diverse
locations.

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The fourth generation of computers brought in important growth of networking
technology, which paved the way for the general acceptance of computer networks
and the development of the modern internet.

6. Programming languages at a higher level of abstraction.

A lot of programming languages at a higher level of abstraction, as discussed earlier,
were developed in fourth-generation computers. Complex software applications
became easier to write programs on, with the development of Programming
languages at a higher level of abstraction, such as C, C++, Java, Structured Query
Language (SQL), Lisp, Prolog, and BASIC, among others.

E. The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s)

The idea of starting the fifth generation of computing, called the "Fifth Generation
Computer Project," was started by the Japanese government with the Japanese
Ministry of International Trade and Industry and some important Japanese
technology companies, such as Fujitsu, NEC, and Hitachi, taking part in the
development in the 1980s. The goal was to develop a novel generation of computers
that could use cutting-edge artificial intelligence, natural language processing (NLP)
capabilities, and logic programming techniques. The project that was expected to be
on for ten years was terminated in the 1990s due to their inability to achieve their
goals. They were not able to achieve their goals because of the increasing cost of the
project and the helplessness of the researchers to develop practical and useful
applications for the technology they were researching. Despite the stoppage of the
project, it was able to promote the development of computer science and artificial
intelligence research, most especially in the area of logic programming and
knowledge representation. Furthermore, it inspired research in parallel processing
and distributed systems, which became a field in computer science later. Some of
the fifth generations of computer Languages (5GLs) are not so distinct. The
Languages were advancements in the fourth generation of computer languages.
Some examples of programming languages of the fifth generation of computers are
Prolog, Concurrent Prolog, Mercury, Official Production System 5 (OPS5), LISt
Processing (LISP), Miranda, Structured Query Language (SQL), Statistical Analysis

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System (SAS), Adaptive Design Automation (ADA) and VHSIC Hardware Description
Language (VHDL) where VHSIC stands for Very High-Speed Integrated Circuit.

Figure 1.5: Fifth-generation computer

Features of Fifth-Generation Computers

The features of fifth-generation computers are:

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

One of the features of the fifth-generation computers is the ability to depend on
parallel processing, natural language processing, and expert systems, including the
use of machine learning algorithms. In other words, the computers of this generation
should be able to do things that human beings normally do, such as knowledge of
natural language, identifying patterns, and making decisions.

2. Natural Language Processing (NLP)

NLP is a specialized study in artificial intelligence and part of the goals of fifth-
generation computers which were not achieved. However, the research stimulated
future development in the field. The study area gives the capability to comprehend

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and give answers to human language in a manner that is similar to human-to-human
interaction.

3. Knowledge-Based Systems (KBS)

KBS is an important component of AI and a fifth generation of computers that aims
to use a database of knowledge and reasoning methods to replicate the problem-
solving abilities of a human expert in a specific area. It is intended to process
natural language and use AI to reason and learn since it has a knowledge base and
an inference engine. In all, KBS has the power to save and retrieve huge quantities
of information and use it to reason and make decisions.

4. Parallel Processing
Parallel processing is an important characteristic of fifth-generation computers,
which allows several instructions to be performed at the same time and also analyze
large volumes of data. It divides the work into smaller sub-units and performs them
on many processors.

5. Distributed Computing
This is a vital goal of the fifth generation of computers to produce machines that are
highly intelligent, flexible, and interactive. In distributed computing, machines are
aimed to accomplish a wide variety of jobs that need a large amount of computing
power, memory, and speed. It gives room for a large number of computers to be
linked together to form a single, powerful system, working together to find a solution
to a problem. In all, the fifth generation of computers gives the opportunity to
connect and utilize the processing power of multiple computers, allowing for large-
scale computations and data analysis.

6. Expert Systems
This is a component of the fifth-generation computers that are aimed at imitating
the decision-making functions of an expert in a specific area, using knowledge and
reasoning methods to give solutions to problems and make decisions. It is expected
to assist users in finding solutions to complex problems by giving guidance and
suggestions based on their knowledge of the specific area. In all, one can expect

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systems to model and automate the decision-making processes of human experts in
various fields.

7. User-Friendly Interfaces
The definition of user-friendly interfaces of the fifth-generation computers was not
absolutely agreed upon. However, it is known as an intelligent computer and is
expected to have user-friendly interfaces. The interfaces are developed to be
intuitive, efficient, and pleasant to use, that is, easy to use and understand, even for
non-expert users. Thus, the fifth generation of computers ought to relate with users
in a natural and casual manner, using natural language processing, speech
recognition, and other advanced skills. In other words, users can interact with the
computer in a more natural and intuitive way, such as through voice commands and
touch screens.

1.1.2 Specific Applications Due to Rapid Advancement in Knowledge

It is pertinent to note that the first to the fifth generations of computers have been
discussed in the previous sections. However, the question that comes to mind is,
"Are there sixth-generation computers?" The answer is simple. Since the fifth
generation of computers emerged with a focus on AI, the emphasis started shifting
from the generation of computers or a total refurbishment of computing technology
to specific applications due to rapid advancement in knowledge.

However, some experts suggested that the sixth generation of computers consists of
computers with the ability to perform advanced forms of artificial intelligence (AI),
such as deep learning and neural networks. It should also be able to possibly exhibit
human-like cognitive abilities, like reasoning, analyzing problems, and carrying out
actions.

There are suggestions in some quarters to have the seventh generation of

computers, i.e., computers that relate well with their environment in a more
sophisticated way than the present AI systems. These types of computers should be
able to perceive and respond to the world around them using a variety of sensors,
together with visual, auditory, and tactile sensors.

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Furthermore, there are suggestions for having a classification called Quantum
computers. These are computers that use ideologies of quantum mechanics for
computation. They have the impetus to give solutions to glitches that are presently
obstinate for traditional devices, like large-scale optimization problems and
cryptography.

There is also Neuromorphic computing (NC), which uses the structure and functions
of the human brain for modeling. It uses the idea of artificial neural networks that
can learn and adapt to new information, just like the way that biological neurons
work in the brain. NC offers enhanced efficiency in data processing and facilitates a
wide range of applications, including but not limited to image recognition, natural
language processing, and robotics. NC can undertake jobs that are difficult for
traditional computers, such as recognizing patterns in complex data sets or
processing sensory information in real-time. Neuromorphic systems can also be
highly energy-efficient, consuming much less power than traditional computers.

It is of utmost importance to recognize that the classifications of computers based

on their capabilities are not universally accepted. Although the concept of classifying
computers based on their utilization of parallel processing and artificial intelligence
technologies was proposed during the fifth generation of computers, it continues to
evolve and is now incorporated into various types of computing devices, ranging
from supercomputers to smartphones. This demonstrates the dynamic nature of
technological advancements, as well as the increasing integration of cutting-edge
technologies into our daily lives. Furthermore, there are other recent means of
classification of computers based on the type of job they are designed to do, their
size, functionality, and capabilities. Other major classifications of computers in this
contemporary time are in the form of Personal Computers (PCs), Workstations,
Servers, Mainframes, Supercomputers, Embedded systems, and Wearable
computers. Moreso, some experts have faith in the fact that future generations of
computers may be based on totally different ideologies diverse from what is
currently in vogue in contemporary computers, such as biological or chemical
systems. Others suggest that the boundaries between human and machine
intelligence may become increasingly blurred, leading to a new era of cognitive
computing.

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1.2 Computer Science
Computer Science (CS) is the research into computer and computer systems with an
understanding of computing technologies, algorithms, and programming languages.
Computer science encompasses both theoretical and practical facets, spanning the
development of software and hardware systems, the analysis and design of
algorithms, and the exploration of computational theory and foundations. Beyond
these technical areas, computer science also delves into the social, ethical, and
economic ramifications of computing technology. This multifaceted discipline
explores the impact of technology on society and considers how computing can be
leveraged to address societal challenges.

The field of Computer Science encompasses a vast array of subjects, including but
not limited to artificial intelligence, computer architecture, databases, graphics,
human-computer interaction, networking, operating systems, programming
languages, security, software engineering, and theory of computation. This breadth
of topics highlights the interdisciplinary nature of Computer Science and the wide
range of applications it has in various industries. With its ever-evolving
advancements and innovations, Computer Science continues to push the boundaries
of what is possible in the realm of computing technology.

The study of computer and computational systems has an important influence on

virtually every part of modern life, from communication and entertainment to
healthcare and transportation. It is also a sporadically developing field, with new
technologies and applications evolving every now and then.

There are several occupational opportunities for CS professionals in diverse

industries, ranging from software development, IT consulting, finance, and
healthcare, to government establishments. CS professionals have the prospect of
working as programmers, software engineers, data analysts, network
administrators, cybersecurity specialists, or researchers, among other roles. The
characteristics of computer science are:

1. Abstraction: This is the capability to take complex systems and break them
down into simpler components or abstractions that can be operated more

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 easily. These abstractions can be used to design, analyze, and optimize
computer programs, systems, and algorithms.
2. Algorithmic thinking: Computer scientists use analytical and problem-
solving skills to break down complex problems into smaller parts and design
algorithms to solve them (i.e., algorithmic thinking). This ability allows them
to create powerful and effective software systems that have applications
across various industries. Through their training, they approach problems in
a structured and logical way, which is important for programming and
software development.
3. Computational thinking: This is the ability to use a set of mental tools and
ideas to approach problems in a way that a computer can solve them. This
involves understanding algorithms, data structures, and programming
languages to find solutions to problems efficiently and effectively.
4. Creativity: The study of computer science comprises creative ways of finding
solutions to problems. It involves the ability of programmers to think
creatively and come up with new solutions to solving complex problems.
These ideas and solutions ought to be communicated efficiently and
effectively to others.
5. Collaboration: This is an important skill in computer science that enables
programmers to work in teams to develop software and systems. It also
enables Programmers to communicate effectively with others to find
solutions to problems together. It is pertinent to note that effective
collaboration includes good communication, empathy, and teamwork.

1.3 Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity protects computer systems, networks, devices, and data from
unauthorized access, theft, damage, and other cyber threats. The technologies,

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processes, and practices safeguard electronic systems from malicious attacks on
computers, mobile devices, servers, and other electronic devices.

Cybersecurity is indispensable in this present digital world, where diverse sensitive

information is stored and communicated by electronic means. The penalties of an
effective cyber attack can be overwhelming, together with financial losses, damage
to reputation, and even loss of life.

The area of study of cybersecurity is enormous and continuously developing, with

new threats and vulnerabilities evolving day by day. Key areas of cybersecurity
include network, application, endpoint, and data security, cloud security, identity
and access management, threat intelligence, incident response, and cybersecurity in
governance, risk, and compliance (CRC).

There are so many employment opportunities for cybersecurity professionals. Such

opportunities include Information Security Analyst, Penetration Tester, Security
Consultant, Cybersecurity Engineer, Incident Response Analyst, Network Security
Engineer, Cryptographer, Security Architect, Cybersecurity Specialist, Compliance
Analyst, Risk Management Analyst, Security Operations Centre (SOC) Analyst,
Malware Analyst, Forensic Analyst, Security Auditor, Security Administrator,
Cybersecurity Trainer/Instructor, and Security Researcher. The need for
cybersecurity professionals is likely to continue to rise as the threat landscape turns
out to be more complex and the demand for defending sensitive information
upsurges.

The characteristics of cybersecurity are:

1. Confidentiality: This is the capability to preserve sensitive information and

data protected and secluded. It is accomplished through encryption and
access control mechanisms, such as passwords and multi-factor
authentication.
2. Integrity: This is the capacity to make sure that data and information are
accurate and consistent. Integrity also makes sure that data and information

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 are not altered or tampered with in any way. This is accomplished through
data backup and salvage mechanisms, as well as through measures such as
digital signatures and hash functions.
3. Availability: This is the ability of approved users to access information and
systems when they are required. This is accomplished through procedures
such as redundancy and fault tolerance, as well as through monitoring and
administration of network traffic and resources.
4. Authentication: This is the procedure for authenticating the identity of users
and having the assurance of the certainty of the identity. This is accomplished
with procedures such as passwords, biometric verification, and multi-factor
authentication.
5. Non-repudiation: This is a situation whereby a party cannot deny the
legitimacy or integrity of a message or business that they have sent or
received. This is accomplished through digital signatures and other
cryptographic procedures that offer provable proof of authenticity and
integrity.

1.4 Data Science

Data Science extracts insights from data through a multidisciplinary approach,
providing valuable business knowledge. It can draw on methods and techniques from
fields such as statistics, mathematics, computer science, and domain-specific
knowledge in order to derive insights and create solutions from data. Data Science
uses a multidisciplinary approach, including math, statistics, AI, and computer
engineering, to analyze large amounts of data.

The study of how to extract insights from data encompasses a variety of procedures
and approaches for collecting, organizing, and analyzing data. This comprises
statistical analysis, machine learning, data visualization, and data mining. It also

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includes the use of dedicated software and programming languages such as Python,
R, and SQL.

Several stages are involved in data science processes. Such stages are Data
Collection, Data Preparation, Data Analysis, Data Visualization, and Communication.

Several employment opportunities are opened to Data scientists. Some of them are
Machine Learning Engineers, Business Intelligence analysts, Data Analysts, Data
Scientists, statisticians, Quantitative analysts, Data engineers, Data architects,
Artificial Intelligence Researchers, and Predictive modelers. The demand for Data
Scientists is on the increase in diverse industries such as healthcare, finance, and
marketing to improve decision-making processes and gain a competitive advantage.
The characteristics of Data Science are:

1. Multidisciplinary: This encompasses the application of skills and knowledge

from several fields, such as statistics, mathematics, computer science, and
domain-specific knowledge.
2. Data-driven: This is profoundly dependent on data, and its principal
objective is to extract perceptions and knowledge from data sets. This
comprises collecting and organizing data, analyzing it, and using it to develop
models and make forecasts.
3. Iterative: This contains an iterative procedure of survey, modeling, and
evaluation. This procedure includes continuous modification and
improvement of models and methods until the desired outcomes are
achieved.
4. Problem-solving: In data science, the main goal is finding solutions to real-
world problems through the use of data. This involves recognizing the
problems, gathering relevant data, analyzing the data, and developing
solutions that can be implemented to address the problem.

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 5. Creativity: Data science needs imaginative thinking to approach problems
and develop solutions. It involves investigating diverse methods, exploring
new data sets, and developing innovative methods to solve problems.

1.5 Information and Communication Technology

Information and communications technology (ICT) is a branch of computing science
that encompasses all forms of technology related to the communication,
storage, and processing of information. It includes a wide range of technologies such
as computers, the internet, broadcast technologies, and telecommunication
systems. ICT is used in a variety of ways, from helping businesses streamline their
operations to enabling people to access information and services. It is also used to
facilitate learning, improve healthcare, and enhance communication between
people.

ICT is made up of three components: (1) Information: the use of computer systems
to transform data into information. (2) Communications: the transmission of
information through networks. And (3) Technology: the technique applied for the
transmission. Information and communication technology (ICT) has a number of
important roles in various aspects of society, including:

1. Communication: ICT enables communication among people, regardless of

location, through technologies such as email, messaging apps, and video
conferencing.
2. Access to information: ICT provides means to access a large volume of
information through sources such as the internet and databases.
3. Education: ICT is applied in education to facilitate distance learning and
provide access to a wide range of educational resources.
4. Healthcare: ICT is used in healthcare to improve patient care and support
telemedicine, which allows patients to receive care remotely.

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 5. Economic development: ICT can contribute to economic development by
enabling businesses to increase efficiency and productivity and by creating
new job opportunities in the tech sector.

1.6 Information Systems

Information Systems (IS) is a branch of computing science that focuses on the use of
a combination of software, hardware, and telecommunication networks to collect,
process, store, and distribute information to support decision-making, control, and
coordination in an organization for increased productivity through best practices and
professional standards.

The basic components of information systems are:

1. Hardware: These are the physical devices that work together to accept,
process, and share data and information. Examples are monitor, processor,
printer, and keyboard.
2. Software: These are the computer programs (instructions) that allow the
hardware to process the data.
3. Databases: These are the collections of associated files or tables containing
related data and information.
4. Networks: These are interconnected computer systems that allow diverse
computers to distribute resources.
5. Procedures are the commands for combining the components above to
process information and produce the preferred output.

The benefits of an information system include:

1. Information Storage and Analysis

2. Information systems store, update, and even analyze information, which can
then be used to obtain solutions to current or future problems. Furthermore,

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 information systems can integrate data from various sources in order to keep
an organization up to date with internal performance and external
opportunities and threats.
3. Easier Decision Making
4. Information systems assist organizations in the decision-making process.
However, with the use of IS, it is easier to deliver all the necessary
information and model the results to make better decisions.
5. Behavioural Change
6. Information systems assist employers and employees to communicate
rapidly and more effectively. While emails are quick and effective, the use of
Information Systems is more efficient since documents are stored in folders
that can be shared and accessed by employees.
7. Assist with Business Processes
8. Information systems help businesses in developing a great amount of value
added-systems in an organisation. For example, an organisation can integrate
information systems with the manufacturing cycle to ensure that the output
it produces complies with the requirements of the various quality
management standards.

1.7 Information Technology

Information technology (IT) is a branch of computing science that deals with the use
of computers, networks, computer software, and other electronic or digital devices
to create, process, store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of data and information.
Information technology is responsible for such a large portion of our workforce,
business operations, and personal access to information that it comprises much of
our daily activities.

Listed are some good examples of Information Technology services:

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 1. Network: When two or more computer systems are connected via cables or
without cables (wireless).
2. Compute: The method of computing, or data processing, is an important
aspect of Information Technology. It helps in storing the data in the CPU.
3. Data Storage of Memory: The device where the information is stored
without directly being processed. It can be solid-state drives or cloud storage
databases.
4. Security: Computer security assists organizations in protecting their data and
other technological assets to be saved from any unauthorized access.
5. Technical Support: This is used to solve hardware, software, ad network
issues.

Listed are the benefits of information technology:

1. With the advancement in information technology, access to the system of an

organization from anywhere is possible. It is not necessary for the authority
to be in the office only. They can work from home as well. Easy access to the
system from anywhere has surely increased one’s productivity.
2. There is a huge demand for IT professionals in various fields. The demand
opens an immense opportunity for IT professionals to explore the field and
show their talent.
3. With the advancement of IT, the educational organization has changed its
outlook and has adopted a modern way of teaching and learning. Teachers
and institutions are using modern gadgets to teach their students. A
computer with an internet connection helps students to learn new things
and understand the topics easily and deeply.

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 4. Information technology assists patients because they can now connect with
their physicians and take advice online. Also, there are many virtual
healthcare applications available to provide guidance. Electronic health
records and telemedicine are delivering efficient and quality health to
patients.
5. In the technology world, with information technology, the drawback of time
and distance in business activities has been eliminated. Now, buying and
selling have been made a lot easier since customers can buy online from
vendors anywhere.
6. With wireless communication mediums, only a few seconds are needed to
know the news from any part of the world; news broadcasts have become so
much easier.
7. The use of the Internet on mobile phones, tablets, laptops, Personal Data
Assistant (PDA), and other gadgets has been offering us unlimited access to
entertainment Platforms.
8. With IT, communication has become cheaper, easier, and faster than ever
before. Texting, chatting, video calling, and sending emails is so easy
nowadays. There are so many applications available online to provide these
services.
9. With IT, the world is on one platform, and there are no physical barriers
between countries. We have seen and understood the meaning of
globalization. Today,

1.8 Software Engineering

Software engineering is a branch of computing science that deals with the design,
development, testing, deploying, and maintenance of software products to solve

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real-world problems using well-defined scientific principles, methods, and
procedures.

Software Engineering is the combination of two words: software and engineering.

"Software" consists of integrated programs designed carefully with organized
instructions and codes. And "engineering" means inventing, designing, building,
maintaining, and improving devices and processes using scientific and practical
knowledge.

Software engineering is important to society because of:

1. Meeting User Needs: Software engineering enables the creation of software

that meets the needs of users. By following established software
development processes, engineers can gather requirements, design
solutions, and test software to ensure it meets the needs of its users. This
results in software that is user-friendly and valuable to its users.
2. Quality Assurance: The software engineering process emphasizes the
importance of quality assurance. This includes designing software that is easy
to maintain, testing software thoroughly to ensure it functions as intended,
and providing support to users when they encounter issues. Quality
assurance ensures that the software is reliable, efficient, and effective.
3. Efficiency and Productivity: Software engineering can help organizations
increase their efficiency and productivity. By using software to automate
routine tasks, companies can save time and reduce costs. Software
engineering also enables the creation of custom software solutions that
meet the specific needs of an organization, further increasing efficiency.
4. Security: Cybersecurity is an increasingly important concern for businesses
and individuals alike. Software engineering can help create secure software
solutions that protect sensitive data and prevent unauthorized access. By

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 building security measures into the software development process,
engineers can ensure that software is secure from the start.
5. Scalability: As organizations grow, they need software solutions that can
scale with their needs. Software engineering can help create scalable
software solutions that can adapt to changing needs and growing user bases.
This allows organizations to continue using the software even as their needs
change.

1.9 Summary
This chapter has introduced the student to the history and characteristics of
computing sciences with a view to appreciating computer systems and computing
science. The key concepts in the areas of Computer Science, Cybersecurity, Data
Science, Information and Communication Technology, Information Systems,
Information Technology and Software Engineering were also presented. To this end,
the importance of these various branches of computing to society was clearly
explained.

Exercises
1. When did the first electronic computer appear?
2. When was the first personal computer introduced?
3. What is the classification of computers after the fifth generation?
4. What is quantum computing?
5. What is neuromorphic computing?
6. What is the future of computer classification beyond the sixth generation?
7. Write a short note on each of the five generations of computers
8. Succinctly explain the following terms:
a) computer science
b) Cybersecurity
c) Data Science
d) Information systems

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 e) Software Engineering
f) Information and Communication Technology
g) List and explain the various branches of computing sciences
h) Differentiate among the various branches of computing
i) Itemize the importance of the various branches of computing
sciences

References
Brinkman, B. A. (2021). Soft machines: The future of interactive computing. MIT
Press.

Dessalegn Mequanint (ND). Introduction To Computer Science.

https://ebooks.aiu.ac.ke/show/703/pdf. Accessed on April 10, 2023.

Gitelman, L. (2021). A cultural history of data practices. Routledge. Accessed on

April 12, 2023.

Ian Sommerville (2011). Software Engineering, 9th Edition. Addison-Wesley.

Image Source (URL): lamy.com/stock-photo/charles-babbage-analytical-

engine.html?sortBy=relevant.

Nofre, D., & Priestley, M. (2021). Histories of computing in education: International

perspectives. Routledge.

Oni O, Omidiora E, Olabiyisi S, Adetunji A, Oladosu J, Williams A, and Omowaiye R.

(2007). ICT Fundamentals-A Comprehensive guide for Beginners. LAUTECH
ICT. (ISBN: 978-245-376-5).

Pradeep K. and Priti S. (2004). Computer Fundamentals - 8th Edition Concepts,

Systems & Applications. BPB Publications. ISBN 978817656752.

Ralph S. and George R. (2021). Fundamentals of Information Systems. Cengage

Learning. ISBN-13: 978-0840062185 or 978-1133629627.

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CCMAS-Fundamentals of Computing Book 1
 Chapter Two
2. Computer Hardware

Overview
This chapter provides general knowledge about computer hardware. It also
describes the physical components required for a computer system to function
efficiently: the input and output devices. The chapter presents and explains the
different storage hardware and their functions. It also highlights the different units
of measurement for storage. This chapter clearly illustrates the different
components of a central processing unit (CPU) and their functions.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with a basic knowledge of computer
hardware. Specifically, students should be able to:

a. define computer hardware clearly

b. describe different types of input hardware
c. describe different types of output hardware
d. illustrate the primary components of the CPU and describe their
functions
e. explain the uses of different discs and other storage media and their
functions

2.0 Computer Hardware

The term "computer hardware" is described (in Figures 2.1 and 2.2) as the external
and internal tools one needs to do important tasks, including input, output, storage,
communication, processing, and more.

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 Figure 2.1: External system hardware sample

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 Figure 2.2: Internal hardware sample

2.1 Input Hardware

The phrase "hardware" refers to all the tangible parts of a computer system that a
user can touch, such as the keyboard, visual display unit, system unit, mouse, and
printer. A computer system's input devices (hardware) are used to enter data into
the system. Examples are:

2.1.1 Keyboards
The most frequent input devices are keyboards, which resemble typewriters. They
are made up of keys that stand for letters, numbers, and unique symbols. They also
contain function keys (F1 to F12), which vary in use based on the program being
activated.

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 Figure 2.3: Keyboard

2.1.2 Pointing Devices

2.1.2.1 Mouse:

With the invention of the mouse, in Figure 2.4, the movement restriction of older
input devices was eliminated. The necessity for an input device that can assist with
data entry by picking an option on the desktop comes with the introduction of the
Graphical User Interface (GUI). A computer user may now rotate their screen 360
degrees, something that was previously impossible, with the aid of a mouse. One
type of mouse has a tracking ball that sends the signal to move the pointer on the
screen, while the other type is an optical mouse that detects movement and moves
the pointer on the screen.

Figure 2.4: Mouse

2.1.2.2 Trackballs

Using a trackball, you can input motion information into computers and other
electronics. Its top has a rolling, moving ball that can move in any direction, acting

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as a mouse-like device. Instead of moving the complete gadget, simply roll the
movable ball on top of the trackball unit with your hand to provide motion input.
The main function of computer trackballs, which are often used in place of mice, is
to move the cursor around the screen. Similar to mice, computer trackballs have
buttons that can be used as left- and right-click buttons as well as for other
commands. Trackballs can be found in various electronic devices outside
computers, such as arcade games, mixing boards, and self-service kiosks. However,
they are most frequently used with computers.

Figure 2.5: Trackball

2.1.2.3 Pointing sticks

Similar to a joystick, the pointing stick may move and control the computer cursor.
It is intended for its height to be just above the keys. A pointing stick is a practical
substitute for a touchpad if a laptop lacks the necessary space. The sensitivity
grading of the pointing stick must be adjusted to recognise motions and taps
intended for its use in order for it to function as intended.

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 Figure 2.6: Pointing sticks

2.1.2.4 Touchpads

The development of the touch screen is thought to have revolutionised the world of
input devices. Smartphones, ATMs, railway inquiry systems, and many other devices
use touch screens widely. They are very simple to use. To choose an option, users
only need to touch it. When the choice is touched, the light beam is broken, the
position of the option is registered, and the program that controls that option is run.

Figure 2.7: Touchpads

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2.1.2.5 Light Pens

The tip of a light pen has a photocell. To select the necessary choice, move it
around the screen and touch it. The light pen executes the file concealed by that
option after detecting the light emanating from it. The light pen is mostly utilised in
computer-aided design (CAD) and graphic design work. During football broadcasts,
light pens are frequently utilized by commentators to draw free-hand lines on the
TV screen.

Figure 2.8: Light Pens

2.1.2.6 Pen-based system

Pen-based computing describes mobile computers that input data into a computer
using an electronic writing pad and a light-sensitive pen. The writing is turned into
digital input and kept in a computer file. Due to the fact that the majority of people
are at ease using pens, pen-based computing is becoming more common. Sales and
service personnel, insurance agents, retail suppliers, delivery persons, inventory
clerks, and healthcare professionals who are frequently on the go can all benefit
from it.

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2.1.3 Source Data Entry Devices
2.1.3.1 Scanning Devices

Optical input devices enable computers to use light as an input source. A scanner is
an example of an optical input device. Optical mark readers are some other
common optical input devices.

Figure 2.9: Scanning Device

Barcode Reader

Barcodes are machine-readable vertical lines that are adjacent and have varied
widths. Books, groceries, and other items can be identified by barcode. Barcode
scanners make use of reflected light to read barcodes. The computer receives this
data and uses the bars' spacing and thickness to decipher the code. In order to read
labels on books and in department stores, handheld barcode readers are frequently
utilised. Fast and precise barcode readers are available. They help provide customers
with faster service and can also be used to count the number of each item sold or to
retrieve an item's price.

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 Figure 2.10: Barcode Reader

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Banks utilise MICR to process a lot of checks at once. The magnetic encoding
numbers printed at the bottom of a check are recognised using them. The numbers
on the check are printed with iron-containing ink and are legible to humans. These
figures have magnets in them. For character recognition, MICR uses a magnetic ink
character reader. The magnetic field causes the read head to detect the characters
or numbers on the check when it is passed through a magnetic ink character reader.
In banks, readers are typically used to process checks. The bank, branch, and check
numbers are all located at the bottom of the check. Optical Character Recognition
(OCR) cannot read documents as quickly as MICR.

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 Figure 2.11: Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

OMR is employed to find marks on paper. Through their blackness, the marks can be
identified. OMR reads the marks using an optical mark reader. The information is
passed when the OMR scanner scans the forms and recognises the mark that is
correctly positioned on the paper and darker than the surrounding paper. It sends
the information to the computer for processing by application software. In order to
do this, a light beam is used to capture the presence and absence of marks on the
paper that has been marked. By measuring the reflected light, the optical mark
reader locates the mark. The computer interprets and stores the mark pattern.

Figure 2.12: Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

OCR is a technique for scanning documents, converting them, and then identifying
the image as modifiable ASCII text using OCR software. OCR uses an optical character
reader to recognise characters. The optical character reader stores the scanned
image as a bitmap image, which is a grid of dots. As a result, the text that has been
scanned cannot be edited. OCR software is required in order to alter the scanned
text. OCR software converts the array of dots into text that the computer can read
as words and letters. In order to recognise the words and letters of text, OCR

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software compares the pattern on the scanned image with the ones that are stored
on the computer. Different file formats can be used to store the text files produced
by OCR. OMR is widely used to read the responses in objective-type tests, where
students indicate their responses by darkening a particular circle with a pencil. OMR
is used to read a variety of forms, especially orders and questionnaires.

Figure 2.13: Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

2.1.3.2 Sensors

A sensor is an apparatus that detects changes in electrical, physical, or other

characteristics and produces an output to signal the recognition of the change. This
sensor's output typically takes the shape of an electrical or optical signal. Infrared
(IR) sensors, ultrasonic sensors, light sensors, smoke and gas sensors, proximity
sensors, optical sensors, position sensors, thermal or heat or temperature sensors,
electric current or potential or magnetic or radio sensors, humidity sensors, fluid
velocity or flow sensors, pressure sensors, and magnetic switch sensors are among
the most commonly used types of sensors.

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 Figure 2.14: Sensors

2.1.3.3 Audio-Input Devices

Speech or human voice can be used to give the computer an audio input. The
computer's audio input can serve a variety of functions. It can be used to make phone
conversations, have audio and video conferences online, record voice, create audio
files, include those files in emails, or translate spoken words into text. It speaks data
into a computer using a microphone or another audio input device. The sound card
transforms the analog audio signals from the microphone into digital codes so that
the computer can store and use them. The sound card additionally transforms the
digital sound into analog signals that can be sent to the speakers. Speech recognition,
often known as voice recognition, is the process of turning spoken words into written
ones. The speech recognition system or voice recognition system is made up of audio
input and voice recognition software. Examples include MIDI keyboards,
microphones, and different types of digital musical instruments.

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 Figure 2.15: Audio-Input Devices

Speech Synthesizer: With the aid of a microphone, data is input into a speech
synthesizer in the form of a human voice. This data is transformed into electronic
signals by the system. Following that, these signals are compared to patterns that
are already stored in a computer system. The speech synthesizer has the issue that
if a person changes the way they talk, the computer might not be able to recognize
their voice pattern.

2.1.3.4 Voice-Recognition Systems

Voice recognition is the process of decoding a human voice using computer

software or hardware. Without using a keyboard, mouse, or click-on buttons, voice
recognition software is widely used to control a device, issue commands, or write.
Here are some scenarios where voice recognition might be used: Automated phone
systems are used by many businesses nowadays to help direct callers get to the
appropriate department. Have you ever been instructed to "say or press number 2
for support," and you responded "two?" Voice recognition has been used. You may
search and ask inquiries on your computer, tablet, and phone using Google Voice, a
service. Voice recognition is used to communicate with digital assistants like Google
Assistant, Apple's Siri, and Amazon Echo, which assist with question-answering. Car
Bluetooth - If your vehicle has Bluetooth or hands-free phone pairing, you can
make calls using voice recognition by saying things like "call my wife" while keeping
your eyes on the road.

2.1.3.5 Video-Input Devices

The computer receives video input from a video camera and a digital camera. Full-
motion video images can be captured with a video camera. Images can be
compressed and saved on a computer disk after being converted to digital form. A
typical type of video camera is the webcam. To take pictures of the user using the

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computer, it is mounted on top of the screen of the device. The user can connect
video equipment, such as camcorders, to the computer using a video capture card.

Figure 2.16: Video-Input Device

2.1.3.6 Electronic Cameras

Still photos can be captured with a digital camera. You can move your photographs
to an external storage device and use it with your computer after its memory (RAM)
is full. As an alternative, you can use a port on your computer—typically FireWire or
USB—to download the images, which you can then edit for use in your own
publications.

Figure 2.17: Electronic Camera

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2.2 Output Hardware
2.2.1 Softcopy
A digital document file kept on a computer or drive is known as a "soft copy." It is
not a printed version of any document; rather, it is an electronic version. Depending
on the type of document, you can open and edit a soft copy using software programs,
including database programs, processing programs, presentation software, and
many more. A temporary copy is the output of a soft copy, which is stored in
computers, USB devices, etc. The soft copy cannot be touched because it is a virtual
object. This makes it another name for a virtual copy of a file or document. Soft
copies are easily shared and sent over a network connection, such as social media,
email, etc. Compared to hard copies, they are a more affordable and practical form
of communication. E-books, E-News, papers, scanned notes, PDF notes, etc., are a
few examples. Compared to hard copies, soft copies are more resilient and long-
lasting. Hard copies are very simple to fold, twist, burn, rip, or destroy. When a user
makes numerous backups and stores the soft copy in a suitable hardware setup, it
remains resistant to destruction.

2.2.2 Hardcopy
A hard copy is a printed version of a computer-generated digital document file on
paper or another transparent material. The output is physically printed on paper and
is consequently occasionally referred to as a permanent copy. It could be a picture,
some text, a drawing, or another printable file. They are called "hard copies" because
they are tangible physical objects that humans can touch. So, it qualifies as a physical
copy as well. Books, newspapers, printed document files, notebooks, and other
materials are a few examples. Hard copies still matter for a variety of reasons, even
in the digital age. When someone loses or mistakenly destroys their digital data, the
hard copies, in some situations, may serve as a backup. In addition, some people find
it quite simple to manage and distribute hard copies. In some cases, people can also
utilize these copies as templates or schemas that have been scribbled up with a
pencil or pen.

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2.2.2.1 Printers

Printers are used to produce hard copies of output and are divided into two
categories: one is an impact printer, and the second is a non-impact printer:

Figure 2.18: Printers

Impact Printers: Similar to a typewriter, impact printers operate similar to how

characters on paper are created on typewriters when an arm with an embossed
character strikes the ribbon and leaves an impression. Impact printers use a head
made up of several pins (typically nine or twenty-four) that strike the ribbon to create
an impression of a character on the paper. Dot matrix printers are another name for
impact printers. Impact printers print individual characters one at a time, first from
right to left and then from left to right.

Non-Impact Printers: The paper is never touched by these printers. With the aid of
heat or a laser, they create a character's picture on the paper. The following
categories can be used to categorize non-impact printers:

Thermal printer: The use of heat-sensitive sheets allows for the formation of dotted-
form characters. This printer's limitations include the need for a unique type of paper
and the inability to print numerous copies at once.

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Laser Printer: These printers make use of laser technology in order to print. The ink
powder (also known as toner) is poured onto the drum and deposits itself on the
characters that have been generated there after being charged by the laser beam.
These characters are printed on the paper as it revolves on the drum. Although a
laser printer has a high initial cost, the cost per page of printing is relatively low.

Inkjet Printer: Compared to laser printers, inkjet printers are less expensive, but
printing costs are higher. Utilizing an electric field, this printer sprays ink onto the
paper through its nozzles, the characters are created by the paper absorbing the ink.

Figure 2.19: Laser Printer (Non-Impact Printer)

2.2.2.2 Plotters

A plotter is a type of printer that receives computer orders and uses a variety of pens
to create drawings on paper. Large graphs and designs, such as construction maps,
engineering drawings, architectural blueprints, and business charts, are printed out
on paper using this method. It can either be a standalone device with an inbuilt
processor or a peripheral component you add to your computer system. When
compared to a printer, it produces the data in hardcopy at a comparatively slower
rate. It is simple to draw parallel, continuous lines between points. It is primarily
employed in specialized fields like engineering, architecture, and drawing.

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Figure 2.20: Plotter

2.2.2.3 Monitor (Visual Display Unit)

A monitor resembles a TV screen and is used for showing output.

Figure 2.21: Monitor

2.2.2.4 Microfilm

Documents are compressed and stored on photographic film as part of the

microform storage technique. Microfiche and microfilm are the two types of
microforms. Microform storage can readily store thousands of documents without
taking up much space because the papers are typically shrunk to roughly 1/25 of
their normal size. A roll of photographic film is used in microfilm storage, a type of
microform storage, to hold images of your papers. Depending on the kind of

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documents you need to keep, a typical roll of microfilm is either 16mm or 35mm in
size.

Figure 2.22: Microfilm

2.2.2.5 Microfiche

Microfiche is a flat sheet of microfilm, whereas microfilm is a roll of images that

resembles a movie reel. Instead of being a roll, microfiche is a flat sheet of microfilm.
Microfiche sheets may be simpler to organize due to their structure and shape,
although they have a much lesser storage capacity.

Figure 2.23: Microfiche

2.3 Storage Hardware

Memory is a place where the information is saved in a computer system alongside
the instructions. Primary memory and secondary memory are the two categories
into which a computer system's memory can be divided.

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Figure 2.24: Memory

2.3.1 Primary or Memory Storage

Primary Memory: The memory that resides inside a computer system is called
primary memory. The primary memory is transient in nature, and data is kept there
in the form of electronic charges. Data inside the memory will be erased immediately
after the machine is turned off. Bits and bytes serve as the memory's unit of
measurement. One character in a computer system requires one byte of memory
space for storage. For instance, three bytes of memory space are required to hold
the word "RED" in a computer system. Two categories of primary memory can be
further separated:

ROM stands for “Read Only Memory," Whatever is written in a ROM chip cannot be
changed or removed.

ROM has a few variants, as follows:

PROM stands for programmed read-only memory, where information can be

entered only once and cannot be changed after that. PROM can be purchased empty
and subsequently loaded by the user with a program. The contents of PROM cannot
be changed once they have been loaded with the program.

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EPROM is sometimes referred to as erasable programmable read-only memory
(EPROM), where data may be repeatedly rewritten. The EPROM chip must be
withdrawn from the CPU and subjected to ultraviolet rays in order for new data to
be written into it.

EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) is a type of

memory that can be repeatedly updated without being taken out of the CPU using
specialized electronic pulses.

RAM stands for “Random Access Memory," and as its name implies, data can be read
from and written onto a RAM chip. RAM is also referred to as read/write memory. It
is a volatile memory; any data entered into the RAM is erased as soon as the
computer is turned off. Various types of RAMS are:

DRAM (Dynamic RAM): It needs to be refreshed periodically by the CPU so that the
data contained in it is not lost.

Figure 2.25: DRAM

SRAM (Static RAM): Data contained in it remains stored properly; therefore, it does
not need to be refreshed by the CPU. This type of RAM has a higher speed than DRAM
and is costlier, too.

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Figure 2.26: SRAM

2.3.2 Secondary Storage

Secondary memory is a form of external, permanent storage for computers. Data is
kept in this memory on hard drives, floppy disks, magnetic tape, and optical disks.

2.3.2.1 Magnetic tape

An audio tape is comparable to a magnetic tape. The start of the tape is marked with
a metal foil known as a marker. Data is saved one character at a time, with each
character being recorded in parallel across the width of the tape in either a 7-bit or
9-bit format. Records are stored as data on tapes, and these records are spaced apart
by an inter-record gap (IRG). Only when there is a record gap below the read/write
heads does the tape stop moving. A single side of the tape is covered with a magnetic
material. Data is periodically read from the cassette and written to it. Before it is able
to identify a certain record, the machine must read each record that is in front of it,
which takes time. The majority of tapes are used for storage purposes.

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Figure 2.27: Magnetic tape

2.3.2.2 Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is created using mylar material that has been magnetic oxide-coated.
The round portions of this flexible material are either 3.5 or 5.25 inches in diameter.
They are known as floppy disks because of the flexible material that was used in their
manufacture. They are portable, inexpensive, and small, making it easy to transport
them from one location to another. Data is kept on the tracks of a floppy disk as
magnetic particles. The disk is mounted into the disk drive using a hub in the center.
There are many chances that a floppy disk will become unusable because of its
exposure to dust or because of scratches. A large slit is provided for the read/write
head to access the data. The floppy disk allows for simple storing and retrieval of
data, but when compared to the magnetic tape, the floppy disk has a longer lifespan.

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Figure 2.28: Floppy Disk

2.3.2.3 Hard Disk

In order to store large amounts of data, magnetic disks, often known as the "hard
disk" or Winchester disk, were first created in 1956. The round platters in a hard
drive are covered in magnetizable material and can be constructed with any metal,
including aluminum. The disk capacity affects the number of platters. The capacity
of the disk to store data increases with the number of platters. It is necessary to
format the disk before you can save any data on it.

Figure 2.29: Hard Disk

2.3.2.4 Optical Disk

The newest hardware innovations and the need for faster system processing speed
created a demand for speedy and efficient storage. In earlier data storage devices,
data was stored as magnetic particles, but with the advancement of optical
technology, it is now possible to store data as bits, which are tiny particles made by
a laser beam. Data can be stored very close to one another because they are stored
on an optical disk as light particles, which don't produce a magnetic field. In optical
disks, streams of digital data are burned onto a thin layer of metal or other material

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that is deposited on a disk in the shape of tiny pits. These pit patterns are read by a
laser light beam.

Figure 2.30: Optical Disk

Optical disks are available in the following forms:

1. CD/CD-ROM (Compact Disc or CD-Read-Only Memory): This is a very

commonly used term and usually refers to non-writable discs.
2. CD-R (Writable Discs, also known as CD-Recordable): A user can only burn
(store) data on a CD-R once or numerous times when utilizing multisession
mode until the disk's storage capacity is reached. Data cannot be altered
or erased after it has been written.
3. Rewritable Discs/CD Rewritable, or CD-RW. This implies that a user has the
ability to not only write data but also to remove existing data from the disc
and replace it with new data.

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 4. Digital Versatile Disc/DVD Read-Only Memory (DVD/DVD-ROM). offers the
same functionality as a CD-ROM, but a DVD typically has six times more
storage space than a CD.
5. (Writable DVD or DVD Recordable; DVD-R/DVD+R). bigger capacity with
the same features as CD-R.
6. (Rewritable DVD/DVD Rewritable) DVD-RW/DVD+RW. higher capacity with
the same features as CD-RW.
7. Double or dual-layer DVD. The disc space on double-layer discs is double
that of a typical DVD. Blu-ray disc recordable, or BD-R. It is a Blu-ray disc
that can only have data written on it once.
8. BD-RE (Blu-ray Disc Rewritable). It is a Blu-ray disc that is recordable and
erasable (BD-RE), meaning that it can be recorded on and erased as many
times as necessary. The Blu-ray format for digital optical disc data storage
replaces the DVD format in terms of data storage. Hours of high-definition
and ultra-high-definition footage can be stored on Blu-ray discs.

2.3.2.5 Pen Drive

The term "pen drive" (often known as "PD" by users) refers to a portable storage
device that may be quickly transported from one location to another. A pen drive is
relatively simple to use; all a user needs to do to get it started is insert it into a
Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection.

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Figure 2.31: Pen Drive

2.3.2.6 Flash Memory

Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that consists of memory "blocks" that
may be erased and reprogrammed. It functions similarly to an EEPROM, with the sole
exception that flash memory is faster since data is erased at the block level rather
than the byte level as it is in EEPROMs. Flash memory is widely used for preserving
control code, which is similar to the basic input/output system (BIOS) of a desktop
or laptop computer. Flash memory lets you do block (rather than byte) size writing,
which makes updating the BIOS when it needs to be changed (rewritten) simple.

Figure 2.32: Flash Memory

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2.3.2 Data Access Methods
2.3.2.1 Direct access method

This technique has the advantage of allowing random access to blocks. The relative
access method is another name for the direct access method. The operating system
uses the relative block number that a user provides when requesting access to a
specific block to determine the exact block address. Hard drives, CD-ROMs, memory
sticks or flash disks, and similar devices can all use direct access methods. Direct
access enables the possibility of random access.

2.3.2.2 Sequential Access Method

A technique for accessing data from a storage medium is called sequential access,
often referred to as serial access. Sequential access requires the device in question
to traverse across all of the data to find the location it is attempting to read or write
to. This approach is frequently compared to random access, in which the computer
may go directly to a predetermined point in memory. Sequential access is frequently
used in conjunction with tape drives. It is appropriate for tape drives because they
only allow serial or sequential data access.

2.3.3 Unit of Measurement of Storage Hardware

A storage device's capacity is frequently expressed in units of kilobytes, megabytes,
and gigabytes. The following information may aid readers in comprehending these
units. One binary digit, or bit, can represent either a 0 (zero) or a 1. The smallest unit
of measurement is a bit. Eight bits make up a byte, which may hold values between
0 and 255. A byte is the amount of room needed to store one character.

A Kilobyte = 1024bytes; Approximately A kilobyte (KB) = 1000 bytes

1,000,000 bytes = 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1000 Kilobytes
1,000,000,000 bytes = 1 Gigabyte (GB)= 1000 Megabytes
1,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1000 Gigabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Petabyte (PB)= 1000 Terabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes = 1 Exabyte (EB)= 1000 Petabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Zettabyte (ZB) = 1000 Exabytes
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes= 1 Yottabyte (YB)= 1000 Zettabytes

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2.4 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU) is frequently referred to as the
computer's brain. The Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) make up the
CPU. Additionally, the CPU has a number of registers, temporary storage spaces for
data and instructions. The mathematical and logical operations carried out by the
ALU on the data provided to it. CU is in charge of planning how information and
instructions will be processed. The other computer units' activity is managed and
coordinated by CU. Registers are used by the CPU to store data and instructions while
processing. Instructions and data are stored in memory prior to execution by the
CPU, which carries out the stored program instructions. The memory provides
information and instructions to the CPU for processing. ALU performs the arithmetic
and logical processes necessary for data processing. The processed data or result is
then sent to the memory. CPU oversees the activities of other components of the
computer and serves as an administrator. The CPU, sometimes referred to as the
microprocessor, is created as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip. The motherboard
of the computer hosts the CPU and connects it to the rest of the hardware. The
motherboard is a circuit board with electronic circuits engraved on it.

Figure 2.33: Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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2.4.1 CPU Components
An input device is used to enter data into a computer system. The control unit guides
the data into the memory; this means that as soon as data is entered into a computer
system, it is initially stored in the system's primary memory, known as random-
access memory (RAM). Data from the memory is transferred to the arithmetic and
logical unit when a command is delivered to a system for processing. The outcome
of processing is again directed to a system's memory by the control unit. Once an
instruction is issued to produce the output, this result from the memory is directed
to an output device by the control unit.

Central Processing Unit: A computer system's central processing unit (CPU) is

frequently referred to as its brain. Similar to how the brain in humans directs all
activity, in a computer system, the CPU directs all processing activities. The following
are its primary components:

Arithmetic and Logic Unit: The ALU performs logical analysis and decision-making in
addition to performing mathematical calculations. The capabilities that set a
computer system apart from a calculator are logical reasoning and decision-making.

Control Unit: The control unit (CU) serves as the system's supervisor. The CU is in
charge of coordinating and synchronizing all tasks carried out by a computer system.
The CU controls the movement of data from one area of the CPU to another and vice
versa, acting as a traffic cop. The management of the process of loading and
unloading programs and data from memory falls under the purview of the control
unit. It is also in charge of sequentially carrying out (executing) program instructions.
The concept of a "register" to store interim computational values is included in this.

Memory: A primary memory is memory that is located inside a central processing

unit. The device is shaped like a silicon chip, and data is stored there as electronic
pulses. The numbers "1" and "0" represent the existence and absence of current,
respectively. This memory stores information as binary 0s and 1s.

2.4.2 Functions of Main Memory

1. The CPU and main memory are in direct communication.
2. The information and instructions are kept in memory to be processed later.

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 3. The main memory, also known as the primary memory, momentarily stores
instructions and data before transferring the task to the CPU for additional
processing.
4. The main memory takes control of storing the data and tasks that are now
needed for execution. When the operating system (OS) loads itself, all of
the important (OS) programs are already installed in the computer's main
memory.

2.4.3 Summary
This chapter has introduced the student to all the computer system's physical
components, referred to as computer hardware. This consists of the input processing
units (keyboards, microphones, and mouse devices), output processing units
(printers, plotters, and speakers), and storage units (floppy disks, hard disks, and
optical disks, among others).

Exercises:
1. Discuss the various types of computer hardware.
2. Describe the basic components of the CPU and its functions.
3. Describe pen-based systems.
4. What do you understand about input devices?
5. What are the various input devices?
6. Mention three types of non-impact printers.
7. What are the various output devices?
8. What is meant by secondary storage or secondary memory?
9. Mention two types of data access methods.
10. What does the term “Yottabytes” mean to you?

References
Paul B., Andrew G., & Simon H. (2015). Business Information Systems Technology,
Development and Management for the E-Business (5th ed.). ISBN 978-0-
273-73646-2.

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Gupta, C. P., & Goyal, K. (2020). Computer Concepts and Management Information
Systems. Mercury Learning and Information. ISBN: 978-1-68392-586-6.

Subhash, V. (2021). PC Hardware Explained. ISBN 978-93-5457-183-1.

Kevin W. (2017). Elluminet Press Essential Computer Hardware.

TechTerms. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2023, from www.techterms.com.

Tehopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2023, from www.tehopedia.com.

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 Chapter Three
3. Computer Software

Overview
Having introduced hardware in chapter 2, this chapter discusses software, its
functions, types, criteria for selecting appropriate software, the guidelines for
selecting hardware and software, programming languages, generations, and terms
related to programming.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with the essential knowledge of software.
Specifically, students should be able to:

a. define software;
b. list and explain the types and functions of software;
c. list the criteria and guidelines for choosing appropriate software and
hardware;
d. list and describe the generations of programming languages with
examples; and
e. list programming-related terms and explain them.

Computer Software
3.1 What is Software?
In defining software, it is necessary to know what a program is. A program can be
defined as a set of instructions coded in a particular programming language for a
computer or any other digital device to follow in order to accomplish a task. Software
is then defined as a combination of programs and the documentation (description of
the software to the user in text, video, or illustration form) of the programs. It should
be noted that software is a plural noun, and thus, there is nothing like "softwares."

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3.2 Functions of Software
The functions of any piece of software depend on its type. However, the following
are the functions that software perform generally:

i. It directs the computer on the actions to take to accomplish any specific task.
ii. It provides a means of managing and communicating with the hardware.

Looking at the functions of software based on its types; basically, any software can
either be a system software or an application software. Essentially, a system
software carries out functions related to the hardware, and it consists of the
operating system, the translator, and the utility software.

Specifically, an operating system as a type of system software provides the following

general functions:

i. It manages the different hardware components of the computer system.

ii. Provision of an interface for interacting with the computer system.
iii. Controlling the execution of programs.
iv. Management of input/output devices.
v. Management of files.
vi. Detection of hardware and software errors.
vii. It allocates computer resources like the CPU, the RAM, storage, etc.
viii. It carries out accounting tasks of who used what computer resources and
when.
ix. Provision of protection and security for system resources.
x. Provision of support services to application software. For example, the
opening of a file for processing by a word processor.

A language translator converts the source code in a particular programming language

to a form executable by the target machine. Utility software helps to ensure the

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proper functioning of the computer system by helping to analyze, configure, and
maintain the computer system.

3.3 Major Types of Software

There are two major types of software, namely application software and system
software.

3.3.1 System Software

System software is a kind of software that serves as the intermediary between the
hardware and application software. It provides the needed environment for
application software to run and for the user to interact with the computer system.
System software includes the operating system, the translator, and other utility
software the computer needs to function. Examples of operating systems are
Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Ubuntu, Android OS, Chrome OS, and Apple iOS.
Translators include compilers (e.g., Visual C#, Visual C# Express, Turbo C++, javac,
etc. ), interpreters (e.g., Python interpreter, PERL interpreter, Ruby interpreter, PHP
interpreter, etc.), and assemblers (e.g., Turbo Assembler, Microsoft Macro
Assembler and High-Level Assembler (HLA)). Examples of utility software are backup
software, anti-virus software, disk defragmenting software, disk management
software, etc.

3.3.2 Application Software

An application software is a software type that carries out specific tasks for the
specific needs of the users and could either fall into the category of a general purpose
application software or a special purpose application software. A general-purpose
software can be used to perform more than a specific task, e.g., Microsft Word can
be used for typesetting, spell-checking, finding and replacing contents of a
document, etc. A specific purpose application software is used to accomplish specific
tasks in specific domains, e.g., insurance software is used to perform functions
specific to insurance.

3.3.2.1 Advantages of Application Packages

Below are the benefits of having an application software/packages:

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 i. Availability of Support Services: All standard application packages have an
online presence from where users can get assistance for any problem and
make inquiries.
ii. Availability of Software Updates: Once a user has a licence for his copy of
the application package, he is entitled to getting updates that fix bugs in the
software and provide security.
iii. A variety of programming languages are available to develop application
packages.
iv. Ability to Multitask: Many application packages provide multitasking
capability. For instance, in Microsoft Word, one can be typing and at the
same time spell-checking the document.
v. A standard application package provides room for its developer to promote
its other software solutions.
vi. Provision of Standard Features: Standard application packages provide
features that can be trusted for accomplishing their peculiar tasks.
vii. They can be used to carry out tasks in a faster manner.
viii. Standard application packages have security measures built into them to
prevent them from hackers.
ix. Some application packages have provisions for storing files in the cloud.
x. Application packages can be developed to meet specific needs.

3.3.2.2 Disadvantages of Application Packages

The following are the demerits of application packages:

i. Different application packages from different developers cannot

communicate with themselves because of incompatibility issues.

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 ii. High dependency on application packages prevents users from being creative
as they are constrained by what the package provides for them in
accomplishing their tasks.
iii. Application packages are limited in the kind of operations they can perform.
For instance, they cannot directly access the memory or the registers of the
CPU.
iv. Application packages developed for a specific company may not meet the
needs of another because of variations in operations.
v. Some packages, after installation, can make the computer system slow as
they heavily consume memory space. For instance, any application that
processes image files, video files, and sound files consumes a lot of memory.
vi. No software is error-free, and neither is any application software.
vii. Developing a standard application package takes time, as the development
has to go through the entire software development life cycle.
viii. Building a standard application package is a costly undertaking as it takes
time and experienced developers who are expensive to contract.

3.4 Criteria for Selecting Appropriate Software

This section discusses the criteria for selecting suitable software, and they are the
following:

3.4.1 User Requirements Satisfaction

Every customer has expectations of what the software they want to buy or to be
developed for them should do for them. The requirements are the functions,
behaviours, and constraints expected of any software. In selecting any software, it
must be ensured that the software meets specified users' requirements.

3.4.2 Cost
This entails software development cost or the cost of purchasing the software and
maintenance cost. Cost can also be in terms of the computing resources used by the

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software, which can be in terms of memory space, disk storage, CPU usage, and GPU
usage. Software that uses the least cost is preferred.

3.4.3 Reliability
A piece of software is said to be reliable if, under all kinds of conditions, it is able to
perform its specified tasks.

3.4.4 Flexibility
Software flexibility concerns itself with how easily the software can be adapted or
changed to meet the users' environmental needs.

3.4.5 Types of Processing

A decision has to be made as to if the software can be used to carry out the type of
processing the user wants. The processing could be scientific, online, batch, real-
time, commercial, etc.

3.4.6 Time of Processing

This involves the speed with which the software accomplishes a task; hence, the
faster, the better.

3.4.7 Integration with Other Systems

This involves determining if the software can be integrated with other systems in
order to provide enhanced functionality.

3.4.8 Hardware Requirements

Hardware requirements involves checking to see if the software can run on the
available or desired hardware. Consequently, the desired package must meet the
business’ hardware requirements.

3.4.9 Coping with Volume of Data

This is otherwise referred to as scalability, and it involves ensuring that the software
can cope with the volume of data envisaged or being currently processed by the
user/customer/business.

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3.4.10 Availability of Adequate Documentation
Software documentation contains necessary information about the software in
terms of its development, how to deploy it, and its use by all stakeholders. The
stakeholders include the users, the developers, the managers, the software
architects, the testers, etc.

3.4.11 Successful Usage by Similar Business Setups

Suppose a particular application package has been successfully used by organizations
whose operations are similar to another. In that case, it provides confidence for that
organization that if adopted, the package will be useful to it and that it will not be a
misfit that will throw money down the drain.

3.4.12 Easy Backup, Start-of-the-day and End-of-the-day Procedure

The package should provide facilities to initialize the system and close it on a daily
basis so as to account for all the operations/transactions that have taken place.

3.5 Hardware and Software Selection Guidelines

This section provides guidelines for hardware and software selection to meet the
needs of an organization or a customer.

3.5.1 Hardware Selection

Numerous hardware components are coupled together tightly or loosely for a
computing system to function properly. These hardware components are usually
made by different hardware manufacturers to work with different hardware and
software components. Below, we provide hardware selection guidelines:

3.5.1.1 Compatibility

Hardware compatibility means different hardware components work together

seamlessly. For example, to upgrade or replace your system's RAM or hard drive
(HDD), you need to ensure that they are compatible with your system's CPU, bus,
motherboard, and the operating system. Generally, a hardware component comes
with detailed documentation of its specification and compatibility description.

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3.5.1.2 Availability

Availability involves ensuring that the hardware components are available in the
market. This is necessary in case of the need for the replacement of any
malfunctioning part.

3.5.1.3 Upgradability

Hardware upgrades are sometimes necessary to improve or enhance the

performance of computing systems. Three essential hardware upgrades to improve
PC performance can be done on the RAM, the hard drive or SSD (Solid State Disk)
storage, and the CPU cooling system. The higher the capacities of these components,
the better the performance of the system.

3.5.1.4 Affordability

Affordability has to do with determining if an organization/individual has the

financial strength to acquire a particular hardware. It is not advisable to opt for a
piece of hardware that one cannot afford.

3.5.1.5 Reliability

Hardware reliability is the probability of hardware components functioning within

the specified conditions for a specific period without failure. Reliability is also
considered as an important part of dependability. Hardware may pass a reliability
test from the manufacturer but may fail after purchase. The easiest way to evaluate
a hardware component for reliability is to see the warranty policies provided by a
component manufacturer. In case of a failure, it can be returned to a vendor for
replacement or repair. The warranty period is usually between 1 to 3 years. However,
the general perception is that a longer warranty period indicates better reliability.

3.5.1.6 Sustainability

Hardware sustainability relates to its compatibility, availability, upgradability, and

reliability. Among the hardware sustainability concerns nowadays is its

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environmental friendliness; hence, the term "green IT hardware" is applied. When
purchasing hardware, sustainability considerations should include the following:

i. Low power consumption;

ii. Use of recycling materials;
iii. A holistic concept in packaging for waste avoidance;
iv. Resource-saving components;
v. Focus on long life cycles and
vi. Low possible maintenance requirements and high reliability.

3.5.2 Software Selection

Similar to hardware selection, several considerations are made when selecting the
software for computing systems. This sub-section discusses guidelines for software
selection under the following quality attributes:

3.5.2.1 Ease of Use

Software usability should capture user-friendliness. This includes the ease of

navigation, availability of standard menu and language customization,
documentation, and other related factors.

3.5.2.2 Version

Software product usually comes in versions. Each subsequent version usually comes
with improvements over the previous versions. When selecting software, the latest
version is always preferred. However, installation requirements need to be properly
checked to ensure the computing system meets the installation specification as
provided by a software product vendor.

3.5.2.3 Portability

Software portability refers to the ease of using the same software in different
computing environments. The computing environment here refers to different
operating systems. E.g., Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Unix, etc. So, when selecting a

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software product, consideration in terms of how easy it is to make it run on different
operating systems is important.

3.5.2.4 Affordability

Software affordability refers to the cost associated with acquiring a software product
for a computing system. This cost is not limited to the cost of licensing the technology
but also includes the cost of operation and maintenance throughout the entire
lifetime of the software product. Depending on whether a software product is of the
type COTS (commercial off-the-shelf ) or customized software built in-house or by a
software company, the cost of technology over its whole life needs to be calculated.
Another software product acquisition option is a subscription-based software –
software as a service (SaaS) model. The following rule-of-thumb guidelines are used
to assess whether the terms quoted by a software vendor are right: cost of licensing
the software product, standard maintenance costs, premium customer support
costs, and professional services costs.

3.5.2.5 Compatibility

Software compatibility means a software product is able to operate properly

together with other components of a computing system. When selecting a software
product or upgrading existing software to a higher version, issues of compatibility
and backward compatibility need to be considered.

3.6 Generation of Programming Languages

A computer program is written in a computer language as a sequence of instructions
to perform a specific task by the computer. From generation to generation of
computers, computer languages evolved from low-level machine languages to
higher-level languages. Computer languages are described as "lower" or "higher"
based on their closeness to the machine instruction sets (0s and 1s - low-level
language) or to the human natural language (more English-like-high-level language).

The summary of computer language evolution is as follows:

i. 1940s – Machine languages

ii. 1950s – Assembly languages

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 iii. 1960s – High-level languages
iv. 1970s – Very high-level languages (fourth-generation languages)

3.6.1 Machine Language

Machine language is the earliest programming language. Each computer has its set
of instructions made of strings of 0's and 1's. These sets of instructions constitute the
machine language– corresponding to low (0) and high (1) voltage signals. Also, it is
referred to as binary digits because the binary number system contains only two
alphabets – 0 and 1. These are convenient ways to express machine instructions
directly as a sequence of low or high voltage signals.

3.6.2 Assembly Language

Admiral Grace Hopper, in the early 1950s, was the first to conceive the idea of a
program that was based on special symbols (mnemonics) and could convert to
machine instructions. She was a mathematician and a US naval officer. This symbolic
language uses symbols to represent various machine instructions from the
instruction set. However, computer does not understand symbolic language directly,
hence the need for a translator to translate expression in symbols to machine
instructions. Assembler is developed as a special program that translates symbolic
code into machine language. Hence the name assembly language.

3.6.3 High-level Language

The invention of assembly language greatly enhanced programming efficiency and
led to increase in the number of people that could program a computer. However,
the language is still machine-dependent – it requires programmers to concentrate
on the hardware that they are using. Besides that, assembly language was very
tedious to work with it, because each machine instruction had to be individually
coded. Hence, high-level language was developed to improve programmers'
efficiency. So, programmers would no longer focus on the hardware but focus on the
problem being solved.

High-level languages (3GLs) are machine-independent. This means that they are
designed to work with many different computers irrespective of the architectures
and organization of the computers. This allows programmers to concentrate on the

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application problem-solving rather than the computer intricacies. Examples of high-
level programming languages are C, C++, and JAVA.

Table 3.1 presents the differences among the three languages.

Table 3.1: Differences among Machine, Assembly and High-level Languages

Feature Machine language Assembly High-level

language language
Form Strings of 0s and Mnemonics codes English-like
1s
Dependency on Dependent Dependent Independent
Machine
Translator Not needed Assembler is Compiler or
Requirement needed Interpreter is
needed
Required Time of Less Less High
Execution
Ease of Work Difficult Difficult Easy
Memory Less Less More
Requirement

3.6.4 Fourth-Generation Language

The 4th generation languages (4GL) are known as very high-level languages. There
has yet to be a consensus about what constitutes fourth-generation languages.
However, the concept existed from the 1970s down to the 1990s. Its development
progressed concurrently with the development of 3GLs (high-level languages) with
some overlap.

The 4GLs are essentially shorthand programming languages, identified as "non-

procedural" or "program-generating" languages. Compared to 3GLs, they are a lot
easier and faster. The 4GLs are mainly used for databases, reports, and website
development. Some 3GLs, such as Python, Ruby, and Perl, incorporate 4GL abilities
within a general-purpose 3GL environment. Also, add-ons for some popular 3GLs

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exist with 4GL-like features, producing languages that are both 3GL and 4GL. This has
made a distinction between 3GL and 4GL very difficult.

3.6.4.1 Query Language

Query languages are used to make queries in databases and information systems.
They exist in four categories, namely:

i. Data query language (DQL)

ii. Data definition language (DDL)
iii. Data control language (DCL)
iv. Data manipulation language (DML).

The structured query language (SQL) is a well-known example of query language.

3.6.4.2 Report Generator

A report generator is a very high-level programming language used for business

applications. Its purpose is to retrieve and update data from a source such as a
database, XML (extensible markup language) streams, or a spreadsheet. It uses the
data to produce an easy-to-understand interface (i.e., document in a format that
satisfies a particular human readership). A report generator has a drag-and-drop
feature that makes it easy to generate easy-to-understand reports.

The four essential elements that are key to the report-generation process are:

i. Data collection
ii. Data synthesis
iii. Analysis and insight
iv. Report generation and distribution.

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3.6.4.3 Graphic Language

A graphic language uses graphical elements to represent and control computer

programs. It allows a programmer to create programs by connecting icons that
represent commands or data structures instead of writing text-based code. The icons
are connected to form flowchart diagrams. Elements of graphic language include
form, structure, and expressions.

3.6.4.4 Application Generator

Application generators, also called code generators, allow rapid development of

computer programs. They are usually used for business information systems to
create a prototype, and later, the prototype is reprogrammed in languages such as
C/C++ or Java or directly converted to code.

3.6.4.5 Application Software Packages

The software packages are designed to be used by the end-user to solve generalized
or specialized tasks. They are created to perform a specific task for a user.

3.6.4.6 PC Tools

Programming tools are tools or utilities that programmers/developers use when

developing software to enhance their work. They are also used in maintaining
software.

3.7 Programming-Related Terms

In this section are presented computer programming-related terms to help students
get familiar with them.

3.7.1 Syntax
Syntax is one of the two main components of a language that a programmer needs
to be familiar with. It comprises the rules that define the structure of a language.
Violation of any rule of a language results in a type of error called syntax error.

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3.7.2 Semantics
Semantics is the second of the two main components of a language. It is the meaning
of every well-formed statement (sentence) of a language. For a well-formed
sentence in a language, in addition to the correctness of syntax, a sentence must
make sense semantically.

3.7.3 Syntax Error

When there is a violation of the syntax of a language, it results in an error referred
to as a syntax error.

3.7.4 Program Logic

A program logic is the step-by-step execution of the program’s requirements and
design to perform a specific task. It is the instructions in a program arranged in a
prescribed order to perform a specific programming task.

3.7.5 Logic Error

Logic error is another type of programming error. It is an error that occurs when a
program's logic fails to solve the intended problem. This type of programming error
is difficult to notice since the compiler cannot catch it because every statement in
the program is well-formed. A logic error can only be discovered during a testing
phase of a program when the test set gives a different output from what is expected.

3.7.6 Program Listing

Program listing consists of the lines of code in the source code of the program.

3.7.7 Executable Statement

An executable statement is a well-formed statement that instructs the computer to
carry out a processing action. Declaration and comments in the source code are not
executable statements.

3.7.8 Coding
Coding is the act of writing computer programs in a particular language to solve
computational problems.

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3.7.9 Source Program
It is an original program written using a programming language. It is also referred to
as program source code.

3.7.10 Object Program

Object program is the translated form of source code in machine language. Thus, it
is a fully compiled or assembled program ready to be executed at runtime.

3.7.11 Loop
A loop refers to the repetition of a sequence of instructions until a certain condition
is reached.

Summary
The software has been described as the instructions written in a specific
programming language for execution by the computer. It generally directs the
computer to carry out specific actions towards accomplishing a task, and it also
controls the hardware. Software could generally be categorized into system software
or application software. For organizations and individuals to obtain maximum
benefits from software, they must follow certain criteria in selecting appropriate
software for themselves. They must also follow certain guidelines for selecting both
hardware and software they require, and all have been discussed in this chapter.

Programming languages have history captured on a generation-by-generation basis,

and this history has also been presented in this chapter, together with their features.
Essentially, the generations of programming languages fall into four categories –
machine languages, assembly languages, high-level languages, and very high-level
languages. The differences among these generations of programming languages
have also been discussed. In addition, fourth-generation languages consisting of
query language, report generator, graphic language, application generator,
application software packages, and PC tools have also been presented in this
chapter.

Lastly, students of Computing at the 200 Level are supposed to be familiar with
programming technical jargon. Consequently, some have been listed and explained
in this chapter. Those discussed are syntax, semantics, syntax error, program logic,

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logic error, program listing, executable statement, coding, source program, object
program, and loop.

Exercises
1. Differentiate between software and program.
2. What functions does the software perform generally?
3. What benefits do you think should accrue to an organization seeking to purchase
an application software?
4. What are the things to consider when purchasing or upgrading a computer?
5. Explain why it is so difficult to make a clear distinction between 3rd-generation
and 4th-generation programming languages.
6. What functions are performed by the operating system?
7. Differentiate between system software and application software.
8. Why would you discourage an organization from purchasing an application
package?
9. Why is the successful usage of a package by an organization whose operations
are similar to the one that wants a piece of software an important criterion in
selecting the usage/purchase of an application package?
10. What is the distinction between the syntax and semantics of a programming
language?

References
Asetek Liquid Cooling Home. (n.d.). Liquid Cooling vs Air Cooling – What is the
better cooling solution for PC enthusiasts and gamers? Liquid Cooling
Home. https://www.asetek.com/liquid-cooling/gaming-enthusiasts/air-vs-
liquid/

Eusgeld, I., Freiling, F. C., & Reussner, R. (2008). Hardware Reliability. In LNCS 4909
(Eds.), Dependability Metrics (pp. 59–103). Springer-Verlag.

James P. (2022, March 10). Three Essential Hardware Upgrades to Improve PC

Performance. Asetek. https://www.asetek.com/blogs/three-essential-
hardware-upgrades-to-improve-pc-performance/

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Paul, M. (2015, January 29). 5 Affordable Hardware Upgrades for a More Efficient
New Year. CIO. https://www.cio.com/article/251163/5-affordable-
hardware-upgrades-for-a-more-efficient-new-year.html

Rehman, J. (2023). Advantages and disadvantages of application software.

https://www.itrelease.com/2022/09/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
application-software/

Ruben S. (2021, December 8). Sustainable IT: Hardware: Why, How & What.
Linkedin. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/sustainable-hardware-why-
how-what-ruben-scholtz/

Sebesta, R. W. (2015). Concepts of Programming Languages (11th Edition). Pearson

Inc.

Tanenbaum, S. A. & Bos, H. (2015). Modern Operating Systems (Fourth Edition).

Pearson Education, Inc.

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 Chapter Four
4. Humanware (Human Resources)
Overview
This chapter provides sufficient knowledge about humanware. It sheds light on the
importance of human resources in computer ware and computing generally. Key
concepts and definitions of terms were broadly covered.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with the basics of humanware.
Specifically, students should be able to:

a) define humanware clearly.

b) list and explain categories of human resources/ personnel in organisations.

c) understand the concept of System Designers

i. Database Administrators
ii. Network Architects
iii. Graphic Artists
iv. Security Experts
v. Technology Specialists

d) understand the concept of System Builders

i. Application Programmers
ii. Systems Programmers
iii. Database Programmers

Introduction
Humanware refers to a self-creating, inventive interaction between hardware and
human resources; in actuality, the hardware requires human intervention to

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function. Hardware technology is just a part of technology; it is a means of producing
outputs. Technology can then become meaningful once the functions of human
resources, interconnecting, and interacting with hardware are clarified.

This broader and deeper definition of technology is what is meant by "humanware."

Rather than relying solely on hardware technology or social organisation, it is
believed that the answers to the challenges in consideration are found in the field of
"humanware."

This viewpoint is helpful in comprehending significant variations among

manufacturing systems. All production systems involve hardware and human
resources interacting to some extent.

The degree of interdependence between human resources and hardware, or the

extent to which certain human capabilities are essential to the efficient operation of
the hardware, and the extent to which the use of the hardware as a component of a
production system affects the performance of people, can be used to describe this
interaction. The more dependency there is between factors, the more dependent
the total production system is on human resources, and the more susceptible the
system is to human variability.

The upper arrow, which implies that hardware technology influences human
resource capabilities, is less immediately obvious. The employment of hardware
technology in the context of a certain production system is frequently explored; this
can develop and strengthen the traits that make human resources effective. The
focus here will, however, be on the dynamic perspective of "humanware," in which
the production process is seen as opening up the possibility for continuous,
continuing learning (as opposed to a one-time "learning curve" impact).

Maybe it should be understood, but the bottom arrow in Figure 4.1 illustrates the
impact of human resources on hardware technology performance. For the
equipment to be used properly, safely, and effectively, machine operators must
possess the requisite skills and expertise.

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However, the concept of "humanware" encompasses a broader understanding of the
contribution of human resources, one that contradicts a static view of hardware
technology, namely that the design and configuration of the hardware technology
itself improve as a result of incremental improvements created by the individuals
who use it.

Hardware Human
Resource
s

Figure 4.1: Newer Technology Interdependence Concepts in Human

Resources and Hardware

4.1 Categories of Human Resources in Organizations

The term "human resource" was first used by American institutional economist John
R. Commons in his book The Distribution of Wealth from 1893. Human Resource
departments were not, however, formally constituted until the 20th century and
given the authority to settle conflicts between employees and their employers.

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Human Resources is the department of an organization tasked with finding,
employing, screening, and training job prospects. The company also oversees
employee benefit programs.

Human Resources, with the 21st century's fast-evolving business environment and
rising demand for qualified people, plays a critical role in aiding firms.

The Human Resources division is an essential component of the business regardless

of size. Its obligations include boosting worker productivity and protecting the
company from any issues that might arise within the workforce. The duties of HR
include overseeing salaries and benefits, recruiting, selecting, and letting go of
candidates, as well as remaining up to date on any laws that may affect the company
and its workers.

A productive, functioning worker, which employers and managers are responsible

for, is the most important component of a successful business. In order to achieve
this, one must view workers as resources for the business rather than as expenses.
Like any other resource, talented employees may be effectively used to advance an
organization

4.1.1 System Designers

A systems designer is an expert at designing systems in the information technology
sector that correspond to the requirements of the customer or business. In addition
to conducting research and analysis, collecting and analyzing operational data and
customer feedback, testing designs in a number of ways, working with engineers,
diagnosing issues, and formulating plans to enhance operations are among their
duties. They could evaluate the current systems and design improvements as
necessary. Additionally, while abiding by the company's policies and guidelines, a
systems designer may offer technical support and direction to workers.

Today's system design methodologies appear to imply that the system design
process entails problem solving or the fixing of an unreliable reality. These
techniques also make use of the irrationality of system designers' behavior.

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The computer codes that power video games are created by a system designer. Early
on in the development process, they are engaged to evaluate the game's scope and
design as well as to set up the platforms that will make the game a reality. System
designers do tasks similar to those of computer hardware engineers, but they may
also be expected to exercise significant creative and problem-solving skills. In
addition to establishing crafting components, talent trees, and level tables, it might
be necessary to trace character development from conception to implementation.
In the gaming industry, a systems designer's role and duties include, but are not
limited to, the following:

1. Investigate and evaluate the resources that are on the market.

2. Assemble all necessary hardware and software
3. Asset management and data entry for game databases
4. Create prototypes, manage testing, and put changes into practice
5. Make specialized software
6. Improve, balance, and iterate player development and experience
7. Game data tuning and balancing
8. Monitoring the quality assurance procedure and making modifications
9. When creating software, follow accepted design principles.
10. Own or jointly own supplementary game material.
11. Create a prototype and refine the key gameplay components.
12. Balance and customize the gaming experiences to ensure the product's
critical and commercial success.
13. Work through design modifications with the development team and plan
how the strategy will be put into action.
14. When creating cases for user interaction planning, be sure to keep the
requirements of the customer in mind.
15. Maintenance of the template document.

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 16. Utilize a challenging asset development procedure while quickly learning
proprietary tools.
17. To describe new material, provide specs while considering input for
documentation.
18. Take constructive criticism and give good feedback
19. Report problems and developments to management and any JCI contractor
or customer.
20. Provide owner with on-site system training.
21. Observe safety regulations to ensure the security of workers and contractors.
22. Develop fresh gaming mechanics and ideas in collaboration with the design
team.

The qualifications needed to work as a systems designer.

1. Powerful analytical and critical thinking

2. Thorough familiarity with gaming gear and software
3. Excellent problem-solving abilities Excellent communication abilities
4. Experience leading teams
5. Understanding of game scripting
6. Powerful familiarity with player advancement systems, stat curves, and game
loops
7. The capacity to recognize, explain, and explain basic mechanics
8. Understanding of the game development process and 3D gaming programs
9. Ability to comprehend and resolve complicated issues
10. Using logic and analysis to solve difficulties
11. Strong communication abilities
12. Ability to lead others' work

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 13. The capacity to work both independently and collaboratively
14. Willingness to maintain IT knowledge and skills on a regular basis

What programs and equipment do system designers employ?

System designers should be well-versed in 3D animation, demonstration, and

programming languages. During the game creation phase, they will need to put
together the necessary hardware and software. For the sake of the game, certain
specialized software may need to be created. The materials required for creating
software as part of the production process must be taken into consideration by the
system designer.

Systems designers could require expertise in some of the following pieces of

software:

 C
 C++
 Unreal 4
 Maya
 Adobe Creative Cloud
 Substance Painter

Other human resource personnel whose modus operandi and routine of work are
classified under the System designer's role are numerous; some of such positions
that will be discussed in this chapter include Database Administrator, Web
architects, graphic designers, security specialists, network architects, and technology
experts.

4.1.1.1 Database Administrators

Who are database administrators?

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Database administrators, also known as DBAs, are IT professionals responsible for
the design, implementation, maintenance, and management of computer
databases. They work with database management systems (DBMS) to ensure data is
stored, organized, and accessed efficiently and securely. DBAs are responsible for
ensuring that databases are available, reliable, and scalable to meet the needs of the
organization they support. They work closely with developers, network
administrators, and other IT professionals to ensure that the database system
supports the business goals and objectives of the organization.

Some of the specific tasks that database administrators perform include designing
and implementing database structures, managing and maintaining database
performance, securing data, planning for disaster recovery, troubleshooting and
problem-solving, managing database backups and recovery, and ensuring data
integrity. They are also accountable for staying current with new developments in
technology and database management trends to make sure that the database
system is efficient, effective, and secure.

Some of a DBA's primary duties are:

1. Designing and implementing database structures: To design and implement

the best database structure for an organization's requirements, DBAs
collaborate closely with developers and other IT specialists.
2. Controlling and maintaining database performance: DBAs keep an eye on
database performance, spotting and resolving problems that could slow it
down. They also guarantee the efficient and effective operation of the
database.
3. Data security: DBAs are in charge of making sure that data is safe and
shielded from theft, loss, and illegal access. They put security measures in
place, including backups, access limits, and encryption.

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 4. Disaster recovery planning: DBAs are in charge of creating and putting into
action disaster recovery plans to make sure that vital data can be restored in
the case of a disaster.
5. Identifying and fixing database problems, such as performance problems,
errors, and data corruption, is the responsibility of DBAs.
6. Taking care of database backups and recovery: DBAs are in charge of securing
data and restoring it if it is lost or corrupted.
7. Data validation and verification techniques are used by DBAs to guarantee
that data is correct, consistent, and dependable.

DBAs also try to stay current with new technology and trends in database
management in addition to these duties. To guarantee that the database is
integrated with other IT systems and supports the aims and objectives of the firm,
they work along with other IT experts, such as network administrators and software
developers.

What programs and equipment do database administrators employ?

Database administrators use a variety of programs and equipment to perform their

duties. Here are some examples:

1. Database Management Systems (DBMS): DBMS software such as Oracle,

Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, and MongoDB are commonly used by DBAs to
manage and maintain databases.
2. Operating Systems: DBAs must be familiar with the operating system on
which the DBMS is running. Examples include Windows Server, Linux, and
UNIX.
3. Monitoring and Diagnostic Tools: Tools such as SQL Profiler, Oracle Enterprise
Manager, and MySQL Workbench are used by DBAs to monitor database
performance, diagnose issues, and optimize the system.

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 4. Backup and Recovery Software: DBAs use software such as Oracle Recovery
Manager (RMAN), SQL Server Backup and Restore, and MySQL Enterprise
Backup to perform backups and restore data in case of data loss.
5. Security and Access Control Software: DBAs use software such as Oracle
Database Vault, Microsoft SQL Server Security, and MySQL Enterprise
Security to implement security measures such as access controls,
authentication, and encryption.
6. Hardware: DBAs work with hardware such as servers, storage devices, and
network equipment to ensure that the database system runs smoothly and
efficiently.

DBAs employ a variety of scripting languages, including SQL, Python, and PowerShell,
in addition to these tools and applications to automate repetitive processes and
make adjustments. In order to organize their work and communicate with other IT
experts, they also make use of project management and collaboration applications
like JIRA and Confluence.

Types of Database Administrators

There are several different types of database administrator (DBA) roles, each with
different responsibilities and areas of focus. Here are some of the most common
types of DBAs:

1. Database Development DBA: This type of DBA focuses on the design,

development, and implementation of database systems. They work closely
with software developers and other IT professionals to ensure that the
database supports the needs of the organization and meets performance
and scalability requirements.
2. Database Production DBA: This type of DBA is responsible for the ongoing
maintenance, optimization, and management of production database

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 systems. They ensure that the database is available, reliable, and secure, and
work to resolve any issues that arise.
3. Database Backup and Recovery DBA: This type of DBA is responsible for
ensuring that database backups are performed regularly and that data can
be recovered in case of data loss or corruption. They work to develop and
test backup and recovery strategies and procedures to ensure that data is
always available and recoverable.
4. Database Security DBA: This kind of DBA is in charge of establishing and
upholding security precautions to guard the database against illegal
accessibility, theft, or loss. To protect sensitive data, they seek to create
access controls, encoding, and various other security measures.
5. Data Architect: This type of DBA focuses on the design and management of
data models and database architectures. They work to ensure that the
database system is designed to meet the organization's needs and can scale
as needed.
6. Data Warehouse DBA: The design, development, and management of data
are the responsibilities of DBA. They work to ensure that data is properly
stored, organized, and accessible for reporting and analysis.
7. Cloud Database Administrator: This type of DBA specializes in managing
database systems that are hosted in the cloud. They are responsible for
configuring and managing cloud-based database services such as Google
Cloud SQL, Microsoft Azure SQL Database, or Amazon RDS.

4.1.1.2 Network Architects

A network architect is a professional who designs and oversees the implementation

of computer network infrastructure for an organization. Network architects work

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with other IT professionals, including system administrators and network engineers,
to develop and maintain the network architecture that supports an organization's
technology needs. Figure 4.2 depicts a typical example of a telecommunication
network architecture diagram that captures many aspects of IT, infrastructures,
personnel, wares, and otherwise.

The primary responsibilities of a network architect include:

1. Designing network architecture: Network architects plan and design the

overall network infrastructure for an organization, including the hardware
and software components required for the network to function effectively.
2. Evaluating network performance: Network architects monitor and analyze
the performance of the network, looking for areas where improvements can
be made in terms of speed, reliability, and security.
3. Recommending improvements: Based on their analysis of network
performance, network architects recommend changes and improvements to
the network infrastructure to optimize performance and address any issues.
4. Implementing network infrastructure: Once a network design has been
developed and approved, network architects oversee the implementation of
the infrastructure, working with system administrators and network
engineers to ensure that the hardware and software are properly installed
and configured.
5. Managing network security: Network architects are responsible for ensuring
that the network is secure, implementing measures to protect against cyber
threats and unauthorized access.
6. Keeping up-to-date with emerging technologies: Network architects keep
abreast with new developments and ideas in network architecture,

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 evaluating new products and services that may be beneficial to their
organization.

Figure 4.2: Diagram showing Network Architect’s flow.

Examples of Network Architects

1. Information Technology (IT) Industry: In the IT industry, network architects

are responsible for designing and implementing the network infrastructure
that supports an organization's technology needs. They work closely with
system administrators and network engineers to ensure that the hardware
and software components of the network are properly configured and
maintained.
2. Financial Services Industry: In the financial services industry, network
architects design and implement the network infrastructure that supports
critical financial systems and applications. They work to ensure that the

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 network is secure and meets compliance requirements for data privacy and
protection.
3. Healthcare Industry: In the healthcare industry, network architects design
and implement the network infrastructure that supports electronic health
records (EHRs) and other healthcare applications. They work to ensure that
the network is secure, reliable, and compliant with regulations such as
HIPAA.
4. Manufacturing Industry: In the manufacturing industry, network architects
design and implement the network infrastructure that supports production
processes and supply chain management systems. They work to ensure that
the network is reliable, secure, and optimized for the needs of the
organization.
5. Education Industry: In the education industry, network architects design and
implement the network infrastructure that supports learning management
systems (LMSs) and other educational technologies. They work to ensure
that the network is reliable, secure, and optimized for the needs of students,
teachers, and administrators.

Types of Network Architects

There are various forms of network architects, including:

1. Enterprise Network Architect: Designs and implements complex network

solutions for large organizations.
2. Cloud Network Architect: Specializes in designing and managing networks for
cloud-based applications and services.
3. Data Center Network Architect: Designs and manages networks that support
data center operations and applications.

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 4. Wireless Network Architect: Designs and manages wireless networks,
including Wi-Fi and cellular networks.
5. Security Network Architect: Designs and implements network security
solutions to protect against threats such as cyber-attacks and data breaches.
6. Network Infrastructure Architect: Designs and manages the physical network
infrastructure, including cabling, switches, and routers.
7. Network Operations Architect: Develops and implements network
management tools and processes to ensure optimal network performance
and availability.
8. VoIP Network Architect: Specializes in designing and implementing Voice
over Internet Protocol (VoIP) systems.
9. Network Solutions Architect: Designs and implements customized network
solutions to meet specific business requirements.
10. Network Systems Architect: Designs and manages network systems,
including hardware, software, and operating systems.

Network architects are responsible for designing and implementing network

infrastructure that supports an organization's technology needs. They ensure that
the network is secure, reliable, and performs optimally while keeping up-to-date
with emerging technologies to identify new opportunities for improvement.

4.1.1.3 Web Architects

A web architect is a professional who designs and oversees the development and
implementation of web-based applications, systems, and websites. Web architects
work with other IT professionals, including web developers, designers, and system
administrators, to develop and maintain web-based applications that meet the
needs of an organization or business.

The primary responsibilities of a web architect include:

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 1. Designing web-based systems and applications: Web architects design and
plan the architecture of web-based systems and applications, including the
hardware and software components required for the system to function
effectively.
2. Evaluating web application performance: Web architects monitor and
analyze the performance of web-based applications, looking for areas where
improvements can be made in terms of speed, usability, and user experience.
3. Recommending improvements: Based on their analysis of web application
performance, web architects recommend changes and improvements to
optimize the performance and user experience of the web application.
4. Implementing web applications: Once a web application design has been
developed and approved, web architects oversee the implementation of the
application, working with web developers and system administrators to
ensure that the hardware and software are properly installed and configured.
5. Managing web application security: Web architects are responsible for
ensuring that web-based applications are secure, implementing measures to
protect against cyber threats and unauthorized access.
6. Keeping up-to-date with emerging technologies: Web architects keep
abreast with new developments and ideas in web architecture, evaluating
new products and services that may be beneficial to their organization.

Types of Web Architecture with Examples

Web architecture refers to the design and structure of web applications. These
include the technologies used to build them. Here are some types of web
architecture:

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 1. Client-Server Architecture: This architecture involves a client (a web browser)
making requests to a server that responds with the necessary data.
2. Three-Tier Architecture: In this architecture, the user interface layer,
software layer, and data layer are the three tiers or layers that are available.
3. Architecture using Model-View-Controller: An application is separated by
this architecture into three components - the model (data), the view
(presentation), and the controller (application logic).
4. Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): This architecture is based on the
concept of services, where individual services provide specific functionality
and can be combined to build larger applications.
5. Microservices Architecture: This is a type of SOA that emphasizes small,
independently deployable services that work together to provide a larger
application.

Examples of web architecture include:

1. The client-server approach serves as the foundation for the World Wide
Web’s architecture.
2. In the three-tier architecture used by many web applications, the application
layer is constructed using JavaScript, HTML, and CSS, whereas the
presentation layer is constructed using a programming language like PHP or
Ruby, and the data layer is typically a database like MySQL or MongoDB.
3. The MVC architecture is used by web frameworks like Ruby on Rails and
Django.
4. The SOA architecture is used by many enterprise applications, where
individual services are built using SOAP or RESTful web services.

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 5. The microservices architecture is used by companies like Netflix and Amazon,
where small, independently deployable services are used to build complex
applications.

4.1.1.4 Graphic Artists

A graphic artist is a professional who creates visual designs and artwork for a variety
of media, including print, digital, and multimedia platforms. Graphic artists use a
range of tools and software to create visual concepts, designs, and layouts that
communicate ideas and messages in a visually appealing way.

The primary responsibilities of a graphic artist include:

1. Creating visual designs and artwork: Graphic artists create visual designs and
artwork for a variety of media, including logos, illustrations, packaging,
advertisements, and websites.
2. Understanding client needs: Graphic artists work closely with clients to
understand their needs and requirements, and to develop visual designs that
communicate the desired message effectively.
3. Using design tools and software: Graphic artists use a range of design tools
and software to create visual designs and artwork, including Adobe Creative
Suite, CorelDRAW, Sketch, and Inkscape.
4. Collaborating with other professionals: Graphic artists collaborate with other
professionals, including web developers, copywriters, and marketing teams,
to develop visual designs that meet the needs of the client.
5. Keeping abreast of new design trends: Graphic designers keep abreast of
new design trends and techniques, experimenting with new tools and
techniques to create innovative and engaging visual designs.

Types of graphics artists include:

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 1. Traditional artists who use traditional media like pencil, pen, paint, and
paper, as well as
2. Digital artists who use software tools like Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, and
3D modeling software.

Graphics artists are professionals who create visual designs using digital or
traditional media. Here are some:

Examples of graphics artists:

1. Illustrators: These artists specialize in creating drawings, paintings, and other

visual representations for books, magazines, advertisements, and other
media.
2. Graphic Designers: These artists create visual designs for websites, apps,
logos, brochures, posters, and other print or digital media.
3. 3D Artists: These artists create three-dimensional models and animations for
use in video games, movies, and other media.
4. Motion Graphic Designers: These artists specialize in creating animations,
videos, and other moving visual designs for film, television, and other digital
media.
5. Game Artists: These artists create the artwork, 3D models, and animations
used in video games.
6. Visual Effects Artists: These artists create digital special effects and visual
enhancements for movies, TV shows, and other media.
7. User Interface (UI) Designers: These artists create visual designs for the user
interface of software applications and websites.

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 8. Concept Artists: These artists create sketches, drawings, and other visual
representations to help visualize the concepts and ideas for movies, video
games, and other media.
9. Product Designers: These artists create visual designs for physical products,
such as consumer electronics, furniture, and home goods.
10. Advertising Artists: These artists create visual designs for advertisements,
including billboards, print ads, and online ads.

4.1.1.5 Security Experts

Security experts are professionals who specialize in preventing illegal access, theft,
destruction, and interruption of computer systems, networks, and digital
information. They work to identify and mitigate security threats to prevent cyber-
attacks and protect sensitive data.

The primary responsibilities of security experts include:

1. Conducting security assessments: Security experts assess computer systems,

networks, and software to identify vulnerabilities and potential security
threats.
2. Developing security plans: Based on their assessment, security experts
develop security plans and protocols to protect computer systems, networks,
and data from potential security breaches.
3. Implementing security measures: Security experts work with IT professionals
to put security measures in place to safeguard components such as firewalls,
antivirus software, encryption technologies, computer systems, networks,
and data from cyber-attacks.

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 4. Monitoring security systems: Security experts monitor security systems and
software to detect potential security breaches and take necessary measures
to prevent or mitigate damage.
5. Investigating security breaches: When security breaches occur, security
experts investigate the incident to determine the cause and extent of the
damage and take necessary actions to stop similar situations from happening
again.
6. Keeping up-to-date with emerging threats: Security experts stay up-to-date
with emerging cyber threats and trends, and adapt their security plans and
protocols to address new and evolving security risks.

Here are examples of various models that can be used to show the roles and
responsibilities of security experts in an organization.

i.) Information Security Manager

The organization's entire security plan must be monitored by the information

security manager to make sure it complies with the organization's objectives. They
are also responsible for managing security policies, procedures, and practices.

ii.) Security Analyst

Identification and analysis of security risks, weaknesses, and dangers that might be
posed to a company's systems are the responsibility of the security analyst networks.
They are also responsible for developing and implementing security controls and
measures to mitigate those risks.

iii.) Security Architect

For the organization's systems and networks, the security architect is in charge of
creating and implementing security systems and solutions. They collaborate closely
with other IT experts to make sure security is built into every component of the
company's technological architecture.

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iv.) Network Security Engineer

The network security engineer is in charge of creating and putting into practice
security solutions for the organization's network infrastructure. They are responsible
for ensuring that network devices, such as routers and firewalls, are properly
configured and maintained to prevent unauthorized access.

v.) Cybersecurity Specialist:

The cybersecurity specialist is responsible for protecting the organization's systems

and networks from cyber threats, such as malware, phishing, and hacking attacks.
They are in charge of keeping an eye out for suspicious activity on the organization's
networks while reacting to security incidents when they happen.

vi.) Security Operations Center (SOC) Analyst

The SOC analyst is in charge of keeping track of security threats and incidents on the
company's systems and networks. They are responsible for analyzing security alerts,
investigating security incidents, and responding to security incidents in real time.

vii.) Compliance Officer

The compliance officer is responsible for ensuring that the organization complies
with relevant security and privacy regulations, such as HIPAA, GDPR, and PCI DSS.
They are responsible for conducting security audits, ensuring that security policies
and procedures are followed, and maintaining documentation to demonstrate
compliance.

Types of security experts

There are various types of security experts who specialize in different areas of
cybersecurity. Here are some of the most common types:

1. Information Security Manager: This professional is responsible for

overseeing the overall security strategy of an organization and ensuring that
it is in line with the aims and goals of the organization.

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 2. Network Security Engineer: This professional is in charge of developing and
putting in place security solutions for a company's network infrastructure.
3. Cybersecurity Analyst: This specialist is in charge of assessing security risks
and threats to an organization's systems and networks, then develops and
implements security controls to mitigate those risks.
4. Penetration Tester: Also known as an ethical hacker, a penetration tester is in
charge of checking a system's and network's peripherals for vulnerabilities
and weaknesses in order to identify potential security threats.
5. Security Architect: This professional is in charge of developing and putting
into place security solutions for a company's systems and networks. They
collaborate closely with other IT specialists to make sure security is
incorporated into every part of the organization's technology architecture.
6. Incident Responder: This professional is responsible for responding to
security incidents as they arise, identifying the source of the incident, and
mitigating its impact on the organization's systems and networks.
7. Compliance Officer: This professional is responsible for ensuring that an
organization complies with relevant security and privacy regulations, such as
HIPAA, GDPR, and PCI DSS.
8. Cryptographer: This professional is responsible for developing and
implementing encryption algorithms and protocols to protect sensitive data
and communications.
9. SOC Analyst: This individual is accountable for keeping an eye out for security
threats and incidents on an organization's systems and networks and
responding to security incidents in real time.
10. Forensic Analyst: This professional is responsible for analyzing digital
evidence to investigate security incidents and identify potential attackers.

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Overall, there are many different roles and responsibilities within the field of
cybersecurity, and organizations may require a variety of security experts to ensure
that their systems and networks are protected from potential threats.

Examples of some security experts

Here are some examples of security experts and their roles in cybersecurity:

1. Bruce Schneier: Cryptographer and security expert known for his work in
cryptography, privacy, and security engineering.
2. Kevin Mitnick: Former hacker turned cybersecurity consultant known for his
expertise in social engineering and penetration testing.
3. Mikko Hyppönen: Cybersecurity researcher and speaker known for his work
in malware analysis and tracking cybercrime groups.
4. Eugene Kaspersky: Founder of Kaspersky Lab, a cybersecurity company
known for its antivirus software and threat intelligence research.
5. Richard Clarke: Former national security advisor and cybersecurity expert
known for his work in cybersecurity policy and strategy.
6. Dan Kaminsky: Security researcher known for his discovery of a serious
Domain Name System (DNS) vulnerability.
7. Avivah Litan: Gartner analyst and cybersecurity expert known for her
research in fraud detection, identity and access management, and other
areas of cybersecurity.
8. Troy Hunt: Security researcher and creator users can check to see whether
their personal information has been compromised in data breaches by
visiting the Have I Been Pawned website.
9. Brian Krebs: Security journalist and investigative reporter known for his
coverage of cybercrime and cybersecurity issues.

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 10. Joanna Rutkowska: Cybersecurity researcher is known for her work in rootkit
detection and defense, as well as her development of the Qubes OS, a
security-focused operating system.

Security experts are responsible for protecting computer systems, networks, and
data from potential security breaches. They assess security vulnerabilities, develop
and implement security plans and protocols, monitor security systems, investigate
security breaches, and stay current on new security risks and trends to make sure
their security solutions are efficient and current.

4.1.1.6 Technology Specialists

Technology specialists are professionals who specialize in a specific area of

technology, such as software development, networking, or cybersecurity. They work
to develop, implement, and maintain technology solutions to meet the needs of their
organization or clients.

The primary responsibilities of technology specialists include:

1. Designing and developing technology solutions: Technology specialists

design and develop technology solutions, such as software applications,
network architectures, or cybersecurity protocols, to meet the needs of their
organization or clients.
2. Implementing technology solutions: Technology specialists work with other
IT professionals to implement technology solutions, ensuring that they are
properly configured and integrated with existing systems and infrastructure.
3. Maintaining technology solutions: Technology specialists are responsible for
maintaining technology solutions, ensuring that they continue to function
effectively and efficiently over time.
4. Troubleshooting and problem-solving: When technology issues arise,
technology specialists are responsible for troubleshooting and problem-

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 solving, locating the problem's root cause, and putting measures in place to
fix it.
5. Keeping up-to-date with emerging technologies: Technology specialists keep
abreast with new developments and trends in their area of expertise,
evaluating new products and services that may be beneficial to their
organization or clients.

In summary, technology specialists are responsible for designing, developing,

implementing, and maintaining technology solutions to meet the needs of their
organization or clients. They work with other IT professionals to ensure that
technology solutions are properly configured and integrated with existing
infrastructure, troubleshoot and problem-solve when technology issues arise, and
keep up with new technological developments to identify new opportunities for
improvement.

4.1.2 System Builders

System builders are professionals who specialize in building and customizing
computer systems for their clients or organizations. They work to understand the
needs of their clients or organizations and select the appropriate hardware and
software components to build a customized computer system that meets those
needs.

The primary responsibilities of system builders include:

1. Understanding client needs: System builders work closely with clients to

understand their needs and requirements for a customized computer
system.
2. Selecting hardware components: Based on the client's needs, system
builders select the appropriate hardware components, such as processors,
memory, hard drives, and graphics cards, to build a computer system that
meets those needs.

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 3. Selecting software components: System builders also select software
components, such as operating systems and applications, to install on the
computer system to meet the client's needs.
4. Building the computer system: Once the hardware and software components
have been selected, system builders assemble the computer system and
install the software.
5. Testing and troubleshooting: System builders test the computer system to
ensure that it is functioning properly and troubleshoot any issues that arise.
6. Providing support and maintenance: System builders ensure that the
computer system receives continuing support and upkeep so that it can
continue to run efficiently over time.

In summary, system builders are responsible for building and customizing

computer systems for their clients or organizations. They work closely with
clients to understand their needs and requirements, select the appropriate
hardware and software components, assemble and install the computer system,
test and troubleshoot any issues that arise, and provide ongoing support and
maintenance to ensure that the system continues to function effectively over
time.

4.1.2.1 Application Programmers

Application programmers, also known as software developers or software engineers,

are professionals who specialize in designing, developing, and maintaining software
applications. They work with programming languages, software frameworks, and
other tools to create customized software applications that meet the specific needs
of their clients or organizations.

The primary responsibilities of application programmers include:

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Designing software applications: Application programmers work closely with clients
or stakeholders to understand their requirements and design software applications
that meet those needs.

1. Writing code: To construct software applications, application programmers

write code in programming languages like Java, Python, or C++. To write code
more quickly, they employ software frameworks and other tools. And they
continue to perform well over time.
2. Testing and debugging: Once the code is written, application programmers
test and debug the software application to ensure its correct functionality
and meets the requirements.
3. Maintaining software applications: Application programmers maintain
software applications, addressing bugs, including new features, and updating
the program to satisfy shifting demands.
4. Collaborating with other developers: Application programmers collaborate
with other developers to integrate software applications with other systems,
such as databases or APIs.
5. Application programmers keep up with new trends in software development
and emerging technologies to make sure they are using the most recent
methods and tools when developing software applications.

4.1.2.2 Systems Programmers

Systems programmers are professionals who specialize in developing and

maintaining system-level software, such as operating systems, compilers, and device
drivers. They work to ensure that the computer hardware and software systems are
functioning effectively and efficiently.

The primary responsibilities of systems programmers include:

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 1. Developing system-level software: Systems programmers develop and
maintain system-level software, such as operating systems, compilers, and
device drivers, that are used to manage computer hardware and software
systems.
2. Debugging and testing: Systems programmers debug and test system-level
software to ensure that it is functioning correctly and efficiently.
3. Optimizing system performance: Systems programmers work to optimize
system performance by identifying and resolving issues with system-level
software that may be causing performance problems.
4. Integrating software and hardware systems: Systems programmers work to
integrate software and hardware systems, such as operating systems and
computer hardware, to ensure that they are functioning effectively together.
5. Providing support and maintenance: Systems programmers give system-level
software continuous support and upkeep to make sure it keeps working
properly over time.
6. Keeping up with emerging technologies: To make sure that system-level
software is developed in accordance with current trends and emerging
technology, systems programmers are using the latest tools and techniques
to develop and maintain system-level software.

4.1.2.3 Database Programmers

Database programmers are professionals who specialize in designing, developing, as

well as updating database systems. They utilize DBMSs (database management
systems) and programming languages to create and manage complex databases that
store and organize large amounts of data.

The primary responsibilities of database programmers include:

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 1. Designing databases: Database programmers work with clients or
stakeholders to understand their data storage and management
requirements and design databases that meet those needs.
2. Developing database applications: Database programmers write programs in
languages like Python, Java, or SQL to develop database applications that
interact with the database.
3. Testing and debugging: Once the code is written, database programmers test
and debug database applications to ensure that they are functioning
correctly and efficiently.
4. Optimizing database performance: Database programmers work to optimize
database performance by identifying and resolving issues that may be
causing performance problems.
5. Integrating databases with other systems: Database programmers work to
integrate databases with other systems, such as applications or APIs, to
ensure that they are functioning effectively together.
6. Providing support and maintenance: Database programmers provide
ongoing support and maintenance for databases, ensuring that they
continue to function effectively over time.
7. Staying up-to-date with emerging technologies: Database programmers
Keep up with new developments in technology and database development
trends to make sure they are using the latest tools and techniques to develop
and maintain databases.

4.1.2.4 Network Administrators

A network administrator, also known as a network engineer or network architect, is

a professional responsible for designing, implementing, managing, and maintaining

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computer networks for organizations. Computer servers, switches, routers, and
other networking hardware are examples of interconnected devices that make up a
computer network. These devices are connected to enable data sharing and
communication.

The role of a network administrator includes a wide range of tasks and

responsibilities, such as:

1. Network Design: Network administrators are responsible for designing and

planning the layout and architecture of computer networks. This includes
determining the appropriate network topology, selecting networking
equipment, and establishing network protocols and standards.
2. Network Implementation: Once the network design is finalized, network
administrators oversee the installation and configuration of networking
hardware and software components. This may involve setting up switches,
routers, firewalls, and other networking devices, as well as configuring
network protocols, IP addresses, and other network settings.
3. Network Monitoring and Maintenance: Network administrators are
responsible for monitoring the performance and security of the network.
This may involve regularly checking network logs, analyzing network traffic,
and using network-monitoring tools to identify and resolve network issues.
Network administrators also perform routine maintenance tasks, such as
updating firmware, applying security patches, and backing up network data.
4. Network Security: Ensuring the security of the network is a critical
responsibility of a network administrator. This involves implementing and
maintaining numerous security mechanisms, including firewalls, VPNs, and
intrusion detection and prevention systems (IDPS), and access control

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 mechanisms to protect the network from unauthorized access, data
breaches, and other security threats.
5. Troubleshooting and Issue Resolution: When network issues arise, network
administrators are responsible for troubleshooting and resolving them. This
may involve diagnosing and resolving network connectivity issues,
identifying and fixing hardware or software failures, and troubleshooting
network protocols and configurations.
6. User Support: Network administrators may provide technical support to
users who encounter network-related issues. This may involve assisting users
with network connectivity problems, providing guidance on network usage
and best practices, and resolving user-reported network issues.
7. Network Documentation and Reporting: Network administrators are
responsible for maintaining accurate and current documentation of the
network architecture, including network configurations, inventories, and
diagrams. They may also prepare reports on network performance, security,
and other metrics for management and other stakeholders.

Therefore, a network administrator is responsible for designing, implementing,

managing, and maintaining computer networks to ensure smooth and secure
network operations for organizations. They play a critical role in ensuring the
availability, reliability, and security of network resources to support an organization's
business operations.

4.1.2.5 Security Administrators

A security administrator is an individual responsible for ensuring the security of an

organization's information technology (IT) systems, networks, and data. They are
responsible for implementing and managing security measures to protect an

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organization's IT assets from unauthorized access, data breaches, cyber threats, and
other security risks.

The role of a security administrator may vary depending on the organization and its
size, but their general responsibilities typically include:

1. Implementing and managing security policies: Security administrators are

responsible for creating and enforcing security policies and procedures
within an organization. This includes developing security standards,
guidelines, and best practices, and ensuring that employees and other
stakeholders follow them.
2. Managing access control: Security administrators are responsible for
controlling access to IT systems, networks, and data. This includes managing
user accounts, permissions, and privileges in order to guarantee that only
authorized individuals have access to sensitive information and resources.
3. Monitoring and detecting security incidents: Security administrators monitor
IT systems and networks for any indicators of security issues, such as
malware infections, unauthorized access attempts, or other suspicious
activities. They use various security tools and technologies to detect and
respond to security threats in a timely manner.
4. Managing security infrastructure: Security administrators are responsible for
managing and maintaining security technologies, such as firewalls, systems
for security information and event management (SIEM), intrusion detection
systems (IDS), and other security instruments. This includes configuring,
updating, and patching security systems to ensure their effectiveness.
5. Conducting security assessments and audits: Security administrators may
perform security assessments and audits to identify vulnerabilities, assess

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 risks, and ensure compliance with security policies, regulations, and industry
standards. They may also conduct security testing, such as penetration
testing, to identify weaknesses in IT systems and networks.
6. Incident response and recovery: When security incidents occur, security
administrators are responsible for responding to and resolving the incidents.
This includes investigating security breaches, containing the damage,
recovering data and systems, as well as taking corrective steps to stop similar
occurrences in the future.
7. Security awareness and training: Security administrators may provide
employees and other stakeholders with security awareness training to
inform them of security best practices, rules, and procedures. This involves
encouraging a security-conscious culture inside the company and making
sure that staff members are aware of the value of security and their
responsibilities in keeping it up.

Overall, the role of a security administrator is critical in safeguarding an

organization's IT systems, networks, and data from security threats and ensuring the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information assets. They play a vital role
in maintaining the security posture of an organization and mitigating security risks
to protect against potential security breaches and data breaches.

4.1.2.6 Webmasters

A webmaster is an individual who manages and maintains websites, ensuring their

functionality, performance, and security. Webmasters are responsible for creating,
updating, and optimizing websites to meet the needs of the users and the goals of
the website owner. Their roles and responsibilities may vary based on the needs of
the company, the website's size and complexity, and other factors.

Typically, a webmaster's tasks include:

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 1. Website design and development: Webmasters may be responsible for
designing and developing websites using programming languages, content
management systems (CMS), and web development tools. They ensure that
websites have user-friendly interfaces, visually appealing designs, and
responsive layouts that work well on different devices and browsers.
2. Content management: Webmasters are responsible for creating, editing, and
managing website content, including text, images, videos, and other
multimedia elements. They ensure that the content is accurate, up-to-date,
and optimized for search engines (SEO).
3. Website maintenance: Webmasters perform regular website maintenance
tasks such as updating software, plugins, and themes, fixing broken links, and
monitoring website performance. They also conduct regular backups and
implement security measures to protect the website from cyber threats.
4. Website analytics and reporting: Webmasters use web analytics tools to
track website performance, measure key metrics such as traffic,
engagement, and conversions, and generate reports for website owners or
stakeholders. They Utilize this information to pinpoint areas that need work
and to inform judgments about how to optimize the website best.
5. SEO and digital marketing: Webmasters may be responsible for
implementing SEO strategies to improve website visibility in search engine
results pages (SERPs). They may also manage strategies for digital marketing,
such pay-per-click (PPC) advertising and social media marketing, to drive
traffic and promote the website.
6. User experience (UX) and usability: Webmasters concentrate on enhancing a
website's overall user experience, including navigation, accessibility, and

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 usability. They conduct usability testing, analyze user feedback, and make
necessary changes to enhance the website's usability and user satisfaction.
7. Troubleshooting and technical support: Webmasters troubleshoot and
resolve technical issues related to websites, such as server errors, broken
links, and other technical glitches. They may also provide technical support
to website users or collaborate with IT teams or third-party vendors to
resolve complex technical issues.

In summary, a webmaster plays a crucial role in managing and maintaining websites,

ensuring their performance, security, and user experience. They possess technical
skills in web development, content management, SEO, and digital marketing, and
work closely with website owners or stakeholders to achieve the website's goals.

4.1.2.7 Softwares Integrators

Software integrators are professionals or tools that specialize in combining different

software systems or components to work together seamlessly as a unified whole.
They play a critical role in integrating disparate software applications or systems,
often from different vendors or with different functionalities, into a cohesive and
interoperable solution. Software integrators can work on a variety of software types,
including enterprise software, web applications, mobile apps, databases, APIs, and
more.

Software integrators are responsible for analysing the requirements of the systems
or components to be integrated and designing the integration architecture. They
may also develop custom codes or scripts to facilitate data exchange,
communication, or synchronization between different systems. They may configure
settings, mappings, or interfaces to enable interoperability and smooth data flow
between systems. Additionally, software integrators may test the integrated solution
thoroughly to identify and resolve any issues, such as data inconsistencies, data loss,
or performance problems.

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In some cases, software integrators may work with application programming
interfaces (APIs), which are collections of rules, resources, and guidelines that let
various software programs converse and cooperate with one another. They may use
middleware, which is software that acts as a bridge between different software
applications, to facilitate communication and data exchange between systems that
may not natively support each other.

Software integrators require expertise in various programming languages, software

development frameworks, databases, networking, and system architecture. They
also need to have a good understanding of the business processes and requirements
of the systems being integrated. Strong problem-solving, analytical, and
communication skills are also essential for software integrators to effectively identify
and address integration challenges.

Overall, software integrators play a crucial role in enabling different software

systems to work together seamlessly and efficiently, helping organizations achieve
improved operational efficiency, data consistency, and overall system performance.

4.1.3 System Analyst

A system analyst is a specialist in evaluating and creating information systems that
are tailored to an organization's requirements. They are essential to the
development and implementation of new systems or the improvement of existing
systems.

A system analyst's main responsibilities include understanding and documenting the

requirements of the organization, analyzing business processes, identifying areas for
improvement, and designing effective solutions. They work closely with
stakeholders, such as end-users, managers, and IT teams, to gather and clarify
requirements and translate them into functional specifications for system
development.

A system analyst conducts thorough research, data analysis, and feasibility studies
to determine the technical and economic viability of proposed solutions. They may
also assess risks and make recommendations for risk mitigation strategies. They

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create system models, flowcharts, and diagrams to represent the proposed system's
functionality and design visually.

In addition to their technical skills, system analysts also possess strong

communication and interpersonal skills. They need to effectively communicate
complex technical concepts to non-technical stakeholders and work collaboratively
with cross-functional teams. They may also provide training and support to end-
users during system implementation and post-implementation phases.

Overall, a system analyst plays a critical role in making certain that Information
systems are designed, developed, and used in a manner that meets the
organization's needs, improves operational efficiency, and supports strategic
objectives.

4.1.3.1 Program Analyst

A program analyst is a professional who plays a critical role in analyzing and

evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of software programs and systems within
an organization. They typically work in the information technology (IT) department
and collaborate with various stakeholders, including software developers, business
analysts, project managers, and end-users.

The main responsibilities of a program analyst may include:

1. Program Evaluation: Assessing the performance of existing software

programs and systems, identifying areas for improvement, and making
recommendations to enhance their efficiency and effectiveness. This may
involve analyzing program data, conducting performance testing, and
evaluating user feedback.
2. Requirements Analysis: Collaborating with business analysts and other
stakeholders to gather and analyze user requirements for new software
programs or system enhancements. This may involve conducting interviews,

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 workshops, and surveys to understand user needs and translating them into
functional and technical specifications.
3. Design and Development: Participating in the design and development of
software programs and systems, ensuring that they align with user
requirements, organizational standards, and best practices. This may involve
creating flowcharts, mockups, and prototypes to visualize program design
and functionality.
4. Testing and Quality Assurance: Developing and implementing testing plans
and procedures to verify the functionality, performance, and security of
software programs and systems. This may involve conducting manual and
automated testing, identifying defects or issues, and coordinating with
developers to resolve them.
5. Documentation and Reporting: Creating and maintaining technical
documentation, including program specifications, user manuals, and
standard operating procedures. Additionally, preparing reports and
presentations to communicate findings, recommendations, and progress to
stakeholders, including management and project teams.
6. Project Management: Assisting in the planning, coordination, and execution
of software development projects, including monitoring progress, managing
risks, and ensuring timely delivery of milestones.
7. Technical Support: Providing technical support and assistance to end-users,
troubleshooting and resolving issues related to software programs and
systems, and providing training and guidance as needed.

Overall, a program analyst plays a vital role in ensuring the successful development,
implementation, and maintenance of software programs and systems within an
organization, and helps to optimize their performance and effectiveness. Strong

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analytical skills, attention to detail, and knowledge of programming languages,
software development methodologies, and IT best practices are typically required
for this role.

4.1.3.2 Business Analyst

A business analyst is a professional who works in various industries to analyze,

assess, and improve business processes, systems, and strategies. They typically work
as a bridge between business stakeholders, such as clients, managers, and end-users,
and the technical team, such as IT developers, to gather requirements, identify
business needs, and recommend solutions to drive business success.

The primary role of a business analyst involves conducting research, data analysis,
and process mapping to identify inefficiencies or areas for improvement in business
operations. They use their analytical skills to gather, document, and prioritize
requirements from stakeholders, including business goals, user stories, and use
cases. They also conduct feasibility studies, cost-benefit analyses, and risk
assessments to evaluate potential solutions and make recommendations to optimize
business performance.

In addition, a business analyst may also be responsible for creating and maintaining
documentation, such as business process models, flowcharts, and technical
specifications. They may collaborate with cross-functional teams, such as project
managers, developers, and quality assurance testers, to ensure smooth
implementation of solutions and monitor progress against business objectives.

A business analyst needs to have excellent communication skills, both verbal and
written, as they often facilitate meetings, presentations, and workshops with
stakeholders to gather and validate requirements. They should also have a solid
understanding of business concepts, processes, and technologies, as well as the
ability to adapt to changing business environments and evolving technologies.

Overall, the role of a business analyst is critical in helping organizations identify and
address business challenges, optimize processes, and achieve their strategic goals by
leveraging their analytical skills, domain knowledge, and effective communication.

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4.1.3.3 Requirement Analyst

A requirement analyst, also known as a business analyst or systems analyst, is a

professional who is responsible for gathering, documenting, and analyzing the
requirements of a project or system. Requirement analysts play a crucial role in the
software development and project management process by identifying and defining
the needs and expectations of stakeholders, including clients, end-users, and other
relevant parties.

The primary responsibilities of a requirement analyst include conducting thorough

research and analysis to understand the business or system requirements,
documenting and organizing requirements in a clear and concise manner, facilitating
communication and collaboration between stakeholders, validating and verifying
requirements for accuracy and feasibility, and providing recommendations for
improving processes or systems.

Requirement analysts work closely with project managers, software developers,

quality assurance teams, and other stakeholders to ensure that the project or system
meets the desired objectives and aligns with the needs of the end-users. They may
use various techniques such as interviews, workshops, surveys, and documentation
analysis to gather and validate requirements, and may use modelling tools and
techniques to create visual representations of requirements, such as use cases,
flowcharts, and data flow diagrams.

A successful requirement analyst possesses excellent analytical and problem-solving

skills, strong communication and interpersonal skills, attention to detail, and a good
understanding of business processes and technical concepts. They must be able to
communicate with stakeholders at all levels effectively, manage changing
requirements and priorities, and work collaboratively in a team environment to
ensure successful project outcomes.

4.1.3.4 Infrastructure Analyst

An infrastructure analyst is a professional who analyzes and assesses the technical,

operational, and financial aspects of infrastructure systems or projects. This can

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include analyzing data centres, networks, telecommunications systems, cloud-
computing environments, and other critical infrastructure components.

The responsibilities of an infrastructure analyst typically include evaluating the

performance and efficiency of existing infrastructure systems, identifying areas for
improvement, developing strategies and plans for infrastructure upgrades or
enhancements, conducting risk assessments, analyzing costs and benefits of
proposed changes, and providing recommendations to optimize the performance,
security, and scalability of infrastructure systems.

Infrastructure analysts may work in various industries, such as information

technology (IT), telecommunications, transportation, energy, or public utilities. They
often collaborate with other IT or engineering professionals, stakeholders, and
business units to gather requirements, assess needs, and implement changes to
ensure the smooth operation of infrastructure systems and support the overall
business objectives of an organization.

Skills commonly associated with an infrastructure analyst role include technical

expertise in infrastructure technologies, data analysis, problem-solving, project
management, risk assessment, communication, and strategic planning. They may
also need to stay updated with the latest trends, technologies, and best practices in
infrastructure management to ensure that systems are secure, efficient, and
resilient.

4.1.3.5 Change Management Analyst

A change management analyst is a professional who specializes in managing and

implementing organizational changes within a company or other types of
organizations. They are responsible for helping organizations navigate changes in
processes, procedures, systems, or structures to improve performance, adapt to new
technologies, meet strategic objectives, or respond to external factors such as
market conditions or regulatory requirements.

Change management analysts typically work closely with senior leadership, project
teams, and other stakeholders to assess the impact of proposed changes, develop

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change management plans, and execute strategies to ensure smooth transitions.
They may conduct change readiness assessments, develop communication plans,
create training materials, and provide guidance on managing resistance to change.
They may also monitor and evaluate the progress of change initiatives, gather
feedback, and make adjustments as needed.

Change management analysts need to have strong analytical, communication, and

interpersonal skills. They should be able to understand and navigate complex
organizational dynamics, identify potential risks and challenges associated with
change, and develop strategies to mitigate them. They may also need to have
expertise in various change management methodologies and tools, and be able to
work collaboratively with cross-functional teams to drive successful change
initiatives.

4.1.3.6 Project Manager

A project manager is a professional who is responsible for planning, executing, and

overseeing projects within an organization. They are typically accountable for
ensuring that projects are completed on time, within budget, and with the desired
quality and scope. Project managers work across various industries, such as
information technology, construction, engineering, marketing, and many others.

The main responsibilities of a project manager may include:

1. Project planning: Defining project objectives, creating project plans,

determining resource requirements, and developing schedules and budgets.
2. Project execution: Coordinating and leading project teams, assigning tasks,
monitoring progress, and managing risks and issues that may arise during
project implementation.
3. Stakeholder management: Identifying and engaging with project
stakeholders, including team members, clients, vendors, and other relevant
parties, to ensure clear communication and alignment of project goals.

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 4. Budget and resource management: Monitoring project expenses, allocating
resources effectively, and making adjustments to ensure that the project
remains within budget and on schedule.
5. Quality management: Ensuring that project deliverables meet the
established quality standards and conducting quality assurance and quality
control activities.
6. Risk management: Identifying and mitigating risks that may impact the
project's success, and developing contingency plans to address potential
issues.
7. Reporting and documentation: Creating and maintaining project
documentation, preparing progress reports, and presenting project status
updates to stakeholders.

Project managers often use project management software and tools to assist in
planning, organizing, and tracking project progress. They also need to possess strong
leadership, communication, and negotiation skills, as well as the ability to work well
under pressure and adapt to changing circumstances. Project managers may hold
professional certifications such as Project Management Professional (PMP) or
Prince2 to demonstrate their expertise in the field.

4.2 Skills Set Needed by System Analyst

A system analyst is a professional who plays a key role in analyzing, designing, and
implementing information systems to meet the needs of an organization. The skill
set needed by a system analyst typically includes:

1. Technical knowledge: A system analyst should have a solid understanding of

various technologies and tools used in system development, such as
programming languages, databases, operating systems, and software
development methodologies. This enables them to assess technical

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 feasibility and make informed decisions during system analysis and design
phases.
2. Systems thinking: System analysts need to have the ability to think critically
and holistically, considering the entire system and its components, as well as
the interactions and dependencies between them. They should be able to
understand how changes in one part of the system may influence other parts
and the overall system performance.
3. Business acumen: System analysts should possess a deep understanding of
the organization's business processes, goals, and strategies. They should be
able to analyze and align information systems with the organization's
business requirements, identifying opportunities for improvement and
optimization.
4. Communication skills: Effective communication skills are crucial for system
analysts as they need to interact with various stakeholders, including end-
users, business users, IT teams, and management. They should be able to
gather requirements, articulate technical concepts, and communicate
complex ideas in a clear and concise manner.
5. Analytical and problem-solving skills: System analysts should be skilled in
analyzing complex situations, identifying problems, and proposing solutions.
They should be able to use techniques such as data modeling, process
modeling, and decision analysis to evaluate different options and make
informed recommendations.
6. Project management: System analysts often work as part of a project team
and, therefore, should have basic project management skills, including
project planning, scheduling, monitoring, and reporting. They should be able

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 to manage their tasks, deadlines, and resources efficiently to ensure
successful project delivery.
7. Adaptability and continuous learning: Technology and business
environments are constantly evolving, and system analysts need to stay up-
to-date with the latest trends and developments in their field. They should
have a willingness to learn and adapt to changing technologies, tools, and
methodologies.
8. Interpersonal skills: System analysts often work closely with diverse teams
and stakeholders and, therefore, should have good interpersonal skills. This
includes being able to work well in a team, actively listen to others, provide
constructive feedback, and build positive relationships with stakeholders.
9. Documentation skills: System analysts should be able to document their
findings, analysis, and recommendations in a clear and organized manner.
This includes creating technical documents, requirements specifications,
system design documents, and other project-related documentation.

Overall, a system analyst needs a combination of technical, analytical, business,

communication, and interpersonal skills to be effective in their role and deliver
successful information systems that meet the needs of the organization.

Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive description of some categories of human
resources in an IT firm which include: Network Administrator, Security
Administrator, Webmaster, Software Integrators, System Analyst, Program Analyst,
Business Analyst, Requirement Analyst, Infrastructure Analyst, Change Management
Analyst, and Project Manager. Skill sets required by a system analyst was also
identified.

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Exercises
1. What are the key responsibilities of a network administrator in a large-scale
enterprise network?
2. What tools and technologies are commonly used by network administrators
for network monitoring and management?
3. What are the main duties of a security administrator in an organization?
4. What are the current trends and challenges in cybersecurity, and how can a
security administrator stay updated with the latest threats and technologies?
5. What are the key responsibilities of a webmaster in managing and
maintaining a website?
6. How do you ensure the website's usability, accessibility, and performance
across different browsers and devices?
7. What tools and technologies are commonly used by webmasters for website
development, testing, and maintenance?
8. What are the common challenges and considerations in integrating third-
party software or external APIs into a software system?
9. How do you conduct program assessments, performance measurement, and
risk management to ensure program success and compliance?
10. What tools and technologies are commonly used by program analysts for
data analysis, reporting, and program management?
11. What is the role of a requirement analyst in the software development life
cycle (SDLC)?
12. How do you gather, document, and prioritize software requirements from
stakeholders to define the scope of a project?
13. What are the techniques and methods used by requirement analysts for
requirements elicitation, validation, and verification?

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 14. What are the main responsibilities of a project manager in planning,
executing, and controlling projects?
15. What tools and technologies are commonly used by project managers for
project management and collaboration?

References
Heneman, R. L., Tansky, J. W., & Camp, S. M. (2000). Human Resource Management
Practices in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises: Unanswered Questions
and Future Research Perspectives.

Schneier, B. (2015). Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and
Control Your World. W. W. Norton & Company.

Barker, D. (2016). Web content management: Systems, features, and best

practices. O'Reilly Media, Inc.

Cassidy, A. (2016). A practical guide to information systems strategic planning. CRC

press.

Dennis, A., Wixom, B., & Tegarden, D. (2015). Systems analysis and design: An
object-oriented approach with UML. John Wiley & Sons.

Meredith, J. R., Shafer, S. M., & Mantel Jr, S. J. (2017). Project management: a
strategic managerial approach. John Wiley & Sons.

Rainer, R. K., & Prince, B. (2021). Introduction to information systems. John Wiley &
Sons.

Tilley, S. (2019). Systems analysis and design. Cengage Learning.

West, J. (2022). Data Communication and Computer Networks: A Business User's

Approach. Cengage Learning.

Whitman, M. E., & Mattord, H. J. (2021). Principles of information security. Cengage

Learning.

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Hyppönen, M. (2016). In Code We Trust: How to Protect Your Data in a World Full
of Hackers. Scientific American, 314(4), 46-51.

Litan, A. (2019, May). How to Prevent Fraudulent Account Takeovers. Credit Union
Journal, 88(5), 20-22.

Clarke, R. (2017, May 17). We Need a New Manhattan Project to Combat Cyber
Threats. The New York Times. [URL]

"Human Resources (HR) Meaning and Responsibilities." Investopedia. [URL]

"Systems Designer; The role, salary, software and skills of a video game systems
designer." [URL]

"What Does A Systems Designer Do?" [URL]

"Target Hackers Broke in Via HVAC Company." KrebsOnSecurity. [URL]

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 Chapter Five
5. Roles of the Computer in Business and Society

Overview
This chapter provides a basic understanding of the integral roles computers play in
affecting our daily lives in the modern society/world we live in. Different ways that
computers and other digital technology have changed how businesses operate,
including marketing, human resources, and accounting, will also be discussed, going
over how technology can enhance these aspects of productivity, accuracy, and
communication.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with a basic knowledge of computer
software. At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
a. gain familiarity with some of the most important uses of computers
in business organisations.
b. describe various key roles of computers in modern society.
c. understand how computers have changed the way we communicate,
work, and live in modern society.
d. identify the effects computers had on economic development and
growth
e. identify how the deployment of computer affect economic growth in
globalization and international trade.

5.1 Role of Computers in Business Organizations

Business organizations use computers to carry out their operations in an effective
and efficient manner. Modern businesses cannot function without computers, which
are important to almost every aspect of daily operations. A computer is an important
device that businesses use for product design, marketing, accounting, and human

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resources. This makes it imperative for business owners to acquire suitable computer
hardware, software, and auxiliary devices for their organization.

Much software can be installed on computers to make business operations easier,

faster, and more efficient. Some of the main uses of computers in business
organizations are as follows:

1. Business Communication Tools

Business organizations use computers to communicate both internally and

externally. This is achieved by using various software, applications, and services
provided by personal computers, network servers, and the Internet. Businesses can
interact quickly and effectively with customers, suppliers, and employees thanks to
computers and communication technologies.

Business organizations use computers to establish and maintain contact with clients.
The clients include customers who patronize the products and services offered by
business organizations and service providers who render services that support the
operations of businesses. Contact between business organizations and clients takes
place in the form of communication via email, instant messaging, social networks
(Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and Skype), video conferencing (such as Zoom and
Google Meet), and collaboration software. Businesses that maintain reliable
communication channels with clients are more reachable when clients have one
problem or the other to resolve. They are also more responsive to the concerns of
their clients. Clients can easily enquire about the details of products and services
offered by the organization as well as the terms and conditions of service. They are
also able to highlight grey areas and seek more explanation and better clarification.
A good communication channel also makes it easier for clients to enjoy timely,
effective, and efficient customer support services. Clients have access to regular
updates about new products and services, changes in terms and conditions of
service, and other new developments concerning the business.

In addition to aiding communication between a business and its clients, computers

also support communication between a business and its employees. Managers can
easily give instructions or pass information to their staff by sending emails or using

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any other approved communication platform instead of wasting time, effort, and
logistics on in-person meetings. This saves time, effort, and resources and improves
internal communication within the organization.

2. Marketing and Advertisement

Businesses use computers to carry out a wide variety of marketing activities. A new
business can leverage computers and the Internet to put itself on the global
commercial map. Computers enable information technology experts to create an
attractive website with appropriate features and information using text, images, and
videos. Experts managing the website of a commercial entity can use search engine
optimization to attract traffic. Search engine optimization makes the website appear
frequently in many Google searches. This results in a larger customer base and higher
sales for the organization.

Computers also enable businesses to launch and implement aggressive marketing

campaigns spanning multiple Internet-based social media platforms. Social media,
email marketing, and online advertising are just a few of the new marketing and
advertising channels made possible by computers and the Internet. For example, a
business can market its products on Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, and Telegram
simultaneously. The business can use specialized software to create and launch
advertisements on different websites and social media platforms concurrently. It can
also subscribe to online or Internet marketing services provided by other businesses.
The Internet-based market enables a commercial entity to reach a large audience
and many potential customers who may subscribe to its products and services.

3. Accounting

Business organizations deploy accounting software to quickly and accurately have a

narrow and broad view of their financial situations. Accounting software provides
managers with information on an organization's financial status. Managers request
financial information from the software by simply providing a few inputs related to
the desired information and clicking relevant buttons. Computers are also used to
create invoices, keep track of debtors and creditors, manage employee payroll, as
well as process tax-related matters. The use of computers relieves accountants of

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rudimentary or low-level tasks and enables them to focus on the higher-level picture
of an organization's financial transactions.

4. Managing Records

Prior to the advent of computers, business organizations store their record in filing
cabinets, which occupy large space and can store a relatively small amount of
information. Computers occupy significantly less space compared to filing cabinets
and can store large amounts of information several times the volume that filing
cabinets can contain. Businesses use computer workstations and servers to store,
organize, and process huge amounts of information which they can easily access or
share at any time.

Computers also provide business organizations with the liberty to decide the way in
which they want to store data. Data may be stored in a central location using a
dedicated server, which other computers (known as clients or workstations) can
access whenever there is a need to do that. Access and manipulation of information
on servers by clients' computers or workstations depend on the permissions set by
system administrators. In other words, users on workstations must be assigned
access rights and privileges before they can obtain information from or manipulate
the contents of servers. On the other hand, business organizations may implement
record management using a peer-to-peer approach whereby enterprise data is
stored locally on individual computers in the organization. A business organization
may also subscribe to cloud services whereby some of its data is stored in the cloud
far away from its actual operating environment.

Digital record management provides high storage capacity, faster data access, easy
manipulation, and efficient sorting. Storing data in a well-protected database
provides secure storage and prevents data loss.

5. Production of Business Documents

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Computers are usually equipped with word processing and spreadsheet applications,
which are used to produce numerous documents to support the day-to-day
operations of business organizations. Notable among these applications are
Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. Word processors are used to create written
documents such as memos, letters, training materials, reports, and advertisements
for services, products, or events. The documents may be for internal use or sent to
external entities such as customers, contractors, and government agencies.
Employees of business enterprises use spreadsheet applications to manipulate
alphanumeric data and create high-level summaries of large and diverse business
data. The data may be summarized using tables, charts, graphs, and reports. This
provides top-level management with useful information for reliable decision-
making.

Computers provide businesses with presentation software such as Microsoft

PowerPoint, which is used to create slides either for internal use or external uses.
Presentation slides may be used internally to enhance interaction during meetings,
seminars, or training. External use of presentation slides includes proposal
presentations to clients and meetings with contractors.

6. Research

Computers provide business organizations with access to the Internet through which
they can connect to search engines and proprietary databases. This enables
businesses to explore trends in the industry trends, search for patents and
trademarks, as well as identify potential clients and competitors.

7. Media Production

Businesses can use computers to produce graphics, video, and audio files. These
media support the training, advertising, and marketing efforts of an organization.
Multimedia files have immense interactive quality and are capable of gaining human
attention quickly.

8. Product Design

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Product designers use computers to create new products and services quickly,
efficiently, and accurately. Computers have transformed product creation by
allowing designers and engineers to work more productively, lowering costs and the
time to release products into the market. It also enhances the quality of the final
product.

5.2 Roles of Computers in Modern Society

In today's world, computers are practically everywhere, and their influence is felt in
almost every facet of our lives. Electronic computers were originally designed and
built to perform difficult and complex mathematical operations. This has changed
over time as computers have assumed broader and more integral roles in modern
society. The way we live, work, and connect is greatly influenced by computers, from
communication and education to entertainment and healthcare. Computers are now
used in virtually every aspect of human endeavours ranging from business,
education, healthcare, and governance, to mention but a few. Nowadays, computers
perform a wide array of functions while playing critical roles in our personal lives and
businesses. This is because computers offer fast, efficient, and liable processing of
large amounts of data, thereby enhancing the ease and speed of operations and
supporting reliable decision-making. Smartphones have transformed how we gather,
use, and distribute information, making it simpler than ever to interact with others
and have access to a variety of information and resources. The following are some
of the areas where computers are widely deployed.

1. Business

Computers are critical to the operation of every modern business. Business

organizations deploy computers for employee record management, account
operations, payroll, inventory control, advertising, creation of business documents,
presentation, and report generation. Other business applications of computers
include marketing, sales, and product development. Computers also support
effective communication within and outside an organization, leveraging
technologies such as email, instant messaging, social networks (Facebook,
WhatsApp, Instagram, and Skype), video conferencing (such as Zoom and Google

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Meet), and collaboration software. They help business operators promote their
products and services and enable them to interact directly with customers.

Computers aid tourism by enabling travelers to study travel schedules, compare

route information, and purchase travel tickets. They are also used to search and book
rooms in hotels or via unconventional means such as Air BnB. Computers can be used
to plan and manage activities such as trips, excursions, tours, and events.

2. Education

Computers enrich learners' experience by supporting audio-visual communication,

interactive exercises, online (remote) learning, and online tutoring. This comes in the
form of e-learning and blended learning. E-learning is a method of instruction in
which interaction between instructors and learners takes place in the virtual world
without any physical contact. Instructors and learners do not necessarily have to be
in the same physical location before teaching and learning can take place. Teachers
and students interact using computers and other electronic devices that connect via
the Internet. Platforms such as Zoom and Google Meet are now used for effective,
efficient, and reliable delivery of education and training. Blended learning is a semi-
electronic learning approach whereby some aspects of teaching and learning take
place virtually while other aspects involve face-to-face interaction between teachers
and students. Technologies such as virtual reality and augmented reality will
revolutionize teaching and learning in such a way that both instructors and learners
will have a feel of one another's actual presence even when they are not actually in
the same physical location.

Computers also enable learners to access educational resources in text, audio and
video formats from online databases and repositories. Resources such as e-books,
journals, conferences, and instructional videos can be downloaded from intranet and
internet sources. This supports regimented learning as students can go through the
same material several times and at their convenience. It is also important to mention
that a significant amount of these resources are available free of charge.

Computers are useful tools for managing student and personnel records in
educational institutions. They are used for evaluating students' performance

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through online examinations, assignments, and projects. Computers are also used to
record, process, and disseminate information on the academic performance of
students.

3. Healthcare

Computers are playing revolutionary roles in healthcare operations and

management. The evolution of electronic medical information systems makes the
storage, processing, and dissemination of medical records easier, faster, and more
efficient. It also provides easy access, manipulation, and organization of large and
complex medical data. Computer software can be used to aggregate and analyze
diverse and complex patient data to generate information that assists physicians in
diagnosing illnesses and predicting a patient's susceptibility to diseases.

Computer-based medical systems are used extensively in the laboratory, theatre,

and treatment rooms to control equipment and monitor heart rate and blood
pressure. High-tech medical equipment are critical components of intensive care
units in hospitals. Doctors and other medical personnel can easily monitor patients
on admission 24/7 via computer-based systems even if they are not physically
present with the patients.

Modern medicine production also relies extensively on computers. Computers and

software are used to analyze data and other parameters during drug production.
They are also used to analyze information obtained during trials for detecting the
safety and efficacy of new drugs. Doctors leverage computers and, particularly, the
Internet to obtain information on new medicines and novel treatment procedures.
They are also able to share information on diseases, patterns of spread, and
treatment procedures with other medical professionals.

4. Retail and Trade

The computer is the major driver of electronic commerce, which is a system of trade
whereby the exchange of goods and services takes place without any physical
contact between buyers and sellers. Sellers display their products and services on
websites hosted on the Internet. Prospective buyers visit the websites to view the

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products and services displayed as well as the prices, terms, and conditions of
service. A buyer makes his choice of product or service and pays online. The
purchased items will be delivered after the seller confirms payment. Electronic
commerce enables sellers to reach a wider audience without the need for physical
stores, payment of a large staff, or expensive advertisement via traditional media.
Buyers are also able to compare products and prices, read reviews of previous
buyers, and choose their preferred mode of delivery. Popular electronic commerce
platforms include Jumia, Konga, eBay, and Amazon. Internet-based websites such as
Craigslist, eBay, and social media platforms support trade and advertising, enabling
third-party entities to advertise their products and services. This provides businesses
with a cost-effective method to reach a global audience of prospective buyers.

5. Government

Government agencies use computers for the collection, storage, processing, and
dissemination of data and information. The use of computers enhances the quality,
effectiveness, and efficiency of services rendered by these agencies. For example,
computers are used in urban planning to design and plan new townships and
resident locations. Law enforcement agencies use computers to store, process, and
disseminate information on criminals and their activities. They also use computers
to track and screen suspects based on previously collected information. Computers
can be used to collect traffic-related data, analyze the data, and disseminate
information on traffic flow at any time of the day. Government revenue agencies use
computers for effective, efficient, and transparent revenue collection. Individuals
and corporate entities can pay taxes and levies directly to government coffers using
various online payment platforms. Other uses of computers in government
operations include internal and external communication, routine administrative
purposes, and access control in sensitive government establishments.

6. Science and Technology

Scientists and mathematicians were the first set of professionals to use computers
as a working tool. Mathematicians use computers to solve difficult, complex, and
mentally intensive calculations, while scientists deploy computers for research and
disseminating information with colleagues around the world. Computers are used in

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product design, testing, and simulation that would otherwise be expensive and
dangerous if carried out in real life directly by humans. Statistical and data analysis
software installed on computers aids the collection, categorization, analysis, and
storage of large amounts of data. This will be highly time-consuming, expensive, or
almost impossible if carried out manually.

Space technology is a field that depends largely on computers. Launching,

controlling, and maintaining a spacecraft is almost totally impossible without the aid
of computers. Overall, no advanced technology can be created and operated without
the use of computers.

Global and regional weather forecasting is a complex activity that depends on a large
number of factors that change from time to time. Computers are used to collect and
process information received from satellites and other sources. They are also used
to perform complex calculations for predicting future weather conditions. The
processing of large amounts of meteorological information is beyond the capacity of
the human brain.

Robotics is a technology that integrates computers with science and engineering to

produce machines that can function like humans or carry out tasks that are difficult
or impossible for human beings. Robots are widely used in automobile production,
law enforcement, military, and healthcare.

7. Publishing

Graphic design applications, publishing software, and word processors are available
on computers to aid the production of leaflets for marketing campaigns, newsletters,
magazines, newspapers, and books. These publications may be in hard-copy or
electronic versions. These result in faster and more effective dissemination of
information.

8. Media and Entertainment

Nowadays, computers are widely deployed in the media and entertainment industry.
Software such as Corel Draw, Poster Maker, and Adobe Express are used for graphic

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designs, paintings, and drawings. Computers are also used to edit, copy, send, and
print photographs.

Computers aid the production of music and videos. They are used by music and video
producers to create and edit content. Audiences use computers to listen to music
and watch videos. Digital game consoles such as the PS series (PS3, PS4, or PS5) are
used for playing games by connecting them to computers.

9. Communication

Computer software and video conferencing services provide simplified, easy, and
cost-effective communication over the Internet. Platforms such as WhatsApp, Skype,
and Zoom enable families and friends to connect and communicate with audio and
video. Computers are equipped with built-in microphones and webcams that
enhance the quality of interaction among the communicating parties. Businesses,
professionals, and social groups can hold meetings among participants who are
dispersed in different locations. Radio and television stations can interview guests
without the physical presence of the anchor and crew with the guests. Older
technologies such as email and instant messaging are also widely used for
communication nowadays.

10. Banking and Finance

Online banking is a critical component of financial industries in advanced and

developing countries. Customers can use computers and mobile devices to check
their account balance, transfer money, request and pay loans. Individuals can also
use Internet-enabled devices, including computers, to access stock information, buy
and sell stocks, and manage their portfolios. Banks and stock broking firms use
computers to store customer information and track customer behavior.

11. Transport

There is an increase in the automation of road, rail, air, and water transportation.
Computers are widely used to control and manage safety and navigation systems.
Driving, flying, and steering have become semi or fully automated thanks to the
availability of computers. Monitoring systems in cars, trains, aircraft, and ships use

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computers to detect and report problems related to fuel, oil or mechanical
components.

12. Navigation

The integration of computers with Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and
satellites makes it easy to identify an object's location and track its movement using
a digitized map. Digitized maps make it easy to identify amenities and interesting
places within a geographical location.

13. Remote Working

Professionals use computers to work remotely from any location without any need
to report at the actual business or work environment. Many organizations adopted
a remote work culture during the COVID-19 epidemic to fulfill the social distance
requirement imposed by governments around the world. This enables many
businesses and organizations to stay afloat as workers were able to perform their
tasks as well as collaborate with colleagues via computers and the Internet. Remote
working offers flexibility and convenience as workers can do their jobs and interact
with colleagues at any time of the day and without going to a traditional office.
Computers and specialized software also enable managers to monitor productivity
without having physical access to workers.

14. Military

The armed forces (army, navy, and air force) engage in extensive use of computers
for training and analysis of intelligence data. Military training software and
applications are available to simulate battlefield scenarios and enable officers to
learn new tactics without actually engaging in any physical activities. Strategies and
tactics that have been learned and perfected using computer software can now be
demonstrated in actual practical or real-life scenarios. This reduces the finances and
other logistics required for training. Intelligence data are usually voluminous and
come from diverse sources. Analysis software enables intelligence officers to
aggregate and analyze large amounts of vital and sensitive data to generate useful
information for reliable decision-making.

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Computers are integral components of smart defense technologies such as guided
missiles and drones, as well as defense systems for tracking and destruction of
projectiles from enemy forces. Computer-based defense systems also integrate with
other technologies, such as satellites, to capture and analyze information on a
geographical area. They also provide communications and support necessary for
tanks and fighter jets to target enemy forces with high accuracy and precision.

15. Social and Romance

Computers have revolutionized the way people meet and socialize with each other.
The evolution of social media platforms allows people to meet and interact
irrespective of geographical. People who are in different locations around the world
and who have never met physically can connect online, exchange text, audio and
video communications in real time. They can share videos, memes, and photographs.
Dating sites and apps help interested persons to meet other people in order to find
love and romance.

The Internet enables people who share similar interests to connect via online groups.
Group members use Internet-enabled computers and mobile devices to interact and
exchange information. People use Blogs to share a wide array of views, updates, and
experiences. Professionals and expert groups use online forums to discuss specific or
general issues.

16. Security and Surveillance

Computers are critical components of surveillance technologies used for monitoring

people and goods. Biometric recognition software installed on computers are used
in border control posts to prevent entry of unauthorized persons into a country in a
sensitive physical environment. The use of biometric passports easily detects the
entry of illegitimate people into a country or passenger airplane. Border patrol
officials and other security personnel use face recognition technology to easily
identify criminals.

Speed cameras or police cars perform automated scanning of vehicle number plates
to detect traffic offenders and violators of other regulations. Computer and Internet

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technologies have also increased the sophistication of private security systems. CCTV
systems and other home security appliances have become more effective than
before. Nowadays, people can keep track of events in their homes in real time via
computer and mobile devices.

5.3 Role of Computer in Economic Growth and Development

Computers have significantly contributed to economic growth and development by
giving firms, entrepreneurs, and governments new options to boost productivity,
boost efficiency, and spur innovation. Computers have completely changed how we
innovate, giving firms access to tools and technologies that help them develop new
goods and services rapidly and effectively. Generating new markets and
opportunities stimulates economic growth.

An economic system is referred to as a computerized economy if the majority of

economic processes, transactions, and activities are carried out via digital technology
and computer networks. Businesses and individuals both use technology to interact,
work together, and do business in a computerized economy. Businesses may now
automate operations, cut expenses, and reach a larger audience thanks to
technological advancements like the internet, e-commerce, and mobile devices. New
business models and industries, such as cloud computing, digital advertising, and
online marketplaces, have emerged as a result of this.

Technology plays an important role in the economic development of many regions,

cities, and countries. Advances in technology lead to higher productivity, efficiency,
and improved quality of goods and services.

The use of computers has also transformed (some) manufacturing floors and the
inventory-management procedures used by many businesses. ATMs, voicemail, and
websites are notable examples of organizations that today provide customer service
by automated technology rather than human interaction. Of course, a lot of new
items and some whole new sectors have also been developed, such as Internet
access. Businesses can analyze and communicate much more quickly today than they
could, say, ten or two decades ago. In fact, the advances have been enormous. For
instance, if the computer economy had improved as substantially over the past thirty

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years as it has in some other areas, you could currently drive your car cross-country
on approximately four milliliters of gas.

Computers have a long list of benefits to the economy, so I'll list just a few of the top
ones:

 The growth of new industries that boost the nation's economy and provide
millions of people with high-paying jobs (such as digital media, software
development, hardware manufacturing, and IT support services).
 Businesses can increase efficiency by automating processes with computers,
saving time and money compared to doing manual procedures. Increased
efficiency and productivity result from this, which can spur economic growth.
 Increased worker productivity as a result of improved and more reliable
communications (the internet). The Internet also opens up new sales
channels that let you sell your goods globally over the Internet.
 Lower costs for commerce ( e-commerce removes the need for large
warehouses and physical stores)
 Reduced costs in manufacturing due to automation (industrial robots)
 Greater efficiency and lower costs for research and development (computer-
aided design software). For instance, you may model the stresses that an
airplane would encounter during flight using a computer instead of an
expensive wind tunnel. Lowering the price of creating a plane.

Many tasks can be completed more effectively by algorithm than by guesswork;

these tasks call for the use of computers. There will be less trouble introducing these
technologies as they get cheaper, faster, easier, and more intuitive, and everyone
will benefit more as a result.

Computers have benefited the economy in many ways, but they have also presented
significant difficulties in their transformational role.

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 1. Job Displacement: Several industries have experienced job displacement as
a result of the automation of operations and processes by computers.
Although computers create new opportunities, some people may find it
difficult to adjust to the shifting labor market as these professions may need
different skill sets.
2. Cybersecurity Risks: As our reliance on computers grows, so does the
possibility of cybersecurity risks like malware, phishing, and hacking. Threats
to cybersecurity can harm businesses and governments' reputations as well
as cause large financial losses.
3. Privacy Issues: The increasing use of computers has increased the amount of
personal data being gathered and processed. This raises concerns about
privacy and personal information protection.
4. Access to Technology: For some people and companies, the price of
technology and internet connection might be a barrier. This may result in a
"digital divide," wherein some individuals and groups are left out of the
digital economy.
5. Technology Dependence: As the economy depends more on computers and
other digital technologies, there is a danger of becoming overly reliant on
them. In the event of technological failures, cyberattacks, or other
disturbances, this may lead to vulnerabilities.

Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of the integral role of
computers in our daily activities. The chapter then discussed the effects of
computers on several sectors, such as healthcare, education, and business. It also
looked at how technology affects social norms and cultural practices, such as how
we learn, communicate, and connect. It also talked about the emergence of social
media, its influence on social and political debate, and how technology has affected

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privacy and security issues. It concluded by looking at how computers can facilitate
global trade and business, especially through the use of online marketplaces and e-
commerce. It finally talked about how digital technologies have impacted
globalization and how new technology may further influence trade and investment
globally.

Exercises
1. What are some of the most important uses of computers in business
organizations?
2. How did computers change the way we interact, work, and live?
3. What are some emerging computer technology trends and advances that
might have an impact on business organizations?
4. What are some key roles of computers in modern society?
5. What are some of the cultural and social effects of computers in modern
society?
6. How have computers changed the way we communicate, work, and live in
modern society?
7. What are some emerging computer technology trends and advancements
that might affect modern society?
8. What effects have computers had on economic development and growth?
9. What are some risks and difficulties brought on by the growing reliance on
technology and computers for economic growth?
10. How does the deployment of computers in globalization and international
trade affect economic growth?

References
Kavallieros, D., et al. (2020). Cybersecurity and Economic Growth: A Study of the
Relationship between Cybersecurity and Economic Growth in Developed
and Developing Countries. Journal of Cybersecurity, 6(1), 1-22.

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Hargittai, E. (2005). The Digital Divide: Current and Future Research Directions.
New Media & Society, 7(1), 15-28.

Buytendijk, F. (2011). Dependence on Information Technology: An Analysis of the

Risks and Opportunities. Communications of the ACM, 54(9), 33-35.

Adjerid, I., & Acquisti, A. (2016). Privacy Concerns in the Digital Economy. Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 30(2), 171-194.

Fairlie, R. W., & Robinson, J. (2017). Computers and Productivity: Evidence from
Laptop Use in the College Classroom. American Economic Journal:
Economic Policy, 9(1), 1-30.

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 Chapter Six
6. Information Systems

Overview
This chapter provides adequate knowledge of information systems and how they
relate to business enterprises. It highlights the technology drivers of information
systems and the process of developing information systems. It presents the business
value of information systems and how they affect an organisation's operations and
processes for productivity. Key concepts and definitions of terms are discussed.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with the basic knowledge of the state-of-
the-art in developing information systems to support organisations' business
operations and processes. Specifically, students should be able to:

a. define information systems clearly.

b. list and explain the roles of information systems in relation to business
enterprises.
c. list and explain the various types of information systems.
d. understand how the choice of information systems should align with
managerial-level processes in decision-making within an organisation.
e. list and discuss the technology drivers that give rise to business prospects
within the organisation.
f. get familiar with the process of developing information systems.

6.1 What is an Information System?

A system is made up of a number of connected, clearly defined entities that are
cooperating to accomplish a common set of objectives. There are different ways the
system can be typified, but for this chapter, the system's classification is based on
the following:

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  Physical or abstract;
 Open and closed;
 Subsystem and supersystem; and
 Natural and man-made.

The physical system consists of actual objects that can be static or dynamic, while
the abstract system is the concept or model of a physical system. While a closed
system is shielded from environmental influences, an open system interacts with the
environment continuously. While the supersystem is thought of as a large and
complex system, the subsystem is a component of the overall system. Some systems
exist in their natural habitat or environment made by nature and are referred to as
natural systems (ecosystems), and there are systems made by people and are
referred to as man-made systems. Examples include transportation systems,
network and communication systems, and other systems.

Information is the processing of raw facts or data into a form that is meaningful and
useful to take actions or decisions. For example, assume there is a set of data, which
is an inventory of product items in supermarkets for sales, and the information that
may relate to the data is the sales of those product items on a daily, weekly, monthly
and yearly basis.

An organisation or business operates as a system, and each of its components can

be divided into smaller systems. The business can be broken down into the following
systems: operations, personnel, financial, commercial or marketing and
information, in accordance with organisational theory. Information has value only on
the basis of using it for the organisation’s objectives and purpose. The information
flow must be well coordinated within the organisational processes for good
organisational performance.

An information system (IS) is a formalised collection of interconnected processes

that operate from a set of data that has been formatted to meet the needs of the
organisation. IS then distributes the information and processes the data as necessary
for the business's operations and the accompanying management and control

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activities. This acts as the decision-making process required for the firm to carry out
its operations in accordance with its strategy.

Therefore, the components of enterprise information systems consist of information

technology (IT), organisation and its processes, people and environment. IT consists
of sub-components such as computer software, computer hardware, network, and
database, as depicted in Figure 6.1. The purpose of information systems (IS) is to
transform business processes and activities in line with the organisation's strategy
for effective decision-making support and competitive advantage in the global
market.

Processes

IT
Computer
Information Software
Systems
People Computer
Hardware

Network

Database

Figure 6.1: Components of Information Systems

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6.2 Roles of Information Systems in Business Enterprise
Enterprise is created for business opportunities focusing on rendering goods and
services with value-added advantages by the deployment of technology tools. There
are vital roles information systems play at the different levels of organisational
structure, as depicted in Figure 6.2. These roles include the following:

Support of
Strategies

Support for
Decision Making

Support for Operation/

Support for the Business Process

Figure 6.2: Roles of Information Systems in Business Enterprise

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Support for the Business Process: As a result, the information system is crucial to
ensure that interactions between different value chain activities, such as:

i. Input logistics concentrates on acquiring supplies and raw materials from

vendors.
ii. Appropriate operations related to the conversion of raw materials into
final goods under the conditions of quality, time, and cost.
iii. Output logistics, which focuses on getting goods to customers.
iv. Use of marketing to identify client wants and obtain orders.
v. Service: actions taken to keep the terms of use for the sold product in
place.

In the simplest terms, information systems manage company activities in the form
of requests made to customers and services provided to those customers in response
to those requests. Requests are made to customers as inputs, and services are
provided to customers as outputs.

a) Support for Operation of a Business Enterprise: To provide quicker and more

reliable information, information systems are hosted in a computerised
environment. By providing timely and accurate information, maintaining and
improving it, and allowing for flexibility in how an organisation operates,
information systems assist business operations.
b) Support for Decision Making: Information systems assist employees in
making decisions for their daily tasks. Additionally, it helps managers make
decisions that will help the company achieve its goals and objectives.
Different mathematical models and information technology tools are
employed in order to adapt strategies to meet the demands of competition.
c) Strategies for a Business Enterprise: Every company in the modern world
operates in a competitive market. To compete favourably in the global

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 economy, businesses must be able to use information technology tools to
their fullest potential. Information systems aid in the development of
effective business plans that will help it compete in the market.

6.3 Trends in Information Systems

Since the creation of information systems, ISs have undergone a substantial
evolution. They were formally created to carry out a specified mission. Organisations
mostly utilised information systems to process data for tasks like processing bills or
salaries.

The emphasis on information systems has since shifted from just processing data to
supporting management by giving data essential for making decisions. Currently, the
emphasis is on providing the appropriate information to the appropriate individuals
at the appropriate time, and the information flow within the organisation is well
coordinated. Information systems have improved in speed, precision, and usability
so that anyone may utilise them. Through the use of business intelligence modelling,
the innovation is made possible.

The application of machine learning techniques for data collection, organisation,

processing, analysis, and access to support enterprise users in making better
business decisions is known as business intelligence (BI). Decision support systems,
query sending and reporting, online analytical processing (OLAP), statistical analysis,
forecasting, and data mining are all supported by BI applications. The purpose of BI
is to improve business decision-making by utilising fact-based support systems.

In modern times, most information system workers are end users who are not
particularly informed about the systems themselves. The systems have evolved to
the point that using them no longer requires users to be experts in information
systems. New ideas are emerging in the field of information systems to help
businesses get a better financial return on their goods and services. Information
systems have undergone a major transformation because of ideas such as client-
server architecture, networking, distributed computing, centralised databases,
graphical user interfaces, and the Internet.

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The development of information systems to meet business objectives and the
information requirements needed to build company strategy must be carefully
planned and coordinated. Information systems strategy is the result of the
interaction between business strategy and IS. The synergy is a constant process that
helps any organisation's strategic goals and objectives to remain relevant for the IS
support structure.

For a corporation to succeed, information systems and information technology (IT)

are essential. IS and IT are seen as major functional areas in the same way as
marketing, finance, production, and human resources are seen as functional areas
of a corporation. As with any other functional area of the business, it is crucial to
comprehend the field of information systems. Since all businesses require
information regarding the tasks that must be completed, information is essential.
Information technology is a tool used to address organisational issues and offer
chances to boost productivity and quality.

6.4 Types of Information Systems

There is a need for categories of information systems to handle all the information
demands of the organisation due to the complexity of information processing and
the many degrees through which data and processes are structured, which also
connect to the type of organisational challenges to confront. Another way to think
about this is as operational, medium, and top managerial levels inside a normal
organisation. And different users have different information needs. Additionally, the
classification of information systems is based on the decisions made and the
processing requirements, both of which vary at different organisational levels of
hierarchy, as depicted in Figure 6.3. Based on the aforementioned, a variety of
information systems exist to support each level in an organisation, including the ones
listed below:

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Figure 6.3: Types of Information System

a. Executive Information System

A top-level executive of an organisation can plan and manage workflow and make
business decisions with the aid of an executive information system (EIS), often
referred to as an executive support system (ESS). It gives bosses better
computational power and useful display options. They can access information
through static reports, graphs, and on-demand textual content. Among other things,
it aids in performance monitoring, rival strategy tracking, and trend forecasting.

b. Decision Support System

The organisation's management uses a decision support system (DSS) to analyse the
data before making a decision. The sources of the data can be internal or external.
For instance, management may use information from external sources, such as
market prices, when determining the prices of a product. It aids decision-makers in

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their decision-making process. Complex databases and spreadsheets may also be
used to create models in challenging and crucial circumstances. Decision support
systems are very interactive and use complex mathematical models and statistical
techniques to deliver solutions.

c. Management Information System

The management uses the management information system (MIS) to offer routine
summary information so they can make choices. Different types of data are
processed, including those related to sales, purchases, and production, that are
consolidated in MIS. Typically, internal sources are used to obtain this information.
Managers and decision-makers create summaries based on this data. Additionally,
this system assists the organisation's marketing and revenue departments in
increasing operational effectiveness and monitoring the organisation's progress.

d. Transaction Processing System

The transaction collection, update, and retrieval procedure is automated by the
Transaction Processing System (TPS). It successfully handles ordinary transactions. It
makes it easier for enterprises to carry out their everyday tasks without difficulties.
Its data is utilised to create reports. Depending on the demands of the organisation,
the report may be based on monthly, quarterly, yearly, or any other on-demand
reports. This type of information system's particular characteristic is that it improves
the efficiency, dependability, and consistency of commercial transactions. It
manages an organisation's record-keeping. Payroll systems, billing systems,
purchasing systems, and shipment of records are some examples.

6.5 Perspectives of Information Systems

Information systems (IS) are complex and multifaceted systems that integrate
hardware, software, people, and data to manage, store, process, and disseminate
information. The perspectives of information systems vary based on the discipline,
the level of analysis, and the focus of the inquiry. However, some of the major
perspectives of information systems include technical, behavioural, managerial, and
strategic perspectives.

a. Technical perspective

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The technical perspective of information systems focuses on the hardware, software,
and network components of the system. It emphasises the design, development,
implementation, and maintenance of the system to ensure its optimal performance
and reliability. This perspective is primarily concerned with the technical aspects of
the system, such as programming languages, databases, data structures, algorithms,
and security protocols.

b. Behavioural perspective
The behavioural perspective of information systems focuses on the human aspects
of the system, including how people interact with the system and how the system
affects people. It emphasises the social, psychological, and organisational factors
that influence the use and adoption of the system. This perspective is primarily
concerned with the behavioural aspects of the system, such as user acceptance, user
satisfaction, user behaviour, and organisational culture.

c. Managerial perspective
The managerial perspective of information systems focuses on the managerial and
administrative aspects of the system. It emphasises the role of the system in
supporting managerial decision-making, planning, and control. This perspective is
primarily concerned with the managerial aspects of the system, such as strategic
planning, resource allocation, risk management, and performance measurement.

d. Strategic perspective

The strategic perspective of information systems focuses on the strategic use of

information systems to achieve organisational goals and objectives. It emphasises
the alignment between the information system and the organisation's strategic
direction. This perspective is primarily concerned with the strategic aspects of the
system, such as competitive advantage, value creation, innovation, and digital
transformation.

d. Societal perspective
The societal perspective of information systems focuses on the broader societal
implications of the system. It emphasises the ethical, legal, and social issues that
arise from the use of the system. This perspective is primarily concerned with the

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societal aspects of the system, such as privacy, security, the digital divide, and digital
citizenship. The societal perspective is often used by policy-makers, ethicists, and
legal scholars to study the impact of information systems on society and to develop
policies and regulations that promote the responsible use of information systems.

The perspectives of information systems are diverse and multidisciplinary. They

reflect the different ways of understanding and analysing the complex phenomenon
of information systems from different angles and levels of analysis. A comprehensive
understanding of information systems requires an integration of these perspectives
to account for the technical, behavioural, managerial, strategic, and societal aspects
of the system.

6.5.1 The Business Drivers Influencing the Information System

Business drivers are the internal and external factors that motivate organisations to
implement or upgrade their information systems (IS). The business drivers for IS may
vary from one organisation to another, depending on their goals, priorities, and
industry. Business drivers influencing information systems include the following:

a. Operational efficiency
Organisations need to optimise their operations to reduce costs, improve quality,
and increase productivity. IS can help organisations achieve operational efficiency by
automating routine tasks, streamlining workflows, and providing real-time data for
decision-making.

b. Competitive advantage
Organisations need to differentiate themselves from their competitors by offering
unique products or services, superior customer service, or lower prices. IS can
provide a competitive advantage by enabling organisations to innovate, collaborate,
and respond quickly to changing market demands.

c. Business growth
organisations must grow their businesses by breaking into new markets, releasing
new products, or gaining new clients. IS can support business growth by providing
insights into customer behaviour, market trends, and opportunities for expansion.

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d. Regulatory compliance
Organisations need to comply with laws and regulations governing their industry,
such as data privacy, security, and financial reporting. IS can help organisations
ensure compliance by automating compliance processes, tracking regulatory
changes, and generating audit reports.

e. Customer satisfaction
Organisations need to satisfy their customers by providing high-quality products or
services, personalised experiences, and responsive support. IS can improve customer
satisfaction by enabling organisations to capture and analyse customer feedback,
anticipate customer needs, and deliver tailored solutions.

f. Risk management
Organisations need to manage risks associated with their business operations, such
as data breaches, cyber-attacks, and natural disasters. IS can help organisations
mitigate risks by implementing security measures, backup and recovery plans, and
disaster response protocols.

The business drivers influencing information systems are multifaceted and dynamic,
reflecting the complex interplay between organisational goals, industry trends, and
technological advancements. Organisations need to align their information systems
with their business drivers to achieve their strategic objectives and stay competitive
in a rapidly changing business environment.

6.5.2 The Technology Drivers Used by Information System

Technology drivers are the external factors that influence the development and
adoption of information systems (IS). These drivers are primarily technological in
nature and include advances in hardware, software, networking, and
telecommunications. The following section discusses some of the major technology
drivers used by information systems:

a. Moore's Law
The statement stated by Gordon Moore, a co-founder of Intel, that the number of
transistors on a microchip doubles every two years is known as Moore's Law. This
law has held true since the 1960s and has enabled the development of smaller,
faster, and more powerful computing devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and

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laptops. Information systems have leveraged this technology driver to create more
sophisticated software applications, databases, and analytics tools.

b. Cloud Computing
The supply of computing services, such as software, storage, and processing power,
through the internet, is known as cloud computing. Cloud computing has become a
popular technology driver for information systems due to its scalability, cost-
effectiveness, and flexibility. Cloud computing enables organisations to store and
process large amounts of data, access software applications from anywhere, and
collaborate in real time.

c. Internet of Things (IoT)

The network of physical items that are connected to the Internet and are equipped
with sensors, software and connectivity is known as the Internet of Things (IoT). Due
to its ability to enable organisations to gather and analyse data from a variety of
sources, including sensors, wearables, and smart devices, the Internet of Things (IoT)
has grown to be a well-liked technology driver for information systems.

d. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the imitation of human intellect in computers that are
capable of carrying out operations like speech recognition, visual perception, and
decision-making that traditionally need human intelligence. AI has become a popular
technology driver for information systems because it allows organisations to
automate routine tasks, improve decision-making, and analyse large amounts of
data.

e. Big Data
Large and complicated datasets that are too challenging to analyse using
conventional data processing techniques are referred to as "big data." Because it
enables organisations to analyse vast amounts of data from a variety of sources, such
as social media, customer interactions, and operational systems, big data has grown
in popularity as a technology driver for information systems. Big data technologies,
such as Hadoop, Spark, and NoSQL databases, have enabled organisations to store,
process, and analyse large datasets.

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Technology drivers are an important external factor that influences the development
and adoption of information systems. By leveraging technology drivers,
organisations can create more sophisticated and innovative information systems
that support their business objectives and stay competitive in a rapidly changing
technological landscape.

6.5.3 The Process for developing the information System

It takes numerous steps to design an information system, and each one is essential
to ensure that the system satisfies the requirements of the organisation and its users.
An overview of the procedure for creating information systems is provided below:

a) Planning and Analysis

The first stage of the process involves identifying the requirements for the system
and determining whether a new system is necessary or an existing system can be
modified to meet the requirements. This stage includes gathering and analysing
information from stakeholders, defining the scope of the project, and identifying the
risks and constraints associated with the project.

b) Design

The second stage of the process involves designing the system architecture, defining
the data model, and creating the user interface. This stage includes selecting the
hardware and software components, creating the data flow diagrams, and defining
the system requirements.

c) Implementation

The third stage of the process involves developing the system software, installing the
hardware, and configuring the network. This stage includes coding the system
components, testing the system, and documenting the system functions and
features.

d) Testing

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The system is tested at the fourth stage of the process to make sure it satisfies the
functional and non-functional requirements. Unit testing, system testing, integration
testing, and acceptance testing are all part of this stage.

e) Deployment

The fifth stage of the process involves deploying the system to the production
environment and transitioning from the old system to the new system. This stage
includes installing the system, configuring the system settings, and training the users.

f) Maintenance

The final stage of the process involves maintaining the system, including updating
the software, fixing bugs, and providing user support. This stage includes monitoring
the system performance, troubleshooting issues, and ensuring that the system
meets the changing needs of the organisation.

The process of developing information systems is a complex and iterative process

that involves several stages. Each stage of the process is critical for ensuring that the
system meets the needs of the organisation and its users, and that it is reliable,
secure, and scalable. Effective communication, collaboration, and project
management are key to the success of the process.

6.6 Business Value of Information System

The business value of an Information system (IS) is significant and can impact an
organisation's operations, decision-making, and overall performance. An
information system can provide significant business value to an organisation by
improving operational efficiency, enhancing decision-making capabilities, and
enabling the organisation to gain a competitive advantage. The following are some
of the key business values of an information system:

a) Improved operational efficiency

Information systems can automate and streamline business processes, reducing the
time and effort required to perform routine tasks. By automating manual processes,

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organisations can free up employees to focus on more strategic tasks, reduce errors
and mistakes, and increase productivity.

b) Enhanced decision-making

The information system provides real-time access to critical data and analytics,
enabling managers to make informed decisions quickly. By providing accurate and
timely information, IS can help managers identify trends, anticipate problems, and
make more effective decisions.

c) Increased competitiveness

Information system helps organisations gain a competitive advantage by providing

insights into customer preferences and behaviour, identifying market trends and
opportunities, and enabling faster and more effective responses to changes in the
market.

d) Improved customer service

IS can help organisations improve customer service by providing real-time access to

customer information, enabling faster response times, and improving the quality and
consistency of customer interactions.

e) Better collaboration

By offering a platform for information exchange, communication, and teamwork on

projects, information systems improve collaboration among staff members,
departments, and business partners.

f) Reduced costs

Information systems can help organisations reduce costs by automating routine

tasks, reducing errors and waste, and optimising processes. By improving
operational efficiency, IS can also reduce labour costs and increase profitability.

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The business value of an IS is significant, and organisations that leverage IS effectively
can achieve better operational efficiency, decision-making, and customer service. By
optimising processes, automating tasks, and providing real-time access to critical
data, IS can help organisations compete effectively, grow, and achieve their strategic
goals.

Summary
This chapter presented an explicit understanding of the relevance of information
systems to organisation processes and operations that aid the management in
decision-making processes. The definition of Information systems, types of
information systems and the technology drivers of IS that add value to business
processes are well discussed. The process of developing the IS, which also aligns with
the organisation's objectives and goals, is explicitly discussed.

Exercises
1. Define the terms: System and Information.
2. Differentiate between a system and an information system.
3. How do you relate organisation to a system?
4. Give your understanding of the impact of information systems on
business activities.
5. What are the types of information systems?
6. Mention the managerial levels in the decision-making process in a typical
organisation's hierarchy.
7. How can Information systems be used strategically to align with an
organisation's goals and objectives?
8. What does the synergy between information systems and technology
produce?
9. What are the advantages of the technology perspective in
understanding information systems?
10. How can the sociotechnical perspective help organisations design
effective information systems?
11. What is the management perspective of information systems? How does
it relate to organisational decision-making?
12. How does the behavioural perspective of information systems focus on
human interaction with technology?

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 13. How can the ethical perspective help organisations address ethical
issues in information systems design and use?
14. What is the user perspective of information systems? How can it help
organisations create systems that meet user needs?
15. What are the key concepts of the work system theory, and how do they
relate to information system perspectives?
16. How can information system perspectives help organisations make
strategic decisions about technology use and deployment?
17. How do the different information system perspectives relate to each
other? Give an example of how multiple perspectives can be used to
design an effective system.
References
Alcami, R. L. and Caranana, C. D. (2012). Introduction to Management Information
Systems. Primera edició, 1-39.

Alter, S. (2017). Work system theory: Overview of core concepts, extensions, and
challenges for the future. Journal of the Association for Information
Systems, 18(10), 698-722.

Brocke, J. V. and Mendling, J. (2018). Business Process Management Cases: Digital

Innovation and Business Transformation in Practice. ISBN 978-3-319-58307-
5, Springer International Publishing AG.

Chopra, A. & Chaudhary, M. (2020). Information and Information Security

Management System. ISBN-13 978-1-4842-5413-4.

Davis, G. B., & Olson, M. H. (2021). Management Information Systems: Conceptual

Foundations, Structure and Development. 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill
Education.

Laudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (2020). Management Information Systems: Managing

the Digital Firm. 16th Edition. Pearson.

Maier, R., H¨adrich, T., and Peinl, R. (2009). Enterprise Knowledge Infrastructures,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

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McNurlin, B. C., Sprague Jr, R. H., & Bui, T. (2009). Information systems
management in practice. Prentice Hall.

O'Brien, J. A., & Marakas, G. M. (2018). Management Information Systems. 13th

Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.

Pernici, B. (2004). Mobile Information Systems: Infrastructure and Design for

Adaptivity and Flexibility, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Soriyan, H. A. (2020). Development of an Information System for Healthcare

organizations: A Guide for Managers and Researchers. Hershey, PA: IGI
Global.

Stair, R. M., Reynolds, G. W., & Reynolds, G. (2019). Principles of Information

Systems. 13th Edition. Cengage Learning, USA.

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 Chapter Seven
7. Information Processing

Overview
This chapter provides a clear explanation of the technological concept of data
processing and the various methods and types of data processing. It also sheds light
on the relevance and functions of an information systems department. Key concepts
and definitions of terms were discussed.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with a basic understanding of the
concepts of processing data and an understanding of what an information systems
department looks like. Specifically, students should be able to:

i. define data processing clearly.

ii. list and explain the various methods of data processing.
iii. understand the different types of data processing.
iv. clearly define an information systems department.
v. list and explain the various functions of an information systems department.

7.1 What is Data processing?

Data refers to any raw facts like numbers, characters, letters, etc, that we enter into
any processing system. Such a processing system accepts the data as input (entering
of data) and then manipulates or processes it to give the needed results called
information. When data is manipulated, it is called processing. The data that has
been processed is called information.

The term data processing refers to the collection, manipulation, and processing of
data that has been collected so it can be used. It is a technique better performed by
a computer; the process includes retrieving, transforming, or classification of
information. Data processing can also be called information processing in some
organisations. This is because the data that has been processed becomes

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information, and this information can also be processed further. Figure 7.1 shows
the data processing and its stages.

Figure 7.1: Data Processing and its stages

Data in its raw form would not be useful to any organisation until it is processed.
Take, for instance, students' data, like their names and scores in different courses or
subjects. Such data might not be useful until the scores are collected from the various
teachers or lecturers, sorted and arranged for each student and the necessary
calculations like cumulative grade point average (CGPA) are done. Only then would
the result of such data processing become useful and valuable to the student.

In the same vein, data about customers, like their card details, expiration date and
amount of individual purchases made, would not be useful until the total purchases
are calculated for the customer and the total sales for that day are calculated for the
shop owner.

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For data to be processed, it must be sourced for or collected from its different
sources, after which the collected data is prepared in the proper format and then
sent into the processing system (input). The next stage is the manipulation of the
data, which we call processing. The data that has been processed is called
information, and getting this information out is referred to as output. Finally, the
data or processed information can be kept somewhere until they are needed, and
this is called storage.

7.2 Methods of Data Processing

There are three main methods of processing data, which are manual, mechanical and
electronic method (Figure 7.2). This will be discussed briefly in the following section.

Figure 7.2: Methods of data processing

7.2.1 Manual Method

This data processing method is handled manually. The entire process of data
collection, filtering, sorting, calculation, and other logical operations are all done
with human intervention and without the use of any other electronic device or
automation software. It is a low-cost method and requires little to no tools, but it
produces high errors, high labour costs, and lots of time and tedium. A calculator can
be used to process data manually, as shown in Figure 7.3.

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Figure 7.3: A calculator can be used to process data manually

The woman who sells bean cake or akara at the junction would always use her brain
to collect each amount of money she makes, sort out the balance for each customer
and returns it to them.

7.2.2 Mechanical Method

Data is processed mechanically through the use of devices and machines. These
devices could be simple devices like desk or pocket calculators, manual or electric
typewriters, adding machines, printing press, etc. Simple data processing operations
can be achieved with this method.

An example could be a small supermarket or eatery that makes sales to customers

and employs the use of calculators or adding machines, as shown in Figure 7.4.

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Figure 7.4: Supermarket Cash Register used for mechanical data processing

It contains fewer errors than the manual data processing method, but the increase
of data to be processed has made this method more complex and difficult.

7.2.3 Computer Method

Data is processed with modern technologies using data processing software and
programs, and this method is sometimes referred to as the electronic method of
processing data. A set of instructions is given to the software to process the data
(programs) and yield output, which could be stored for future use (storage). This
method is very expensive but very fast in terms of processing and is reliable and
accurate. Figure 7.5 shows a computer and an Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) that
are used to process data electronically.

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Figure 7.5: A Computer and an ATM are used to process data electronically

A good example would be our commercial banks that handle large numbers of
customers, and due to the nature of customers' requests, it would not be possible to
use manual or mechanical means to process their data since it has to be stored for
future reference and more customers have to be attended to.

7.3 Types of Data Processing

There are different types of data processing, and this might be based on the source
of data and the steps taken by the processing units to generate an output. There is
no single method that can be used for processing raw data, as most of the methods
used could be combined.

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7.3.1 Batch Processing
In the batch processing method, the jobs or data are collected and processed in
groups or batches. Batch processing is required when business owners and data
scientists require a large volume of data to analyse for detailed insights.

For example, sales figures will naturally experience batch processing, thereby
allowing businesses to use data visualisation features like pie charts, bar charts, line
graphs, and reports to derive value from the data. Since a large collection of data is
involved, the system will take some time to handle it. Processing the data in batches
saves computational resources.

Figure 7.6: An example of Batch Processing in an Operating system

The method used by a network printer to schedule jobs and then print them is batch
processing. Such jobs are batched or grouped as they arrive and are handled in the
order in which they arrive. Figure 7.6 shows batch processing in an operating system
environment. Batch Processing can be defined as the concurrent, simultaneous, or
sequential execution of an activity.

a) Simultaneous Batch processing occurs when all the jobs or data are executed
by the same resource, like a printer, processor, etc. for all the cases at the
same time.

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 b) Sequential Batch processing takes place when they are processed by the
same resource for different cases either at once or immediately after one
another.
c) Concurrent Batch processing means when they are processed by the same
resources but partially overlapping in time. It is used mostly in financial
applications like sales transaction processing or point-of-sales terminals or at
places where additional levels of security are required. In this processing, the
computational time is relatively less because applying a function to the
whole data altogether extracts the output. It is able to execute the task with
less amount of human intervention.

You can measure the efficiency of batch processing in terms of its throughput, which
is the amount of data processed per unit of time.

7.3.2 Online Processing

In the parlance of today’s database systems, “online” signifies “interactive”, within
the bounds of patience.” Online processing, as depicted by Figure 7.7, is the opposite
of "batch" processing. Online processing can be built out of a number of relatively
simple operators, much as traditional query processing engines are built. Online
Processing Analytical operations typically involve major fractions of large databases.
It should, therefore, be surprising that today's Online analytical systems provide
interactive performance. The secret to their success is precomputation.

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Figure 7.7: Examples of Online Processing

In most Online Analytical Processing systems, the answer to each point and click is
computed long before the user even starts the application. In fact, many Online
processing systems do that computation relatively inefficiently, but since the
processing is done in advance, the end-user does not see the performance problem.
This type of processing is used when data is to be processed continuously, and it is
fed into the system automatically.

7.3.3 Centralised System

Centralised data processing occurs when data is processed by a computer system
that is located in a central location (Figure 7.8). For centralised processing to achieve
high speed and quick access, a. powerful computer is required. All of the data is
saved in a centralised data storage system.

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Figure 7.8: Centralised data processing

A centralised data process is when a single or group of computers located in a central

location serves all users or units of an organisation. An organisation's central site or
information technology room is its cost centre.

7.3.4 Decentralised System

A decentralised data processing system occurs when data is processed by computer
systems that are located in different locations (Figure 7.9). In decentralised
processing, there are different CPUs connected to the network, and each processor
can do its job independently of the others. In this type of system, all computers can
perform their own tasks.

Figure 7.9: Decentralised System

Benefits of decentralisation

a. Provides a trust-less environment. In a decentralised block-chain

network, no one has to know or trust anyone else.
b. Improves data reconciliation. Companies often exchange data
with their partners.
c. Reduces points of weakness.
d. Optimises resource distribution.
The disadvantages of decentralisation are listed below:

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Increases Costs: Decentralisation increases administration expenses because it
requires the employment of trained personnel to accept authority.

a. Loss of Control.
b. Misuse of Authority.
c. Difficult Coordination at Control:

7.3.5 Distributed System

Distributed data processing (DDP) is a technique for breaking down large datasets
and storing them across multiple computers or servers. In this type of processing,
the task is shared by several resources/machines and is executed in parallel rather
than being run synchronously and arranged in a queue (see Figure 7.10). Because the
data is processed in a shorter period, it is more cost-effective for businesses and
allows them to move more quickly. Also, the fault tolerance of a distributed data
processing system is extremely high.

Distributed processing is a computing process where operations are partitioned

across several computers connected via a network. The goal of distributed
processing is to provide faster and more reliable service than can be achieved by a
single machine.

Figure 7.10: Distributed Processing

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Very often, datasets are too big to fit on one machine. Distributed data processing
breaks down these large datasets and stores them across multiple machines or
servers, improving data management. A distributed data processing system has a
high fault tolerance. If one server in the network fails, you can reallocate data
processing tasks to other available servers, which is not a very time-consuming job.
Distributed processing can also save costs. Businesses like yours do not need to build
expensive mainframe computers with CPUs anymore and invest in their upkeep and
maintenance.

7.4 Functions of the Information Systems Department

The information systems department is responsible for maintaining the hardware,
software, data storage, and networks that comprise the firm's IT infrastructure. The
information systems department suggests new business strategies and new
information-based products and services and coordinates both the development of
the technology and the planned changes in the organisation. The information
systems department consists of specialists such as:

i. Programmers: technical specialists who write the software

instructions for computers

ii. Systems analysts: the principal liaisons between the

information systems groups and the rest of the organisation

iii. Information systems managers: leaders of teams of

programmers and analysts, project managers, physical facility
managers, telecommunications managers, or database
specialists

7.4.1 System Development

Systems development is the process of defining, designing, testing, and
implementing a new software application or program. The system development
process, also known as the system development life cycle, is a term used in the
development of software where a set of methodical processes, activities, or phases
are used to develop and implement a system. The system development cycle consists

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of five major stages, namely, planning, analysis, design, implementation and
maintenance, as shown in Figure 7.11.

Figure 7.11: System Development Life Cycle

7.4.2 Database Administration

Database administration is the function of managing and maintaining database
management systems (DBMS) software. Mainstream DBMS software such as Oracle,
IBM Db2 and Microsoft SQL Server need ongoing management.

Database administration refers to the whole set of activities performed by a

database administrator to ensure that a database is always available as needed. The
roles of a Database Administrator are to

a) develop, administer and maintain databases;

b) determine the purpose and type of the database needed by a company;
c) understand the requirements for data storage and accessibility;
d) design the database architecture;
e) design the format and structure of objects present in the database and
f) assign user rights.

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Other closely related tasks and roles are database security, database monitoring and
troubleshooting, and planning for future growth.

7.4.3 Telecommunication
Telecommunications, also known as telecom, is the exchange of information over
significant distances by electronic means and refers to all types of voice, data and
video transmission.

Examples of telecommunications systems are the telephone network, the radio

broadcasting system, computer networks and the Internet. Figure 7.12 shows a
sample Telecommunication Mast.

Figure 7.12: Example of a Telecommunication mast

In its most fundamental form, a telecommunication system includes a transmitter to

take information and convert it to a signal, a transmission medium to carry the signal
and a receiver to take the signal and convert it back into usable information. This
applies to any communication system, whether it uses computers or not.

Most modern-day telecommunications systems are best described in terms of a

network. This includes the basic elements listed above but also the infrastructure
and controls needed to support the system.

7.4.4 End-User Computing

End-user computing (EUC) is a combination of technologies, policies, and processes
that gives your workforce secure, remote access to applications, desktops, and data

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they need to get their work done. Modern enterprises use EUC so that their
employees can work from wherever they are, across multiple devices, in a safe and
scalable way. A well-designed EUC program gives users immediate access to the
digital technologies they need for productivity, both on-premises and remotely in
the cloud. Figure 7.13 shows a sample End-User Computing platform.

Figure 7.13: End User Computing

The term end-user computing (EUC) covers technologies such as:

a) Remote workforce management

b) Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI)
c) Application virtualisation and application streaming platforms

Users can access internal services and applications from devices owned, managed,
or even hosted in secure facilities by enterprises or individuals. You can use cloud-
based EUC solutions to scale resources up or down depending on demand and avoid
heavy upfront investment. These solutions stream only pixels to endpoint devices,
ensuring that critical data is kept secure in the corporate data centre and is never
stored on an end-user system.

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7.4.5 Computer Operations
Computer operations are a major part of the business education programs. Students
learn to operate computers in a modern computer lab using a variety of software
that includes word processing, spreadsheet, database, accounting, and desktop
publishing.

Figure 7.14: Basic Computer Operations

The basic operations performed by a computer are arithmetic operations, logical

operations, storage and relative functions. Basically, the computer does (as shown
in Figure 7.14) five basic operations, namely, input, process, output, storage and
control. Input is taking data from the user; processing is transferring that data into
useful information; then that information needs to be stored and controlled; and
finally, output is to give results to the user.

Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of the concept of data
processing and why it is needed in every organisation. The different methods of
processing data with examples were given, as well as the various types of data
processing. An attempt was also made to introduce the Information Systems
Department and its numerous functions, which were also given.

Exercises
1. What is data and information?

2. Why do we need to process data?

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3. Mention four types of data processing

4. Is batch processing still being used in today’s computer operations?

References
Blokdyk, G. (2018). Electronic Data Processing (company): The Ultimate Step-By-
Step Guide. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN-10:
1719068321.

Giordano, A. D. (2022). Introduction to Data Platforms. Fulton Books Inc. ISBN:

9798885053860.

Mertz, D. (2021). Cleaning Data for Effective Data Science. Packt Publishing. ISBN-
13: 978-1801071291.

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 Chapter Eight
8. Computer Network

Overview
Computers are electromechanical devices used to take inputs, process the inputs,
and put out information using some stored computer programs. However,
computers are not as useful standing alone as when they are connected to share
resources or share tasks to come up with better results and have greater efficiency.
Connecting several computers and other technological devices is called a computer
network. Computer network is an important aspect of the computer field. It deals
specifically with the connection of two or more computing devices or equipment for
communication or interaction. There are a number of ways computers can
communicate when connected. It can be server-based, peer-to-peer, or other
communication strategies. Computers can be connected to form a network or a
system of interconnected networks. The network connections may be Local Area
Networks, Metropolitan Area Networks, or Wide Area Networks. Data and
information can travel through connection mediums in different forms and different
methods. The movement of data and information is carried out using a stipulated
model called the OSI model, which is a layered transmission method, arranged in
layers.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students of computing with the requisite
knowledge in Networking and related communication-related concepts of
interconnected computers. At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

i. understand the basic principles of Computer Networking

ii. familiarise with different types of Data Transmission schemes
iii. Develop knowledge of the principles of multiplexing of frequency and signal.
iv. Appraise the practical application of Open System Interconnection
v. Understand the function of the layered model and what each layer does in
communication

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Computer Network
A computer network is an interconnected system that facilitates the transmission
and exchange of information between two or more computing devices. Computing
devices encompass a wide range of electronic devices, ranging from handheld mobile
phones to large-scale servers. These devices can establish connectivity through
physical mediums, such as fibre optics, as well as through wireless means.

8.1 What is Computer Network?

When two or more nodes in the system are capable of exchanging data with one
another, we say that we have a computer network. It can be difficult to set up
connections between computers when each one needs to talk to two or more others.

As shown in equation 1, if you want to connect four computers, you will need three
connections for each machine. The formula for calculating the minimum amount of
links (L) between N PCs (nodes) is as shown in Equation 8.1

𝑁(𝑁−1)
𝐿= 2
(8.1)

8.2 Types of Computer Networks

8.2.1 Server-based Network
A network architecture that relies on a central server to manage and facilitate
communication between clients is commonly referred to as a Server-Based network,
which is also known as a Client-Server network. A server is a network element that
functions as a provider of services to clients. They respond to client requests after
waiting for them. Typically, the server is situated in a different location within the
network, often on a more robust computing system. The server functions as a
centralised hub for users to share and retrieve network resources. The access control
mechanism regulates the extent of user privileges to share resources. To clarify, a
server offers services and caters to additional software applications known as clients.

Several types of servers are classified based on their specific usage. These include
web servers, which are responsible for serving HTTP requests, database servers that
run database management systems, file servers that provide files to clients, mail

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servers, print servers, game servers, and application servers, among others. A server
has the capability to house various web resources, host web applications, and store
both user and program data.

In the context of computing, a client refers to a software application or hardware

device that initiates a request for services or resources from a server. The individuals
who receive services or products are frequently located at designated workstations
or personal computing devices. Applications, whether simple or complex, have the
capability to access services offered by a server. The client program functions as an
intermediary between the user and the server, facilitating user requests for server
services and presenting the server's responses to the user. In order to access the
data and resources, every client is required to authenticate themselves by logging
onto the system or server.

The network that is based on a server is characterised by its centralised nature.

Furthermore, it should be noted that the storage within this particular network is
centralised. To clarify, a network that is server-based is organised around a
centralised structure and facilitates communication through the Internet. The
Internet is a ubiquitous client-server network that is extensively utilised. This
concept is depicted in Figure 8.1 below

Figure 8.1: Server-based Network

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8.2.2 Peer-to-Peer Network
The peer-to-peer network, commonly referred to as P2P or computer-to-computer
network, is a type of network architecture. Peers refer to interconnected nodes or
computer systems. In this topology, every node is interconnected with all other
nodes within the network.

The nodes have the capability to facilitate the sharing of printers or CDROM drives,
as well as enable other devices to read from or write to its hard disc. This feature
allows for the sharing of files, access to its internet connection, and other related
resources. It is possible to share files or resources among network systems without
the requirement of a central server. A network architecture in which nodes are
permitted to act as servers and share resources in a decentralised manner is
commonly known as a peer-to-peer network.

In a peer-to-peer network, each node has the capability to function as both a server
and a client. The network in question does not differentiate between the roles of
client and server. Each node has the capability to function as a client or server,
depending on whether it is seeking or supplying the service. Each node possesses
equal functionality and has the capacity to both transmit and receive data directly
with any other node as shown in Figure 8.2.

The deployment of peer-to-peer networks is a straightforward process with

contemporary Operating Systems, including but not limited to Windows and Mac OS.
The computers within a peer-to-peer network operate using identical network
protocols and software. Upon establishing a network connection, peer-to-peer (P2P)
software enables users to conduct searches for various files and resources located
on a different node. The communication dynamics among peers are contingent upon
the specific demands of the given application. Multiple replicas of each object are
created across various computers to effectively distribute the computational burden
and ensure adaptability in case of any disconnection of a particular computer.

A peer-to-peer network has the capability to be configured as either a wired or

wireless network. The prevalent usage of this technology is observed in the context
of Local Area Networks, particularly in small-scale office settings or in a singular

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department of a larger corporate entity. The network nodes are in close proximity to
one another. Every individual node possesses the capability to access devices and
files located on other computer systems, while also having the ability to
independently store its software and information.

Figure 8.2: Peer-to-Peer Network

8.3 Network Topologies

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how
the computers, cables, and other components within a data communications
network are interconnected, both physically and logically. The physical topology
describes how the network is actually laid out, and the logical topology describes
how the data actually flows through the network. The two most basic topologies are
point-to-point and multipoint. A point-to-point topology usually connects two
mainframe computers for high-speed digital information. A multipoint topology
connects three or more stations through a single transmission medium and some
examples are star, bus, ring, mesh and hybrid.

8.3.1 Star topology

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.
Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before

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continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls
all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. Figure 8.3
depicts the connection for a star topology.

Figure 8.3: STAR Topology

8.3.2 Bus Topology.

Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable (the
backbone) functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap
into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another
device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other
devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the
message. The bus topology is the simplest and most common method of
interconnecting computers. The two ends of the transmission line never touch to
form a complete loop. A bus topology is also known as a multi-drop, linear bus or
horizontal bus. Figure 8.4 shows a simple bus Topology.

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Figure 8.4: Bus topology

8.3.3 Ring Topology

In a ring network (sometimes called a loop), every device has exactly two neighbours
for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same
direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). All the stations are
interconnected in tandem (series) to form a closed loop or circle. Transmissions are
unidirectional and must propagate through all the stations in the loop. Each
computer acts like a repeater, and the ring topology is similar to bus or star
topologies. Figure 8.5 shows a ring topology layout.

Figure 8.5: Ring Topology

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8.3.4 Mesh Topology
The mesh topology incorporates a unique network design in which each computer
on the network connects to every other, creating a point-to-point connection
between every device on the network. Unlike each of the previous topologies,
messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source
to destination. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is
called a full mesh. A disadvantage is that a mesh network with n nodes must have
n(n-1)/2 links and each node must have n-1 I/O ports (links).

Figure 8.6: Mesh topology

8.3.5 Hybrid topology

This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is simply combining two or more
of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex topology. The main aim
is to be able to share the advantages of different topologies.

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Figure 8.7: Hybrid topology

8.4 Data Transmission

8.4.1 Local Area Network (LAN)
The most common and basic form of network is the local area network. Mainly, it is
a network of personal computers in a single building or business. LANs can have as
few as three or five users but typically connect tens of thousands of people.

The Local Area Network (LAN) is considered to be the most basic and compact form
of network that is commonly utilised. The network is predominantly comprised of
individual computing devices that are linked together within a specific physical
location, such as an office or a building. Local area networks (LANs) are capable of
accommodating a minimum of three to five users, although the majority of networks
are designed to connect between 10 and several thousand users.

A company may utilise small Local Area Networks (LANs) to establish

interconnectivity between multiple offices situated within the same building. This
may involve the installation of wiring between different floors of the building to
facilitate the connection. It is possible for larger Local Area Networks (LANs) to
establish interconnections among multiple buildings within a complex. This can be
observed in various settings, such as large corporations with multiple buildings,
military installations, and college campuses, as illustrated in Figure 8.8.

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Certain Local Area Networks (LANs) are comprised of numerous Personal Computers
(PCs) that are interconnected with one another as well as with a minicomputer or
mainframe. The present system enables every user within the Local Area Network
(LAN) to gain entry to the mainframe computer while retaining their autonomy.

Home networks consisting of two or more personal computers (PCs) can be classified
as local area networks (LANs). Presently, the majority of home LANs are either
completely wireless or contain wireless components.

Figure 8.8: Local Area Network (LAN)

8.4.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) are relatively smaller networks that typically
provide coverage within a specific urban or suburban area, such as a city, town, or
village. Cable television systems are classified as metropolitan area networks
(MANs). The cable television provider receives a variety of signals from diverse
sources, such as local television stations and satellite transmissions, which are then
consolidated into a unified composite signal that is transmitted through fibre-optic
and coaxial cables, as seen in Figure 8.9.

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Figure 8.9: Metropolitan Area Network

8.4.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

A Wide Area Network (WAN) encompasses a substantial geographical region. The
telephone systems that operate within a specific geographical area are categorised
as Wide Area Networks (WANs). Similarly, the extensive telephone systems that
interconnect across the nation and with other WANs in foreign nations are also
classified as WANs. Every individual telephone unit functions as a node within a
network that connects local offices and central offices.

Each node within the system has the capability to establish communication with any
other node. Telephone systems utilise various transmission media, including fibre-
optic cabling, microwave relay networks, twisted-pair wire, satellites, and coaxial
cable.

In addition to public telephone networks, there exist wide area networks (WANs)
that are privately owned by corporations. These LANs are established to facilitate
inter-company communication, irrespective of the geographical location of the
subsidiaries, company divisions, sales offices, and manufacturing plants. The military
has established wide area networks (WANs) that serve as specialised
communication, command, and control networks.

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The fibre-optic networks established on a national and global scale since the mid-
1990s for the purpose of facilitating Internet connectivity can be classified as Wide
Area Networks (WANs). These high-speed interconnections, commonly referred to
as the Internet core or backbone, are structured as direct point-to-point links or
extensive rings with multiple access points. Wide Area Networks (WANs) facilitate
the accessibility of the World Wide Web and any other Internet-connected entity to
personal computers and other Internet-enabled devices, including cell phones. An
illustration is seen in Figure 8.10

Figure 8.10: Wide Area Network

8.5 Multiplex
The establishment of a communication channel, or a connection between two
points, occurs through the connection of a cable or the setup of a radio transmitter
and receiver. In cases where a singular link is present, it is only possible to execute a
single function, regardless of whether it pertains to signal transmission or control
operations. A half-duplex process is established for bidirectional communication,
wherein both endpoints of the communication link possess the capability to transmit
and receive data, albeit not simultaneously.

The concurrent transmission of multiple signals can be achieved through the

utilisation of multiple cables or the establishment of a transmitter/receiver pair for
each channel, however, at a considerable cost. Multiplexing is a technique that

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enables the transmission of numerous signals over a single medium using a single
cable or radio link. This technique allows for the combination of hundreds or even
thousands of signals, resulting in increased efficiency and capacity. The utilisation of
multiplexing has facilitated the practicality and economic feasibility of concurrent
communication, conserved spectrum space, and enabled the implementation of
advanced applications.

8.5.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique in which a shared
communication channel's bandwidth is utilised by multiple signals. It is important to
bear in mind that each channel possesses distinct bandwidths, with certain channels
having relatively broad bandwidths. The coaxial cable possesses a bandwidth of
approximately 1 gigahertz. The variability of radio channel bandwidths is typically
contingent upon the type of radio service and the regulatory guidelines established
by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Irrespective of the
communication channel employed, a broad frequency range can be utilised to
facilitate the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals.

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Figure 8.11: An FDM system's transmitting end

An FDM system's general block diagram is shown in Figure 8.11. A modulator circuit
receives input from each signal being delivered. Each modulator's (fc) carrier
frequency is distinct. Over a certain frequency range, the carrier frequencies are
typically similarly spaced apart. These companies are known as subcarriers. The
bandwidth is divided among the input signals.

8.5.2 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In frequency division multiplexing (FDM), many signals are sent across a single
channel, with each signal being given a specific amount of the channel's total
bandwidth. WhileTime-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method in which individual
signals use the whole bandwidth of a single channel. The problem is that each signal
is only broadcast for a very short period of time. This means that, as shown in Figure
8.12, many signals alternate sending across a single channel.

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Figure 8.12: The fundamental principle of TDM

In this scenario, a single channel is utilised for the transmission of four signals, each
of which is allocated a predetermined time slot for channel access in a sequential
manner. Upon successful transmission of all four, the cycle initiates again. A frame is
created by selecting a single binary word from each source. Subsequently, the frames
are iterated repetitively.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a technique that can be applied to both digital
and analogue signals. If the information is comprised of sequential bytes, it is feasible
to transmit one byte of data from each source within the designated time interval
for a given channel. It is possible that each of the time slots depicted in Figure 8.12
may comprise a byte originating from each of the four distinct sources.

One communication channel would transmit a sequence of 8 bits and subsequently

cease, followed by the next channel transmitting another sequence of 8 bits.
Subsequently, the third channel would proceed to transmit its respective data word,
and this process would continue in a similar manner. The process would iterate
rapidly. Through the utilisation of this methodology, it becomes possible to
interleave the data bytes of discrete channels. The digital bit stream generated as a
result of this process is subsequently decoded and reconstructed at the receiving
terminal.

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The process of transmitting digital data through Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is
uncomplicated as the digital data is already fragmented into discrete units, which
can be conveniently allocated to distinct temporal intervals. Time-division
multiplexing (TDM) can transmit uninterrupted analogue signals, encompassing
voice, video, or telemetry-derived signals. The process involves the acquisition of the
analogue signal at a high frequency, followed by the conversion of the acquired
samples into binary numbers that are proportional to the original signal. These
binary numbers are then transmitted in a serial manner.

8.5.3 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)

Dynamic bandwidth allocation is very similar to statistical multiplexing, a method of
sharing communication links (DBA). A communication channel is multiplexed
statistically when it is divided into a variable number of slots, digital channels, or data
streams, as shown in Figure 8.13. Only when an input line has data to send that
would fill that slot is a slot in the output frame assigned to that input line. In statistical
multiplexing, there are fewer slots per frame than there are input lines. The
multiplexer performs a round-robin check of each input line; if a line has data to
send, it is given a slot; otherwise, it is skipped and the next line is checked.

Figure 8.13: Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

8.5.4 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is the most convenient method for multiplexing
data on fibre-optic cable. Advancements in optical components have facilitated the
utilisation of frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) on fibre-optic cable, also known

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as wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM). This technology enables the operation
of multiple data channels over the bandwidth of the cable's light wave.

Frequency-division multiplexing, also known as wavelength-division multiplexing,

has been extensively utilised in various communication systems such as radio,
television, and telephony. An exemplary instance in contemporary times is the
technique of multiplexing numerous television signals over a shared coaxial cable
that is routed into a residential dwelling.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) utilises distinct frequencies or "colours" of

infrared radiation to convey discrete data streams. The aforementioned entities are
aggregated and transmitted via only one optical fibre. While the parameter of
frequency is commonly employed to differentiate the positioning of wireless signals
that are below 300 GHz, the parameter of wavelength is the favoured measure for
light frequencies.

It is important to note that the correlation between wavelength, measured in

meters, and frequency, denoted as f, can be expressed as f = c/ λ, where c represents
the speed of light in a vacuum, which is equivalent to 2.998 3 108 m/s. The velocity
of light propagation within a fibre optic cable is slightly lower, approximately 2.99 x
10^8 meters per second. The measurement of optical wavelength is commonly
denoted in units of nanometers or micrometres. The measurement of optical
frequencies is denoted in terahertz (THz), which is equivalent to 10 to the power of
12 hertz (Hz).

The information that is intended to be conveyed through a fibre-optic network is

utilised to modulate a laser-generated infrared light, employing either OOK or ASK.
The light-carrying properties of fibre-optic cable are most closely aligned with those
of infrared signals. This is due to the attenuation response of the cable to infrared
light, which exhibits the lowest attenuation (approximately 0.2 dB/km) in two
specific frequency bands. These bands are centred at 1310 nm and 1550 nm,
respectively.

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Figure 8.14: Wavelength Division Multiplexing

8.6 Open System Interconnection (OSI)- 7 Layers Model

The majority of networks are set up as a hierarchy of layers or levels, each of which
builds on the one below it in order to reduce the design complexity. A layered
architecture's fundamental concept is to separate the design into manageable
chunks. The model divides the flow of data in a communication system into seven
abstraction levels, starting with the physical implementation of transferring bits
through a communications media and ending with the highest-level representation
of data in a distributed application. Each intermediate layer assists the layer above it
and is assisted by the layer below it in providing a class of functionality. The functions
of each layer in the OSI model are clearly defined, and each layer communicates and
interacts with the layers immediately above and below it unless there are no layers
above or below the layer in question. The model's creators reduced the data
transmission process to its most basic components when creating it. The networking
functions that had related uses were gathered into distinct groups, which eventually
became the layers. A family of functions unique from those of the other layers is
defined by each layer. In this way, the designers defined and localised functionality
to produce a comprehensive and adaptable architecture.

In order to reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organised as a
series of layers or levels, each one builds upon one below it. The basic idea of a
layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces. Each of the layers adds
to the services provided by the lower layers in such a manner that the highest layer
is provided with a full set of services to manage communications and run the
applications. The benefits of the layered models are modularity and clear interfaces,

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i.e. open architecture and comparability between the different providers'
components. A basic principle is to ensure the independence of layers by defining
services provided by each layer to the next higher layer without defining how the
services are to be performed. This permits changes in a layer without affecting other
layers.

The basic elements of a layered model are:

 Services
 Protocols and
 Interfaces.

A service is a set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer.

A protocol is a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange information with a peer
entity. These rules concern both the contents and the order of the messages used.

Between the layers, service interfaces are defined. The messages from one layer to
another are sent through those interfaces.

The layers are listed below.

1. Physical (layer 1),

2. Data link (layer 2),
3. Network (layer 3),
4. Transport (layer 4),
5. session (layer 5),
6. Presentation (layer 6) and
7. application (layer 7)

The seven layers are represented in Figure 8.15.

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 Application Layer

Presentation layer

Session Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

Data link Layer

Physical layer

Figure 8.15: The OSI reference model

8.6.1 Physical Layer

The physical layer is in charge of sending and receiving unstructured raw data
between a device and a physical transmission media, such as an Ethernet hub,
network switch, or network interface controller. It deals with the transmission
medium's interface's mechanical and electrical specifications. It also specifies the
processes and tasks that physical components and interfaces must carry out for
transmission to take place. From one hop (node) to the next, individual bits are
moved by the physical layer.

The following issues are also of concern to the physical layer:

1. The physical layer defines the properties of the interface between the
devices and the transmission medium. Physical characteristics of interfaces
and media. Additionally, it specifies the kind of transmission medium.
2. The physical layer data is represented as a stream of bits (a sequence of O's
or 1's) with no meaning. Bits must be encoded into electrical or optical
signals before they can be transmitted. The type of encoding (how O’s and
1’s are converted to signals) is determined by the physical layer.

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 3. The physical layer also determines the transmission rate or the number of
bits sent each second.
4. Connecting devices to the media is the responsibility of the physical layer. A
dedicated link connects two devices in a point-to-point configuration. Several
devices share a link in a multipoint configuration.
5. The physical topology describes how components of a network are linked
together. Devices can be linked together using a bus topology, a star
topology, a ring topology, a mesh topology, or a hybrid topology.
6. The physical layer also specifies the transmission mode, such as simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex, between two devices.
7. Bit synchronisation is another responsibility of the physical layer. Both the
sender and the receiver must operate at the same bit rate and be in sync with
one another. In other words, the clocks of the sender and the receiver must
be in sync.

8.6.2 Data-link Layer

Node-to-node data transfer—a link between two nodes that are physically
connected—is provided by the data link layer. It recognises potential faults in the
physical layer and may even fix them. It specifies the protocol used to connect and
disconnect two devices that are physically close to one another. It also specifies the
flow control protocol that will be used between them.

The following are some of the additional duties of the data link layer:
1. The data link layer frames the stream of bits it receives from the network
layer to make them more manageable.
2. It manages the physical addressing. The data link layer adds a header to the
frame to specify the sender and/or receiver of the frame if frames need to
be distributed among various systems on the network. The receiver address

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 is the address of the device that connects the sender's network to the system
for which the frame is intended.
3. Flow management is coordinated by the data link layer. The data link layer
imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overloading the receiver if the
rate at which data are produced by the sender is slower than the rate at
which data are consumed by the receiver.
4. It also carries out Error management. By introducing systems to detect and
retransmit broken or lost frames, the data link layer increases the reliability
of the physical layer. Additionally, it employs a system to detect duplicate
frames. Typically, a trailer is added to the end of the frame to achieve error
control.
5. It can also restrict Access. Data link layer protocols are required when two or
more devices are connected to the same link in order to determine which
device is in charge of the link at any given moment.

8.6.3 Network Layer

The functional and procedural mechanisms of sending packets from one node to
another connected in "different networks" are provided by the network layer. A
network is a medium that allows several nodes to be connected, where each node
has an address, and where nodes can communicate with each other and can be
connected to transmit messages to other nodes linked to it by only supplying the
content of a message and the target node's address and letting the network figure
out the best path to take the message, including routing it through intermediary
nodes, to the destination node. A network layer is typically not required if two
systems are connected to the same link.

The following are some of the additional duties of the network layer:
1. Logical addressing is carried out by the Network layer. The data link layer's
physical addressing solution addresses the addressing issue locally. Another

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 addressing system is required to help distinguish the source and destination
systems if a packet crosses the network boundary. The network layer adds a
header, which, among other things, contains the logical addresses of the
sender and receiver to the packet that comes from the upper layer.
2. The routing devices, known as routers or switches, route or switch the
packets to their destination when independent networks or links are
connected to form inter-networks (a network of networks) or a large
network. This mechanism is one of the tasks performed by the network layer.

8.6.4 Transport Layer

The entire message must be delivered from one process to another via the transport
layer. An application program running on a host is known as a process. While the
network layer manages source-to-destination packet delivery, it is blind to the
relationships between the packets. The transport layer, on the other hand, is in
charge of error control and flow control from the source to the destination level,
making sure the entire message arrives intact and in the proper order. Through flow
control, error control, and acknowledgements of errors, the transport layer also
manages the dependability of a specific link between a source and destination host.
Some protocols focus on connections and states. By using the acknowledgement
hand-shake method, the transport layer can monitor the segments and retransmit
those that fail delivery. Additionally, the transport layer will offer confirmation of the
successful data delivery and send the subsequent data if there are no problems.

The transport layer also has the following obligations:

1. Service-point addressing: Multiple programs are frequently running at once

on computers. Because of this, source-to-destination delivery refers to the
transfer of data from one computer to another, as well as from one specific
process (a running program) to another specific process (a running program)
on a different computer. Therefore, a type of address known as a service-

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 point address must be included in the transport layer header (or port
address). The transport layer delivers the entire message to the right process
on that computer after the network layer routes each packet to the
appropriate computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly: A message is broken up into segments that
can be transmitted, and each segment has a unique sequence number. These
numbers allow the transport layer to identify and replace packets that were
lost during transmission and to correctly reassemble the message once it
reaches its destination.
3. Connection management: Either connectionless or connection-oriented
transport layers are possible. Each segment is delivered to the destination
machine's transport layer by a connectionless transport layer, which treats
each one as a separate packet. Before sending the packets, a connection-
oriented transport layer establishes a connection with the transport layer at
the destination machine. The connection is cut off once all the data has been
transferred.
4. Flow management: Flow control is handled by the transport layer, just like
the data link layer. At this layer, flow control is handled end to end as opposed
to across a single link.
5. Error control: Error control is the responsibility of the transport layer, just like
the data link layer. However, instead of across a single link, error control at
this layer is carried out process-to-process. The sending transport layer
ensures flawless delivery of the entire message to the receiving transport
layer (without damage, loss, or duplication). Retransmission is typically used
to correct errors.

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8.6.5 Session Layer
A "session" is defined as the setup, management of connections, and termination of
disconnection between a number of computers via the session layer. The session
layer's common functions include user login (establishment), user logoff
(termination), and name lookup (management), as DNS and other Name Resolution
Protocols operate in this area of the layer.

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

1. Dialogue control: The session layer enables communication between two

systems. It enables a half-duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways
at a time) mode of communication between two processes.
2. Synchronisation: A process can add checkpoints or synchronisation points to
a stream of data using the session layer. To ensure that each 100-page unit is
received and acknowledged separately, it is recommended to insert
checkpoints every 100 pages, for instance, if a system is sending a file with
5000 pages. In this scenario, only pages 501–523 need to be sent again after
system recovery if a crash occurs during the transmission of page 523. Pages
sent previously do not need to be sent again.

8.6.6 Presentation Layer

During the encapsulation of outgoing messages, as they are passed down the
protocol stack, and, potentially, during the de-encapsulation of incoming messages
as they are passed up the protocol stack, the presentation layer establishes data
formatting and data the transformation into a format specified by the application
layer. For this reason, incoming messages are translated for encapsulation into a
format determined by the application layer, while outgoing messages are not.
Reverse de-encapsulation occurs. The syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems are handled by the presentation layer. Encryption,
compression, and translation are handled by the presentation layer.

The following are specific duties held by the presentation layer:

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 1. Translation: Two systems' processes (running programs) frequently exchange
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and other data types.
Before transmission, the data must be converted to bit streams. The
presentation layer is in charge of ensuring compatibility between the various
encoding techniques because different computers employ different
encoding systems. The information is converted from its sender-specific
format to a common format at the sender by the presentation layer. The
common format is converted into its receiver-specific format by the receiving
machine's presentation layer.
2. Encryption: A system needs to be able to guarantee privacy in order to
transport sensitive data. By using encryption, the sender changes the original
data into a new format before transmitting the new message over the
network. Decryption turns the original procedure around to restore the
message's original format.
3. Compression: The amount of bits needed to store the information is
decreased through data compression. Data compression becomes especially
crucial when sending multimedia files like text, audio, and video.

8.6.7 Application layer

The application layer is the OSI model layer that is closest to the end user, which
means that both the OSI application layer and the user directly interact with a piece
of software that carries out client-server communication, like File Explorer or
Microsoft Word.

It offers user interfaces and support for distributed information services like
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and
others. The user's services are provided by the application layer.

The following are specific services offered by the application layer:

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 1. Network virtual terminal: A user can sign on to a distant host using a network
virtual terminal, which is a software version of a physical terminal. To
accomplish this, the application builds a terminal emulator in software on
the remote host. The software terminal, which the user's computer
communicates with, communicates with the host, and vice versa. The
remote host permits the user to log on because it thinks it is speaking with
one of its terminals.
2. File management, access, and transfer: With the help of this program, a user
can access files on a remote host (to make changes or read data), download
files to their local machine, and manage or control those files locally.
3. Mail services: The foundation for email forwarding and storage is provided
by this application.
4. Directory services: This application offers global access to information about
various objects and services from distributed database sources.

Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of computer networks,
noting the definition of networks, functions, and types of computer networks. The
types of data transmission, multiplexing, and the types of multiplexing there are
were well discussed. The criteria for selection and recommendation of the
appropriate transmission method to use, the OSI model and the function of each
layer are clearly spelt out.

Exercises
1. What is a computer network?
2. Mention the classification of computer network
3. Explain the concept of Data Transmission
4. Explain the principles of Multiplexing
5. Define and explain the Open System Interconnection (OSI)- 7 Layers Model.

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References
Bennett, Richard (2009). "Designed for Change: End-to-End Arguments, Internet
Innovation, and the Net Neutrality Debate." Information Technology and
Innovation Foundation.

Hempstead, C., & Worthington, W. (2005). Encyclopedia of 20th-Century

Technology. Routledge.

Isaacson, Walter (2022). The Innovators: How a Group of Hackers, Geniuses, and
Geeks Created the Digital Revolution. Simon and Schuster. ISBN
9781476708690.

Meyers, Mike (2021). CompTIA Network+ exam guide: (Exam N10-005) (5th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.

Wood, Jessica (2020). "The Darknet: A Digital Copyright Revolution." Richmond

Journal of Law and Technology, 16(4).

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Chapter Nine
9. Intranet, Extranet, Internet

Overview
This chapter provides a good knowledge of Intranet, Extranet and the Internet. It
gives an overview of the uses, advantages, disadvantages, similarities, and
differences between Intranet and Extranet. It gives an insight into the Internet. It
discusses a brief history of the Internet and how it has evolved over the years, and
in Africa in particular. Some protocols that operate on the Internet and examples of
some areas where the Internet has impacted the lives of its users are also discussed.
Key concepts and definitions of terms are discussed in the chapter.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with a good knowledge of Intranet,
Extranet and the Internet. Specifically, students should be able to:

a) define Intranet and explain how it operates;

b) list the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the Intranet;
c) define Extranet and state its uses, advantages and disadvantages;
d) differentiate between Intranet and Extranet;
e) define the Internet and explain how it works;
f) give a brief history of the Internet and some protocols and standards that
operate on it;
g) list the advantages, disadvantages and applications of the Internet;
h) distinguish between the Extranet and the Internet; and
i) compare and contrast the Intranet, Extranet and Internet.

9.1 Intranet
An Intranet is a network that is built mainly for internal use by an organisation, and
it works based on Internet technologies and concepts. An intranet is used by

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organisations to keep their internal information like contacts, calendars, and some
other documents that are private to them.

Intranet is defined as a private network of computers within an organisation with its

own server and firewall. Intranet is a system in which multiple PCs are networked to
be connected to each other. PCs in the Intranet are not available to the world outside
of the Intranet.

Intranet networks create a platform for employees in an organisation to manage

their documents, create data, manage their to-do lists, organise their calendars and
enable the employees to share work-related data and information within the
organisation. It runs on a local area network (LAN), and it makes use of the client-
server architecture; the Intranet does not allow anyone outside the network to gain
access to its network.

An Intranet uses Internet protocols as well as network connectivity to share part of

an organisation's resources and information securely with its employees. The
Intranet operates on the same concepts and technologies as the Internet, which are
clients and servers running on the Internet protocol suite. It also uses the protocols
provided by the TCP/IP protocol suite. Also, HTTP and other Internet protocols, such
as FTP, also operate on the Intranet.

It is important to note that the major aim of an intranet is company information

sharing and also for sharing of computing resources among the employees. Also, it
can be used to enable employees to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Figure 9.1 is the illustration of an intranet.

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Figure 9.1: Intranet Illustration

9.1.2 Advantages of Intranet

Intranets are very beneficial to organisations in that they create an avenue for
efficiency and reliability within an organisation. They create good opportunities for
collaboration, security, cost-effectiveness and productivity. Figure 9.2 shows the
advantages of the Intranet.

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Figure 9.2: Intranet advantages

i. Communication: Intranet helps enhance communication within an

organisation by creating avenues for employees to use chats, blogs and email
to interact easily
ii. Time-Saving: Information on the Intranet is shared in real-time.
iii. Enhanced Collaboration: Information is distributed among the employees
according to requirements, and it can be accessed by authorised users,
resulting in enhanced teamwork. With the Intranet, there is enhanced
collaboration between members of the organisation. This means that
information can be easily accessible by all authorised users.
iv. Platform Independency: Intranet can connect computers and other devices
with different architectures.

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 v. Cost Effective: Employees can see the data and other documents using a
browser rather than printing them and distributing duplicate copies among
the employees, which certainly decreases the cost.
vi. Workforce Productivity: Data is available every time and can be accessed
using a company workstation. Intranets create better productivity in the
workforce and can help users in an organisation locate and view information
faster through the help of a web browser. There is an increased employees'
ability to perform their jobs faster, more accurately, and with more
confidence that they have the right information.
vii. Business Management: With an intranet, the staff of an organisation has the
opportunity to keep up with the strategic focus of the organisation, thereby
enhancing better business operations and management. It is also possible to
deploy applications that support business operations.
viii. Security: Since information shared on the Intranet can only be accessed
within an organisation, there is almost no chance of being stolen.
ix. Specific Users: The Intranet targets only specific users within an organisation;
therefore, one can exactly know whom he is interacting with.
x. Immediate Updates: Any changes made to information are reflected
immediately to all the users.
xi. Data Accessibility: Users can easily access data that are owned and made
available by the organisation at any time and from anywhere within the
organisation, subject to security provisions.
xii. Availability of Information: With the use of intranets, an organisation can
make more information available to their employees.

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9.1.3 Disadvantages of Intranet
There are some disadvantages of an Intranet, even with several advantages. They
are:

Management concerns: These borders on the issues of loss of control, hidden

complexity, and potential for chaos.

Security concerns: Some of these concerns are unauthorised access, denial of service
and packet sniffing.

Productivity concerns: The issues that create concern on intranet productivity are
information overload, which lowers productivity, users setting up their own web
pages, and overabundance of information.

These disadvantages are shown in Figure 9.3.

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Figure 9.3: Intranet disadvantages

9.1.4 Applications of Intranet

Intranet applications are the same as Internet applications. Intranet applications are
also accessed through a web browser. The only difference is that Intranet
applications reside on a local server, while Internet applications reside on a remote
server.

As presented in Figure 9.4, some of these applications are:

i. Document publication applications: It allows publishing documents such as

manuals, software guides, employee profits, etc., without the use of paper.
ii. Electronic resources applications: It offers electronic resources, such as
software applications, templates and tools, to be shared across the network.
iii. Interactive Communication applications: Like on the Internet, we have email
and chat-like applications for the Intranet, hence offering interactive
communication among employees.
iv. Support for Internet Applications: Intranet offers an environment to deploy
and test applications before placing them on the Internet.

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Figure 9.4: Intranet applications

9.2 Extranet
This is a private network service that is controlled by an organisation. Extranets are
created and managed by the organisations that own them. They give access to only
their partners, customers and clients. It can be described as a network that is within
an organisation but makes use of the Internet to connect to outsiders in a regulated
manner.

Extranet can be described as a private network that uses Internet protocols, network
connectivity and public telecommunication systems to share part of an
organisation's information and resources securely with vendors, suppliers, partners,
customers and/or other businesses. It can be viewed as part of an organisation's
Intranet that is extended to users outside the organisation. This is usually done over
the Internet.

Extranet differs from Intranets in the sense that, while Intranet is generally restricted
to employees of the organisation, Extranets, on the other hand, can be accessed by
customers, suppliers, or other parties that are approved by the organisation. Figure
9.5 shows the Extranet.

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Figure 9.5: Extranet

Following are some of the major fields that are using Extranet services on a large
scale: corporate houses, government offices, and education centres. This is because
the Extranet covers a wider area, as outsiders (such as partners, vendors, or even
customers) have the authorised accessibility.

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An extranet provides a variety of requirements. Huge volumes of data can be
transferred between parties via extranet software, for instance, thus promoting
simple collaboration. These collaboration tools are specifically beneficial for
companies that require brainstorming or communicating frequently with clients and
customers. It stores hours in comparison to email and telephone. Extranet software
also manages and fixes hidden errors or problems that can occur with a company's
products or services, nearly like inherent quality control.

9.2.1 Implementation of Extranet

An extranet is implemented as a Virtual Private Network (VPN) because it uses the
Internet to connect to corporate organisations, and there is always a threat to
information security. VPN offers a secure public infrastructure (Internet). VPN is a
method that allows a secure and encrypted connection to be created across a less
secure system, such as the Internet. It extends a private network by using a public
network, such as the Internet. This is shown in Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.6: VPN implementation

The packet is encapsulated at the boundary of networks in IPSEC-compliant routers.

It uses an encryption key to encapsulate packets and IP addresses as well. The packet
is decoded only by the IPSEC complaint routers or servers. The message is sent over
VPN via VPN Tunnel, and this process is known as tunnelling.

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VPN uses Internet Protocol Security Architecture (IPSEC) Protocol to provide secure
transactions by adding an additional security layer to TCP/IP protocol. This layer is
created by encapsulating the IP packet to a new IP packet, as shown in Figure 9.7.

Figure 9.7: Encapsulation of packets

9.2.2 Features of Extranet Services

The significant features of extranet services are:

i. Extranet is an extended Internet service to the private business network.

ii. The services extend outside the corporate firewall.
iii. Sometimes, it can be referred to as an Intranet, as it can be (partially)
accessible to some outsiders (with permission).
iv. The technique of Extranet links two (or more) business organisations who
share common business goals.

9.2.3 Advantages of Extranet

Extranet proves to be a successful model for all kinds of businesses, whether small
or big. Extranet can be very useful in the following areas;

i. Exchange of large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

ii. Collaboration with other companies on joint development efforts
iii. Joint development and use of training programs with other companies

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 iv. Easy access to services provided by a company to a group of other
companies, like a university portal management application managed by a
company on behalf of the university.
v. Sharing ideas and issues of common interest among several organisations in
an exclusive manner.

The advantages of Extranet services are:

i. Brings about faster services to an organisation and their partners.

ii. Leads to improvement in business communication.
iii. It helps in reducing the cost (especially in terms of stationery stuff).
iv. With the implementation of extranets, the barrier of distance is broken
between the organisation and its partners.

Some of the advantages of Extranet for employees, suppliers, business partners, and
customers are shown in Figure 9.8.

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Figure 9.8: Advantages of Extranet

9.2.5 Disadvantages of Extranet

Some of the disadvantages of Extranet are:

i. Extranet technologies can be very expensive to implement and maintain

within an organisation. This can include the purchase of items like hardware,
software, employee training costs, etc.
ii. It can be a very big concern to maintain the security of extranets dealing with
valuable information. Access to the system needs to be carefully controlled
to avoid sensitive information falling into the wrong hands.
iii. Face-to-face contact and meetings with partners and customers can be
reduced through the Extranet, and this can lead to a lack of connection
between partners and customers,

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9.2.6 Extranet Issues
Apart from advantages, there are also some issues associated with the Extranet.
These issues are:

i. Hosting: Deciding whether to host your Extranet with an Internet Service

Provider (ISP) or on your own server, both cases require high bandwidth and
high cost of implementation.
ii. Security: Extranets require a strong firewall to secure the network. Additional
firewall security is required if you host extranet pages on your own server,
which results in a complex security mechanism and increases workload.
iii. Accessing Issues: Information on an extranet cannot be accessed without an
internet connection.
iv. Decreased Interaction: Extranets reduce face-to-face interaction in business,
which results in a lack of communication among business partners and
suppliers.

9.2.7 Extranet vs. Intranet

Some of the differences between Extranet and Intranet are shown in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Difference between Extranet and Internet

S/N Parameter Extranet Intranet

1. Definition An internal network that An Internal network
can be accessed externally. that cannot be
accessed externally.
2. AccessibilityIt can be accessed by an Only limited to
organisation's partners, users within a
customers and suppliers company.
(an extension of the
organisation's Intranet).
3. Connectivity For external connection For communication
and communication within an
between customers, organisation only.

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 business partners and
suppliers.

9.3 Internet
The Internet, which is sometimes referred to as "The NET," can be referred to as a
network of networks that operate around the world as if it were one network,
thereby granting users unrestricted access to global computer networks. Technically,
the coordination of the Internet is open, independent and run by non-profit
membership organisations that work together to meet the Internet needs of the
people. The Internet makes it possible for anyone to create content, offer services,
and sell products without requiring any permission from a central authority. It can
even be said that no one but everyone is in charge of the Internet. This means that
anyone can create his own content and upload it to the Internet. Also, the global
Internet consists of tens of thousands of interconnected networks run by service
providers, individual companies, universities, governments, and others. This has
been a major key to the successful growth of the Internet.

Furthermore, it is important to note that the Internet has availed users the
opportunity to access the World Wide Web in a quest for access to news, weather
and sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to pursue other personal
interests. People use chat, messaging and email to make contacts and stay in touch
with friends. The Internet was what gave birth to Social networking, which has
become a vital tool in communication and information exchange. Websites such as
Facebook, Instagram, Tumblr, Twitter, Myspace etc have created new ways to
socialise and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of
information to pages, pursue common interests, and connect with others. It is also
possible to find existing acquaintances and to allow communication among existing
groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections.
YouTube and Flicker specialise in users' videos and photographs.

9.3.1 What is the Internet?

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide.

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The Internet is a globally connected network system facilitating worldwide
communication and access to data resources through a vast collection of private,
public, business, academic and government networks. It is governed by agencies like
the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (or IANA) that establish universal
protocols.

9.3.2 Brief Origin of the Internet

The idea of the Internet was said to have been first conceived by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1967 and was first known
as the ARPANET. Before its conception, it was recorded that computers from
different manufacturers could not communicate with one another. There was,
therefore, a need to find a way to connect these computers to enable the
researchers that they funded to carry out their research, communicate and share
their findings, thereby reducing duplicated efforts. The idea was that each host
computer would be attached to a specialised computer, which was known as an
Interface Message Processor (IMP). These IMPs would be connected to one another,
and each of the IMPs would communicate with other IMPs as well as the hosts that
are connected to it.

In 1969, the ARPANET became a reality. It had four nodes, which were located at
four different Universities, and they were connected via IMPs to form a network. The
software was used to provide communication between the hosts, and this software
was known as the Network Control Protocol (NCP).

To improve the ARPANET, an Internetting Project was proposed to introduce a

protocol that could be used to achieve end-to-end delivery of packets. This protocol
is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It includes some concepts like
encapsulation, the datagram and also the gateway and its functions. Later on, TCP
was split into two protocols which are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP). IP was to handle datagram routing, while TCP was to be
responsible for other higher-level functions like error detection, segmentation and
reassembly. Therefore, the internetworking protocol became known as TCP/IP

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The Internet today has greatly evolved and is made up of several WANs and LANs,
which are interconnected by different networking devices and switching stations.
Since then, the Internet has grown and evolved over time to facilitate services like:

i. Email.
ii. Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services.
iii. Online movies and gaming.
iv. Data transfer/file-sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
v. Instant messaging.
vi. Internet forums.
vii. Social networking.
viii. Online shopping.
ix. Financial services.

The Internet makes use of the TCP/IP suite. Every device on the Internet is identified
by a unique address called the Internet Protocol (IP) Address. An IP Address is a
unique number (like 10.21.20.144) which identifies devices on the Internet. Domain
Name Server (DNS) is used to give a name to the IP Address to enable a user to locate
a device by a name. For example, a DNS server will assign the name
https://www.nuc.org to a particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on
which this website is hosted.

Figure 9.9 is an illustration of the Internet.

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Figure 9.9: Internet

The Internet has greatly expanded over the years. A good example of the spread and
expansion of the Internet can be seen in the exhaustion of the addresses provided
by the protocol called IPv4. These addresses have been exhausted over the years,
and a new version of IP has taken over, which is known as IPv6, and this has further
increased the number of addresses available for each continent around the globe.
Also, the emergence of the IoT (Internet of Things) Technology is another very good
aspect of the expansion of the Internet.

In Africa, the Internet has taken centre stage, and it has successfully penetrated the
daily lives of people due to the ease with which it is usually accessed. The use of the
Internet has so risen in Africa that it is recorded that as of 2022, the continent has
over 570 million Internet users. According to reports, Nigeria currently has the
largest number of users of the Internet, with over 100 million in 2022, followed by
Egypt with 76 million users, and then South Africa with 41 million users. This
continuous rise in Internet usage can be easily traced to the improved
telecommunication infrastructure and the rising adoption of mobile technologies
and devices. This has greatly increased internet access in Africa.

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Furthermore, the continuous growth in internet accessibility has enhanced digital
activities and online services, like social media, online shopping, E-learning and
mobile payments. Today, any individual who needs an internet connection can easily
use the services of Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Some of the major Internet and
telecommunications Service providers in Africa are:

i. MTN - a South African company. Its operation covers over 21 countries in

Africa, and as of 2021, it had over 221 million subscribers across Africa.
ii. Orange Africa & Middle East, with over 130 million subscribers across Africa,
iii. Vodacom Group Ltd with over 123 million subscribers across Africa
iv. Airtel Africa - provides Telecomms and mobile money services to over 14
countries across Africa. It has over 78 million subscribers. Other providers
include Safaricom, Ethio Telecom, Maroc Telecom, Etisalat, and GLobacomm,
a mobile company based in Lagos. 9mobile is also based in Nigeria.

9.3.3 How the Internet operates

The Internet operates with two major components: network protocols and
hardware. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication. Network
protocols is what defines what is communicated across the networks. The protocols
that guide the operations on the Internet are known as the TCP/IP suite. This
protocol suite presents some set of rules that govern how devices carry out their
tasks across the Internet. Without this common collection of rules, there would be
difficulty in communication between devices on the Internet. These protocols are
also responsible for translating the texts and messages that are sent alphabetically
into electronic signals that can be transmitted over the Internet.

The process of transferring information from one device to another uses a

technology known as packet switching. Each device that is connected to the Internet
is assigned a unique IP address, which allows it to be recognised across the network.
Whenever a device tries to send a message to another device, the data is sent over
the Internet in the form of packets. Each packet is assigned a port number that
connects it to its endpoint. Figure 9.10 shows the Internet operation.

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Figure 9.10: Internet operation

9.3.4 Uses of the Internet

Some of the areas where the Internet has become very useful are listed below:

i. One of the major areas where the Internet has greatly impacted the lives of
its users is the use of social media. The social media market has greatly
benefitted from the wide penetration of smartphone usage. Some of the very
common social media applications that are much used across Africa include
WhatsApp and Facebook. Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok and a whole lot more.
These applications are used to connect and keep in touch with loved ones
and also do business.
ii. Online shopping, or e-commerce, has become very popular in Africa with the
help of the Internet. People now find it easier to order goods and services
online and connect with customers. Some examples of e-commerce and

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 online shopping sites widely used are Jumia, Takealot, Konga, PayPorte,
Slot.ng, Kara, Printivo Store, Jiji Nigeria, Obiwezy, etc.
iii. E-Learning - the Internet has greatly helped in the area of Electronic Learning
(E-learning). Particularly during the coronavirus period, lecturers in African
Universities were able to teach their students using some video conferencing
applications, like Zoom, Google Meet, Skype, and more. Also, access to
educational materials and self-improvement tools, which include online
degree programs, courses and workshops, has been greatly enhanced by the
Internet.
iv. Job Searching – this includes both the employers and the applicants.
Employers use the Internet to post open positions and recruit individuals
found on social networking sites like LinkedIn, while the applicants use it to
apply for jobs.
v. Online discussion groups and forums
vi. Access to online gaming
vii. Reading of electronic newspapers and magazines
viii. Research work activities
ix. Online shopping or e-commerce
x. Online dating, etc.

There are some new and trending internet technologies that are really impacting
internet users and will still make a lot of impact in the coming years. These include
Artificial intelligence (AI), Blockchain technology, Renewable Energy, the Internet of
Things (IoT) and 5G technology.

9.3.5 Advantages of the Internet

Some advantages of the Internet are:

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 i. Internet gives users the ability to communicate with people in any location
of choice
ii. The Internet has provided users with a great opportunity to socialise and
connect with clients, students, customers, friends and family. With the aid of
social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Linked, etc, users
can now keep in touch with a lot of contacts.
iii. With the Internet, users can get any kind of information they desire.
Information about different topics like Education, Agriculture, Health,
Technology and Science can be obtained with the help of the many search
engines available on the Internet.
iv. The Internet enables users to use services like accessing Agricultural
products, Online Shopping, Internet Banking, Flight Ticket Booking, Payment
of Bills online, Data and file sharing, and Email services.
v. The Internet provides a platform for users to buy and sell goods and services
online. A process known as Electronic commerce (E-Commerce).

9.3.6 Disadvantages of the Internet

The disadvantages are:

i. Users of the Internet always expose their personal details, and therefore,
they have a high chance of losing their personal information like credit card
number, name, address, and other personal details. Therefore, Internet users
should be very mindful of how they share their personal information. Credit
cards should be used only through authenticated websites.
ii. Internet users are usually exposed to Email spamming, which is unwanted
emails sent in bulk.

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 iii. Internet users are also usually exposed to some dangerous computer virus,
which can easily spread to systems that are connected to the Internet. Such
attacks can lead to system crashes, or some important data may get deleted.
iv. Some websites on the Internet provide incorrect and unverifiable
information to users, and this can mislead a user.

9.4 Comparison between the Intranet, Extranet and Internet.

Computer networks are different from each other depending on their topology.
Every network has its own characteristics. There are three comprehensive types of
networks: Internet, Intranet and Extranet. Each network shares the same
communication technologies. They differ in terms of size, access levels and the
nature of users.

9.4.1 Internet vs. Intranet

The difference between the Internet and Intranet using ten parameters is shown in
Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Difference between Internet and Intranet.

SN Parameters Internet Intranet

1 Reach The Internet is a global An Intranet is a private
network network
2 Make up It comprises several It can consist of a number of
networks, interconnected local area networks (LANs)
together at various connected together.
locations
3 Number of It has a very large amount It has a limited number of
Users of users. users
4 Protocol It uses the Internet It mostly makes use of leased
protocol suite to operate lines
5 Traffic There is very high traffic on It has fewer amount of traffic
the Internet due to a large inflow
number of users.

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 6 Security It is highly susceptible to Intranets are much more
cyber-attacks and some secure due to their private
other security threats due nature.
to its wide network
coverage and users. It is
less secure, as compared to
the Intranet.
7 Type of The Internet is a public Intranet is a private network.
Network network. (localised network)
(worldwide network)
8 Accessibility Any user of the Internet Only authorised members of
can access information on an organisation can access
the Internet. information on an intranet
9 Scope There is a very vast scope Intranet contains only
of information available on information about the
the Internet. organisation that owns it. Or
any other information they
make available to their users.
10 Affordability Less expensive More expensive
11 Reliability Less reliability More reliability

9.4.2 Similarities between Internet and Intranet

Some of the similarities between the Internet and Intranet are:

i. Both Intranet and Internet use the TCP/IP protocol suite

ii. Both are accessible through a web browser
iii. They both make use of instant messaging

Summary
The Internet, Intranet and Extranet all make use of the Internet protocols to carry
out their operations.

An intranet is a private connection (private network) that is used by an organisation

to keep its internal information like contacts, calendars, and some other documents
private. Intranets can be a collection of an organisation's internal websites or a

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portion of its IT infrastructure that can house several private websites. Intranets are
an essential tool for companies to facilitate internal communication among their
employees.

The Extranet is a private network service that is controlled by an organisation, and

they give access to only their clients, customers and partners. Extranet refers to a
network within an organisation, using the Internet to connect to outsiders in a
controlled manner. It helps to connect businesses with their customers and suppliers
and therefore allows working in a collaborative manner.

The Internet is a worldwide network system (public network) that connects a broad
collection of private, public, business, academic, and government networks to
enable global communication and access to data resources. It is the global system of
interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to
link devices worldwide. Internet operations are governed by some protocols and
have greatly evolved. The Internet differs from the Intranet based on the area of
security, scope, coverage, affordability, reach, usage, and number of users.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A network that is part of your Intranet but is extended to users outside of your
organisation and is accessible from the Internet is a private network.
A. Intranet B. Extranet C. Internet D. Public
network
2. The network has 12 desktop computers and two servers that host a web-based
inventory application that the entire employee connected to the same network
switch. A firewall protects all computers and servers from external networks.
Which type of network are you configuring?
A. Intranet B. Extranet C. Internet D. Public
network
3. VPN is a method that allows a secure and encrypted connection to be created
across a less secure system, such as the Internet. It extends a private network
by using a public network, such as the Internet.

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 A. True B. False
4. The Internet is a globally connected network, so it can have multiple more
users as compared to the number of users on the Intranet.
A. True B. False
5. Intranet has a limited network range, so users on Intranet are also limited and
less as compared to those on the Internet.
A. True B. False
6. The Extranet is an element of an intranet, categorised as a private network
type, controlled and handled by an organisation to offer secure access to the
Intranet of the external world.
A. True B. False
7. An internal network, which is only available inside an organisation or
company, is called. . . .
A. Network B. Web Browser C. HTTPS D.
Intranet
8. Which of the following can you do on the Internet?
A. Online shopping B. Video calling C. Streaming music D. All
of them
9. A network of computer networks which operates worldwide using a common
set of communications protocols.
A. Network B. Intranet C. Application D. Intranet
10. The protocols that guide the operations on the Internet and present the set
of rules that govern how devices carry out their tasks are known as
A. TCP/IP suite B. Application protocol C. FTP D.
HTTPS

Exercises
1. What is an Intranet?
2. Mention three advantages and disadvantages of Intranet.
3. State two applications of Intranet
4. What is Extranet?
5. List two advantages and disadvantages of the Extranet
6. How is the Extranet implemented?

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 7. Mention four issues associated with the Extranet.
8. State four features of Extranet Services
9. List the advantages of Extranet services
10. Mention two disadvantages of Extranet services
11. List three applications of Extranet
12. List three major fields that are using Extranet service on a large scale
13. What is Internet?
14. The Internet has grown and evolved over time to facilitate services. Mention
four.
15. Give a brief history of the Internet, stating how it has evolved over the years.
16. Briefly describe how the Internet operates.
17. State four advantages and disadvantages of the Internet
18. Compare and contrast between the Intranet, Extranet and Internet.
19. Define the following terms

a. Protocols
b. Internet Standards
c. VPN
d. ISPs
e. Interface Message Processor (IMP),
f. Network Control Protocol (NCP)
20. State four applications of the Internet

References
Sasu, D. D. (2022). Internet Usage in Nigeria. Statistica. Retrieved April 13, 2023,
from https://www.statista.com/topics/7199/internet-usage-in-nigeria/

Iduh B. and Okonkwo R. (2022). Development of a Botnet Management Model for

Cyber Security Networks. International Journal of Information Security,
Privacy and Digital Forencics, 6(2), 31-37.

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Douglas E. Comer (2019) The Internet Book: Everything you Need to Know about
Computer Networking and How the Internet Works.

Tutorialspoint. (https://www.tutorialspoint.com)

Techopedia. (https://www.techopedia.com)

GeeksforGeeks. (https://www.geeksforgeeks.org)

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 Chapter Ten
10. Word-Processing, Spreadsheets, And Graphics

(Presentation)

Overview
This chapter provides sufficient knowledge about Word-processing, Spreadsheet and
Graphic Presentation application software with specific reference to Microsoft
Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Detailed hands-on practicals of
these application software were also given in this chapter.

Objectives
This chapter focuses on providing students with the basic knowledge of Word-
processing, Spreadsheet and Graphical Presentation applications using Microsoft
Word, Excel, and PowerPoint. Specifically, students should be able to:

a. define word-processing, Spreadsheet and Graphical Presentation

application software, clearly;
b. list and explain the basic features of each Word-processing,
Spreadsheet and Graphical Presentation application software;
c. understand the use of each application software;
d. list and explain generations of programming languages;
e. practise each application software well; and
f. apply each application software to day-to-day activities.

10.1 Word Processing

A Word Processor is an application program that allows users to create letters,
reports, newsletters, tables, forms, mail merges, spell-checking, improved
formatting options, and other unlimited features. This application program allows
the insertion of pictures, tables, and charts into documents. Spelling and grammar

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can also be checked. As technology advances, new features are being added to the
application software, and newer versions continue to emerge.

Examples of word-processing applications include Microsoft Word and Word Perfect,

which dominated the market from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s on computers
running Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. Others include open-source
applications OpenOffice.org Writer, LibreOffice Writer, AbiWord, KWord, and LyX.
Web-based word processors, such as Office Web Apps or Google Docs, are a
relatively new category, to mention but a few. Microsoft Word is the most commonly
used word-processing software. It is among the suites of application software
developed by Microsoft.

10.1.1 Features of word processing applications:

Common features of word processing applications are as follows:

1. Fast creation and saving of professional documents using built-in and custom
templates;
2. Managing large documents using various features like the ability to create
Table of Contents, indexing, and cross-referencing;
3. Multitasking ability (as it works on multiple documents simultaneously);
4. Bulk Mail dispatch (with the help of mail merge, you can quickly create and
merge documents like mass mailings or mailing labels);
5. AutoCorrect and AutoFormat features for handling typographical errors
automatically and allowing you to use predefined shortcuts and typing
patterns to quickly format your documents;
6. Spelling and grammar checker and a "thesaurus" function (finds words with
similar or opposite meanings);
7. The print zoom facility scales a document on different paper sizes and allows
you to print out multiple pages on a single sheet of paper;
8. The nested tables feature supports putting one table inside another table;

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 9. Export and save your Word documents in PDF, Web Page, Rich Text Formats,
XPS file format and a wide variety of other formats.
10. Batch mailings using a form letter template and an address database (also
called mail merging);
11. Indices of Keywords and their page numbers;
12. Tables of contents with section titles and their page numbers;
13. Tables of Figures with caption titles and their page numbers;
14. Cross-referencing with section or page numbers;
15. Footnote numbering;
16. Collaborative editing, comments and annotations, support for
images/diagrams and internal cross-referencing.

10.2 Spreadsheet
A spreadsheet is a large sheet with data and information arranged in rows and
columns. Rows are horizontal vectors, while columns are vertical vectors.
Spreadsheet is quite useful for entering, editing, analysing and storing data.
Arithmetic operations with numerical data, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, can be done using a spreadsheet. Sorting
numbers/characters according to some given criteria (like ascending, descending,
etc.) and use of simple financial, mathematical and statistical formulas. A
spreadsheet is also known as a worksheet. It is used to record, calculate and compare
numerical or financial data.

Each value on a worksheet can either be an independent (i.e. basic) value, or it may
be derived on the basis of values of other variables. The derived value is the outcome
of an arithmetic expression and/or a function (i.e. a formula).

Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as a spreadsheet) is a

computer program that allows us to add and process data. Some examples of
spreadsheets are Lotus 123, Microsoft Excel or simply Excel, which is one of the
Microsoft Office Suite software.

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10.2.1 Features of spreadsheets
There are a number of features that are available in Excel to make your task easier.
Some of the main features are:

1. AutoSum - helps you to add the contents of a cluster of adjacent cells.

2. List AutoFill - automatically extends cell formatting when a new item is added
to the end of a list.
3. AutoFill - allows you to quickly fill cells with repetitive or sequential data such
as chronological dates or numbers and repeated text. AutoFill can also be
used to copy functions.
4. You can also alter text and numbers with this feature.
5. AutoShapes toolbar will allow you to draw a number of geometrical shapes,
arrows, flowchart elements, stars and more shapes with which you can draw
your own pictorials.
6. Wizard - guides you to work effectively while you work by displaying various
helpful tips and techniques based on what you are doing.
7. Drag and Drop - it will help you to reposition the data and text by simply
dragging the data with the help of a mouse.
8. Charts - these will help you present a graphical representation of your data
in the form of Pies, Bars, Line charts and more.
9. PivotTable - it flips and sums data in seconds and allows you to perform data
analysis and generate reports like periodic financial statements, statistical
reports, etc. You can also analyse complex data relationships graphically.
10. Shortcut Menus - the commands that are appropriate to the task that you
are doing will appear by clicking the right mouse button.

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10.3 Graphics (Presentation)
Graphics presentation application enables an individual from any technical level to
create a dynamic and professional-looking presentation. A presentation is a visual
tool designed to help a person tell a story. This story can be for various purposes,
including educational, entertainment and even business.

Some examples of graphical presentation applications are CorelDraw, Microsoft

Publisher and Microsoft PowerPoint.

10.3.1 Features of Graphic Presentation

1. Ruler for adjusting;
2. Set of tools for graphical drawings;
3. Powerful ray of Themes, and apply colour schemes for utilisation during
beatification of presentation;
4. Format text, colours, and bullets;
5. Create maximum-impact slides by inserting and editing pictures in your
slides;
6. Learn how to include transition and animation effects;
7. Organise and manage your slides using PowerPoint's View options.

10.4 Hands-on Practical

The following sub-sections will give us a hands-on, pragmatic approach to how each
sample of the application software works.

10.4.1 Microsoft Word

To start Word, click on the Windows Start button and then select Microsoft Word
from the options panel. The Microsoft Word Icon can be pinned to the
start bar for quick access.

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10.4.1.1 Window and Ribbon Features

The screenshot in Figure 10.1 displays the primary components of a typical Word
Version interface.

Quick Access Toolbar Title bar

File tab

Rib

Hor

Insertion point Scro

Document window

Vertical ruler

Status bar View Options Zoom slider

Figure 10.1: Primary components of a typical Word Version interface

Use the Ribbon options to select and process your commands.

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Microsoft Word uses Tabs instead of menus to organise various functions. In
addition, command buttons have been placed in a Group within the Ribbon, as
shown in Figure 10.2. The Dialog Box Launcher in a group shows additional options.

Tabs

Dialog box launcher Group

Figure 10.2: Group within the Ribbon

III. File Tab

The File tab provides you with the Backstage, which provides information pertaining
to your document and options to help set up your window defaults. The Backstage
also contains standard commands, such as Home, Save, Save As, New, Print, etc.

VII. Quick Access Toolbar

Microsoft Word 2019 has a Quick Access Toolbar (see Figure 10.3), so you can have
quick access to your most used commands.

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 A. Add Commands

Figure 10.3: Quick Access Toolbar

1. To add your most used commands to the Quick Access Toolbar, click on the
drop-down arrow next to the Quick Access Toolbar.
2. The Customize Quick Access Toolbar option panel will appear.
3. Click on your desired command option to be placed on the Quick Access
Toolbar.

X. Save a Document
A. Save
1. Click on the File tab, then select the Save As option to save a document
permanently to your hard drive or other storage device.
2. (The instructor will demonstrate where to save the document).
3. The Save As window will appear.
4. In the Directory sections on the left side of the window, click on the icon
where you wish to save your document. In this exercise, click on the Desktop.
5. In the File Name box, type your desired document name, and then click on
the Save button.

Table 10.1 consists of definitions for the Microsoft Office features.

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 Table 10.1: Definitions for the Microsoft Office features

Term Description

1 Quick Access Displays quick access to commonly used commands.

Toolbar

4 File Tab The File tab has replaced the Office button in 2007.
This area is called the Backstage, which helps you to
manage the Microsoft application and provides
access to its options, such as Open, New, Save As,
Print, etc.

2 Ribbon Tab Title or name of the specific Ribbon.

3 Ribbon Displays groups of related commands within tabs.

Each tab provides buttons for commands.

5 Group Contain category of command buttons.

6 Show Dialog Box Show additional options.

XI. Select Text

You must select text before you can change the format. You can use the mouse to
select text in a variety of ways, which is explained in Table 10.2.

Table 10.2: The use mouse

Select Action

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 any text Click at the beginning of the area and press the Shift key as
you click at the end of the area. You can also drag across the
text you want to select.

a word Double-click on the word.

a line Place the mouse pointer in the left margin. Position the
mouse pointer next to the desired line and click once.

multiple lines Place the mouse pointer in the left margin next to the first
desired line and click once. Then press the Ctrl key and click
additional lines to select them.

a sentence Press the Ctrl key and click anywhere in the sentence.

a paragraph Place the mouse pointer in the left margin and double-click
next to any line in the paragraph.

multiple Click at the beginning of the first paragraph, then hold the
paragraphs mouse button down while dragging through your desired
paragraphs.

a document Press the Ctrl key, then place the mouse pointer anywhere in
the left margin and click once.

XII. Margins

Microsoft Word margins are defaulted to 1 inch for the top and bottom and 1 inch
for the left and right. To change your margins, use the Margin button found on the
Layout ribbon, as shown in Figure 10.4

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 Figure 10.4: Microsoft Word Margins Button

A. Create Margins
1. Select the entire document text by pressing the Ctrl key, then place the
mouse pointer anywhere on the left margin, and then click once on the right
mouse button.
2. Select the Layout tab.
3. In the Page Setup group, click on the Margins button.
4. The predesigned margins panel will appear.
5. Change the margin by selecting the top margin button (top and bottom 0.5”
– Left and Right 0.5”).

Note: If you prefer a margin not listed, then click on Custom Margins at the
bottom of the panel to customise your margin. The Page Setup window will appear,
and then make your desired margin choices from the window options.

XIII. Line Spacing

Microsoft Word 2019 defaults the line spacing to double space (2.0). Line spacing
affects an entire paragraph or document. Use the Line Spacing button on the Home
Ribbon to change line spacing.

A. Add Spacing
1. Make sure the entire document is still selected.
2. Click on the Home tab. On the Paragraph group, click on the Line Spacing
button, and then select 1.5.

XIV. Format a Document

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Formats can be applied to any text within your document. Formatting styles are the
most common way to change the appearance of text in a document.

A. Apply Format

Figure 10.5: Microsoft Word Format Button

1. Select text, and then click on your desired format from the Home ribbon shown
in Figure 10.5.

Format Option Examples:

 Click on the Bold button to make the text bold.
 Click on the Italic button to italicise the text.
 Click on the Underline button to add an underline to the text.
 Click on the Bullets button to add a bulleted list to the text.
 Click on the Numbering button to add a numbered list to the text.

Note: The Microsoft Word Mini Toolbar feature gives you quick access to
common formatting commands. The mini toolbar appears faintly when you select
text in your document. If you want to use this mini toolbar, you can activate it by
hovering the mouse pointer on the toolbar and making your selections. If you
prefer not to use the toolbar, you can continue

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working within the document, and the toolbar will disappear.

1. On the Garden.docx practice document, do the following formatting as

explained:
2. Select the Energy Savings sub-heading text above the second paragraph, and
then press the Control key on the keyboard.
3. Select the Feasibility of Converting Flat Roofed Building to Gardens sub-
heading text above the third paragraph.
4. While the Control key is still pressed, select the sub-heading text from the
fourth and fifth paragraphs (Structural Requirements, Possible Problems).
5. Click on the Bold button.
6. Click on the Italic button.
7. Click on the Underline button.
8. Select all three lines after the Structural Requirements paragraph (Garages
and sheds, Balconies and terraces, and Patios or decks).
9. Click on the Bullets button.
10. Create a Numbered list at the end of the first paragraph of Possible Problem
by placing the insertion point after the text included, pressing the Enter key
once, and then clicking on the Numbering button.
11. Type the following text, “Rainwater build-up can sacrifice the structural
soundness of the roof. Make sure the structure is slightly angled or has

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 proper drainage to allow for water runoff.", and then press the Enter key
once.
12. Type the following text, “Selecting plants that require too much water can
add considerable weight to the garden. The best option is to research and
understand which flowers and plants thrive in a given area and do not
require a lot of water." then press the Enter key.
13. Type the following text, “The structure may be unable to sustain the weight.
Consider container gardens which consist of lower weight but offer the
same benefits of in-ground plants." and then press twice on the Enter key.

XVI. Text Alignment

Microsoft Word aligns paragraphs in four different ways relative to the left and right
margins: left, centre, right and justified. The Word default paragraph alignment is
left. You can change paragraph alignment by clicking on an Alignment button located
on the Home ribbon on the Paragraph group, as shown in Figure 10.6.

Figure 10.6: Microsoft Word Text Alignment Button

Alignment Option Examples:

 First button - Align Text Left
 Second button - Center text
 Third button - Align Text Right
 Fourth button - Justify text

A. Add Center Alignment

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1. Select the title text, ROOF TOP GARDENS, and then click on the Center button.

XVII. View Modes

Microsoft Word has five view modes, as shown in Table 10.3.

1. To select a view mode, click on the View tab.

2. In the Document Views group, select your desired view mode.

Table 10.3: Microsoft Word View Mode

View Name Description

Read Mode The best way to read a document includes some tools designed
for reading instead of writing.

Print Layout Check out how your document will look when it’s printed.

Web Layout See how your document will look as a webpage. This layout is
also great if you have wide tables in your document.

Outline See your document in outline form, where content is shown as

bulleted points.

This view is useful for creating headings and moving whole

paragraphs within the document.

Draft Switch your view to see just the text in your document. This is
useful for quick editing because headers/footers and certain
objects won’t show up, allowing you to focus on your text.

XVIII. Spelling and Grammar Checks

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Microsoft Word 2019 automatically checks for incorrect spelling and grammar. As
you type the document, Word uses wavy red underlines to indicate possible spelling
errors and wavy green underlines to indicate possible grammatical errors. To correct
an error, right-click on a word with a wavy underline, and then click on the correction
from the option panel that you desire. You can also edit the error directly in the
document if no suggestions are applicable.

A. Make Error Corrections

1. In the first paragraph of the Garden Practice document, place the mouse
pointer over the misspelt text (gardning), click on the right mouse button,
and then select the correction from the option panel.
2. In the second paragraph, place the mouse pointer over the misspelt text
(environment), click on the right mouse button, and then select the
correction from the option panel.
3. In the third paragraph, place the mouse pointer over the grammatical error
text (is), click on the right mouse button, and then select the correction from
the option panel.
4. In the third paragraph, place the mouse pointer over the repeated text (on),
click on the right mouse button, and then select Delete Repeated Word from
the option panel.

XIX. Page Breaks and Section Breaks

Page Breaks and Section Breaks can be inserted anywhere within a document.

A. Insert Page Break

Working with Tables

Tables offer a convenient way to display information that might otherwise be

confusing and cluttered. Text is neatly formatted in a table without setting tab stops.

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A. Create a Table

The Table Tools tab only appears when a table is selected.

To create a table in Microsoft Word, click on the Insert ribbon. The Table button is
the only option on the Tables group.

1. Click on the Insert ribbon, and then click on the Table button.
2. The Table panel will appear.

1. Select two rows and two columns, as seen above. To insert a table onto your
document, move the mouse pointer over the number of rows and columns
you desire. The cell selection will be highlighted as you move the mouse.
When the desired rows and columns are highlighted, click on the last cell.

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 Seminar Time

Word Processing 9:00 AM to 10:30 AM

2. Type the information in the table shown above. The insertion point will
appear in the first cell of the table. Type the text in the first cell, and then use
the Tab key on the keyboard to move from one cell to the next.
3. After you type the information in the last cell, press the Tab key. Word
automatically inserts a new blank row.
4. Type the text seen above as you insert new rows.

Move within a Table

Moving the insertion point and selecting text in a table is very similar to the ways
you do so for regular text in a document. However, some procedures are unique to
tables, as illustrated below.

Procedure Description

Tab and (Shift + Tab) Use the Tab key to move from left to right; use
Shift+Tab to move from right to left.

Keyboard Arrow Keys The up and down arrows will move up and down
rows.

Move the insertion point Use the mouse to position the cursor as needed.

To select a single-cell Click three times inside the cell or drag over the
cell's contents.

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To select an entire row Place the mouse pointer on the left margin, pointing
to the row, then click once or drag over the row
cell's contents.

To select an entire Click the column's top gridline/border or drag over

the column cell's contents.
column

To select the entire table Single-click on the table, move the handle to the
top left corner of a table or press the Alt key and
double-click in any cell of the table.

One can adjust columns and rows accordingly, add columns and rows, merge cells of
a table as desired, delete cells, rows and tables and format tables to one's desire.

XX. Print a Document

Click on the File tab and select the Print option to print your current document. This
will display the Print window options, along with a preview of the document to the
right, such as the range of pages to print and the number of copies to print.

The default printer is the printer that your applications will use unless you specify
otherwise. To change printers, click on the drop-down arrow next to Printer Name.
This will display a list of installed printers and allow you to select another printer.

1. Select your desired options in the Print window.

2. Click on the Print button to print your document.

10.4.2 Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Excel is a powerful electronic spreadsheet program you can use to
automate accounting work, organise data, and perform a wide variety of tasks. Excel
is designed to perform calculations, analyse information, and visualise data in a
spreadsheet. Also, this application includes database and charting features.

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 A. Launch Excel

To launch Excel for the first time:

1. Click on the Start button.

2. Click on All Programs.
3. Select Microsoft Office from the menu options, and then click on Microsoft
Excel.
B. Window Features

The purpose of the window features is to enable the user to perform routine tasks
related to the Microsoft applications. All the Office applications share a common
appearance and similar features. The window features provide a quick means to
execute commands. Here are some pertinent Excel features:

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 Figure 10.7: Excel features

C. Spreadsheet Terms

Term Description

1 Quick Access Displays quick access to commonly used commands.

Toolbar

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 2 Search Bar Advanced search will help you find and perform tasks.

3 Title Bar Displays the name of the application file.

4 File Tab The File tab has replaced the Office button. It helps you
to manage the Microsoft application and provide access
to its options such as Open, New, Save, As Print, etc.

5 Name Box Displays the active cell location.

6 Cell The intersection of a row and column; cells are always

named with the column letter followed by the row
number (e.g. A1 and AB209); cells may contain text,
numbers and formulas.

7 Range One or more adjacent cells. A range is identified by its

first and last cell address, separated by a colon. Example
ranges are B5:B8, A1:B1 and A1:G240.

8 Status Bar Displays information about the current worksheet.

9 New Sheet Add a new sheet button.

10 Ribbon Displays groups of related commands within tabs. Each

tab provides buttons for commands.

11 Formula Bar Input formulas and perform calculations.

12 Worksheet A grid of cells that are more than 16,000 columns wide
(A-Z, AA-AZ, BA-BZ…IV) and more than 1,000,000 rows
long.

13 View Option Display worksheet view mode.

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 D. Mouse Pointer Styles

The Excel mouse pointer takes on many different appearances as you move around
the spreadsheet. The following table summarizes the most common mouse pointer
appearances:

Pointer Example Description

The white plus sign will select a single

cell to enter data, retype data or delete
text from the selected cell. This pointer
is also useful for selecting a range of
cells.

The white arrow will drag the contents

of the selected cell to a new location
(drag and drop).

The black plus sign activates the fill

handle of the selected cell and will fill
the adjoining cells with some type of
series, depending on the type of data
(e.g., a formula or date) in the beginning
cell.

E. Spreadsheet Navigation

The following table provides various methods to navigate around a spreadsheet.

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 Method Description

mouse Use the mouse pointer to select a cell.

pointer

scroll bars Use the horizontal and vertical scroll bars to move around the
spreadsheet to view columns and rows not currently visible.
Click the mouse pointer once the desired cell is visible.

arrow keys Use the left , right →, up , and down arrows to move
accordingly among cells.

Enter Press the Enter key to move down one cell at a time.

Tab Press the Tab key to move one cell to the right.

Ctrl+Home Moves the cursor to cell A1.

Ctrl+End Moves the cursor to the last cell of used space on the worksheet,
which is the cell at the intersection of the right-most used
column and the bottom-most used row (in the lower-right
corner).

End + arrow Moves the cursor to the next or last cell in the current column or
key row which contains information.

1. Practice moving around the spreadsheet.

2. Practice selecting cells and cell ranges.

Basic Steps for Creating a Spreadsheet

When creating a spreadsheet, it is recommended to do the following steps:

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Make a draft of your spreadsheet idea on paper.

1. Enter the data from your draft onto the actual spreadsheet.
2. Format your data after entering it into the spreadsheet.
3. Calculate data by using mathematical formulas.
4. Save the document.
5. Preview and Print the spreadsheet.

Enter and Format Data

A. Create Spreadsheet

Illustration of spreadsheet to be completed in the exercise below:

Budget for Guest Speakers

Item Fall Spring Summer Annual

Research 20 20 10 50

Correspondence/Communication 30 30 15 75

Publicity 50 50 25 125

Honorariums 500 500 250 1250

Travel 750 750 325 1825

Lodging 300 300 150 750

Total $1,650.00 $1,650.00 $ 775.00 $4,075.00

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 1. Open Excel Practice File.xlsx, and then click on the Budget sheet tab.

(The instructor will indicate the location for this file.)

a) Select cell A1, and then type Budget for Guest Speakers.
b) Select cell A3, type Item, and then press the Tab key.
c) Select cell B3, type Fall, and then press the Tab key.
d) Select cell C3, type Spring, and then press the Tab key.
e) Select cell D3, type Summer, and then press the Tab key.
f) Select cell E3, type Annual, and then press the Tab key.

Manipulating Excel cells

Initially, all columns/rows have the same width in a spreadsheet. Often, you will
need to make columns/rows wider/height or narrower. See the table below.

method Description

dragging method Move the cursor up to the column heading area

and point to the vertical line to the right of the
column that you want to change. When the cursor
becomes a "plus sign" with horizontal arrows,
press the mouse button and drag in either
direction to resize the column. Release the mouse
button to accept the new size.

Double-click to auto-fit Move the cursor up to the column heading area

and point to the vertical line to the right of the
column that you want to change. When the cursor

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 becomes a "plus sign" with horizontal arrows,
double-click to AutoFit this one column.

AutoFit a range Use the mouse to select the range of cells that
needs to be adjusted, and on the Home ribbon in
the Cells group, choose Format, and then select
the AutoFit Column Width option.

1. Increase the width of column A via the dragging method so that all text
entries are visible.
2. Decrease the width of column C via the dragging method until pound
symbols ### appear.
3. Increase the width of column C to return to its original size.

Insert and Delete Rows and Columns

Rows/columns can be Inserted and also deleted

Procedure Description

Add Row Select any cell of the row where you desire to add a new
row above. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click
on the Insert button and then select Insert Sheet Rows.
A new roll will appear above your selected cell row.

Add Column Select any cell of the column letter where you desire to
add a new column to the left. On the Home ribbon in the
Cell group, click on the Insert button and then select

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 Insert Sheet Columns. A new column will appear to the
left of your selected column.

Delete Row or Column Select any cell where you desire to delete a row or
column. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click on
the Delete button and then select Delete Sheet Rows or
Delete Sheet Columns. The row or column where the cell
was selected will be deleted.

1. Select any cell in column C.

2. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click on the Insert drop-down
arrow, and then select Insert Sheet Columns. A new column will
appear to the left of your selected column.
3. Click the Undo button.
4. Select any cell in row 6.
5. On the Home ribbon in the Cell group, click on the Insert drop-down
arrow, and then select Insert Sheet Rows. A new roll will appear
above your selected cell row.
6. Select cell A6, and then type Photocopy Services.
7. Press Tab and complete the additional columns as follows:

Basic steps for creating a formula:

1. Click on the empty cell, which will contain the formula.
2. Type an equal sign (=).
3. Type the cell address or click the cell that contains the first number.
4. Type the math operator (+ - / * ^).
5. Type the cell address or click the cell that contains the second
number.

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 6. Continue in this manner until the formula is complete.
7. Use parenthesis for clarification.
8. Press the Enter key.

The following image depicts various formulas in an Excel spreadsheet, which will be
created in the following exercise:

B. AutoSum

Adding is the most common math operation performed in Excel. The Home ribbon
includes an AutoSum button for adding. This button provides a shortcut to
typing formulas.

Basic Steps for using AutoSum:

1. Move to the empty cell that will contain the formula.
2. Click on the AutoSum button.
3. Proofread the formula that Excel provides to make any necessary changes.
4. Press the Enter key or click the check mark on the formula bar.

Click back on the Budget sheet tab.

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 1. Select cell B12, click on the AutoSum button, and then press the Enter
key.
2. Repeat the AutoSum process for cells C12, D12, E12.

Note: You can copy formulas that refer to empty cells. After you type numbers in
the empty cells, the formulas will be updated.

3. Click in cell B4, change the amount from $20 to $50, and then press the Enter
key.

Note: Formula results are updated automatically in Excel. As you change any
values that are referred to in a formula, the formula will reflect these changes.

4. Complete the AutoSum process for column E. Click in cell E4.

5. Click on the AutoSum button to add the Research expenses for the three
semesters.
6. Press the Enter key.
7. Select the cell range B5:E5, click the AutoSum button, and then press the
Enter key.
8. Auto Fill this formula to the cell range E6:E11.
9. Copy this formula to the cell range E6:E11 by using the Auto Fill method
illustrated above. Place the mouse pointer on the small solid square in the
lower right corner of cell E5, when the mouse pointer changes to a plus sign
(Fill handle), then hold down on the right mouse button and drag the mouse
down the designed cells (E6:E11) to copy the formula. The Auto Fill feature
is explained in more detail in the Additional Features section on page 44.

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D. Charts

Microsoft Excel can display data graphically in a chart. Excel displays values from
worksheet cells as bars, lines, columns, pie slices, or other shapes in a chart. When
you create a chart, the values from the worksheet are automatically represented in
the chart. Presenting data in a chart can make it easier to read and more interesting
to interpret. Charts can also help you evaluate your data and make comparisons
between different values.

Figure 10.8: a chart

A. Sort Data

The sorting feature in Excel allows you to place records in order alphabetically or
numerically. You may specify up to three sort levels (e.g. sort first by state, then by
city, then by last name). Sorts may be ascending (A-Z or 0-9) or descending (Z-A or
9-0). You should always save the workbook before you sort.

Use the Sort A to Z (ascending) or Sort Z to A (descending) buttons to sort the

records so that the highest or lowest values are at the top of the column.

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Click on the Invoice sheet tab.
1. Click on any cell within the Department column, and then click on
the Sort & Filter button located on the Home ribbon in the Editing group.

2. Click on the Sort A to Z button to view data in ascending order.

3. Click on the Sort Z to A button to view data in ascending order.

B. AutoFilter

The spreadsheet AutoFilter allows you to view and quickly locate data that meet
specific criteria. This feature is faster and more productive than scrolling through
your entire spreadsheet to find specific data criteria. Once the information is filtered,
you can print out the displayed data. Once filtering is turned on, click the arrows in
the column header to choose a filter for the column.

1. Click on any cell in the database.

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 2. Click on the Sort & Filter button, located on the Home ribbon in the
Editing group, and then select the Filter from the options window.

3. Drop-down arrows are placed next to each column field name.

4. Click on the Department drop-down arrow. In the Search display

window, deselect the Select All option, and then select Biology.

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 5. Click on the OK button. Now, only records from the Biology
department are listed. Two records should be displayed.

6. Click on the Filter button next to Department, then deselect Biology

and select Law. Four records should display.

7. Turn off Filter, click on the Filter button next to Department

again, and select the Select All option. All records in the database display.

8. Click on the Subcode drop-down arrow. In the Search display

window, deselect the Select All option, and then select 521.

9. Click on the OK button. Now, only records from the 521 Subcode are
listed. Three records should be displayed.

10. Turn off Filter, click on the Filter button next to Subcode, then
deselect 521 and select the Select All option. All records in the spreadsheet
database are displayed.

You can choose one item from many different fields to narrow down a search. For
example, to display all of the Smiths who work in the Law department, filter both of
these fields set to the desired criteria.

Print a Spreadsheet

Click on the File tab and select the Print option. Preview your spreadsheet on the
right side of the File screen. If you are satisfied with the preview, click the Print
button; otherwise, click on the Home tab to return to the document and edited
document. (Page Setup options are covered in the Additional Features section on
page 47.)

L. Exit Excel

When you are done using Excel, click on the File tab, select the Exit option or click
on the Close button in the upper right-hand corner of the Excel window. If your file

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has recently been saved, Excel will exit promptly. However, if the file needs to be
saved before quitting, Excel will prompt you to do so.

Microsoft Excel is an electronic spreadsheet that automates manual calculations

involved in accounting and bookkeeping. After you have typed the basic text and
number entries in a spreadsheet cell, Excel can perform the math calculations for
you. You will learn how to create formulas and functions to perform calculations in
a spreadsheet.

Example formulas are: =D15+D18+D21: =B4-B12: =A10/B15: =(B16+C16) *1.07 Do

not use any spaces in formulas. Also, when creating formulas, you may choose to
either type the cell address or use the mouse to select the cell address.

10.4.5 Microsoft PowerPoint

Introduction

PowerPoint is a graphical presentation program used to organize and present

information. PowerPoint presentations consist of a number of individual pages or
"slides.” Slides may contain text, graphics, sound, movies, and other objects that can
be freely arranged. Presentations can be printed, displayed live on a computer, or
navigated through at the command of the presenter. For larger audiences, the
presentation is often projected onto a large screen. Handouts, speaker notes, or
outlines can also be produced from the slides.

Launch Microsoft PowerPoint

1. Click on the Office Start button.

2. Click on the PowerPoint icon from the options panel.
3. The PowerPoint Template window will appear.

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 4. Click on the Blank Presentation icon.

Windows Features

The purpose of Windows Features is to enable the user to perform routine tasks
related to Microsoft applications. All Office applications share a common appearance
and similar features. Windows Features provide a quick means to execute
commands. Below are some pertinent PowerPoint features:

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 1. Quick Access Toolbar 2. Title Bar

3. File Tab
8. Ribbon

4. Thumbnail Slide
9. Collapse

5. Title Placeholder

6. Subtitle Placeholder
10. Work Ar

7. Status Bar 11. ViewOptions

Figure 10.9: Pertinent PowerPoint features

Feature Terms and Descriptions

Term Description
1 Quick Access Displays quick access to commonly used commands.
Toolbar
2 Title Bar Displays the name of the open file.

3 File Tab The File tab has replaced the Office 2007 button. It
helps you to manage the Microsoft application and
provides access to options such as Open, New, Save
As, Print, etc.
4 Thumbnail Slide Displays a snapshot of each slide.

5 Title Placeholder Section where text is entered.

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 6 Subtitle Placeholder Section where text and/or graphics are entered.

7 Status Bar Displays information about the slide presentation,

such as page numbers.
8 Ribbon Displays groups of related commands within tabs.
Each tab provides buttons for commands.

9 Collapse Collapses the Ribbon, so only the tab names show.

10 Work Area Each slide has an area where text and graphics are
entered for a presentation. There are various slide
layouts to work from.
11 View Option Displays several View modes for slides.

10.4.5.1 The Ribbon

The Ribbon replaces the menu bar seen in previous versions of PowerPoint. The
Ribbon groups items that are most likely to be used together. There are several
frequently used tabs, such as File, Home, Insert, Design and View. Clicking on each
tab activates a group of relative commands, menus, and buttons. There are also
contextual tabs that only show up when needed, such as Text Box Tools, Picture
Tools, Drawing Tools and Chart Tools. To activate those tools, click on the associated
object.

Presentation Slides

Slides in a presentation are similar to pages in a word-processing document. All slides

and graphics are saved in one file (example: keys.xppt). Use the PowerPoint file to
present the information in the following ways:

10.4.5.2 Opening PowerPoint

To open a PowerPoint 2016 presentation, click on the File tab in the upper left
corner.

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 The most common choices for opening a presentation are:
• New - allows you to open a Blank presentation, or you may choose from a
selection of Templates and Themes.
• Open - lets you navigate to an existing file to view and/or modify a
presentation that has already been created.
• Recent – displays a list of your most recently created presentations and their
file locations.
•
10.4.5.3 Creating New Presentations

The New selection gives you several options:

 Blank presentation creates a new presentation using default settings for text
and colour. These slides will not include content or design elements.
 Templates and Themes are used to create a new presentation based on
predesigned slide styles. These options also do not include content.
 New from existing will use the formatting of a previously created
presentation.
For this exercise, we’ll start with a Blank presentation. Select New, choose Blank
Presentation and click on the Create icon.

10.4.5.4 PowerPoint Slides

When you choose to create a blank presentation, PowerPoint will open a

presentation with a Title Slide. Once the Title Slide is open, you’ll see a slide with
two placeholder text boxes for a title and a subtitle. Click inside the placeholder box
and type to add the title. If you want a subtitle, click and type inside the smaller
placeholder. If you don’t want a subtitle, you can just ignore its placeholder box.

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To add a New Slide, make sure you’re on the Home tab. The New Slide button will
add slides to your presentation.

The New Slide button has two parts:

Clicking on the top part will automatically insert a new slide. If you have just created
a Title slide, the new default layout will be a Title and Content slide (for details, see
the section on slide layouts).

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 Clicking on the bottom will give you a choice of layouts. You can choose
which layout you want for your next slide. Select a slide layout by
clicking on its image in the Office Theme gallery.

Slide Layouts

There are several standard slide layouts to

choose from when adding new slides.

A unique layout can be chosen by clicking on the bottom half of the New Slide button
in the Home tab. When the layout gallery opens, click on the style you want and a
new slide with that layout will appear in your presentation.

Each layout caption describes the layout type. Content can be text, tables, charts,

graphics, pictures, clip art, or video.

If you decide later that the layout you chose doesn’t work well for a particular slide,
select the slide by clicking on it in the Thumbnail pane. Next, click on the Layout
button in the Slides group of the Home tab. Click on a new layout, and it will change
the layout of the slide.

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10.4.5.5 Saving a Presentation

You can save a file by clicking the File tab, choosing Save, typing a descriptive name
into the File Name window, and then clicking the Save button.

PowerPoint, use the Save As option and select PowerPoint 97 – 2003 Presentation
from the Save As type menu.

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10.4.5.6 Save and Send to Others

If you need to send your presentation to someone else, the best way to do so is to
use the Save & Send option. You can send an attachment of your file using Send
Using Email, but if you have large media files, such as videos, you’ll need to compress
those first to make a smaller file. On the Home, Select the Info tab, click the
Compress Media button, and choose Presentation Quality. Note: Only available if
you have inserted media.

You also have the option to Package Presentation for CD. This allows you to add
other files or to add a PowerPoint Viewer so that the presentation can be run on a
computer that does not have the PowerPoint program. You can also add any linked
files, such as video or audio.

10.4.5.7 Applying a Theme (Styles)

Once a new presentation has been created, a design or colour scheme can be added.
Remember to use colour carefully to enhance your presentation, not detract from it.
You will want to maintain a good contrast between the background colour and the

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text colour. Consider using a light-coloured background and dark text (or vice versa),
but avoid busy backgrounds and primary colours. Use sans serif fonts like Arial,
Calibri, and Helvetica for titles and size them between 44 – 60 points. Subheadings
should be between 32 – 40 points, and body text should be between 18 – 32 points.
Try not to use more than two fonts.

PowerPoint has many pre-set designs and themes that include complimentary
colours and fonts. To add a theme to a presentation, go to the Design tab in the
Ribbon. There are several themes immediately available. To use one of the built-in
themes, just click on its thumbnail.

On the right side of the Theme thumbnails, there’s a scroll bar and an arrow-down
button, which will offer more designs, as seen below. If you’re online, you can get
more themes from Microsoft Office Online. (Your office program must be a genuine
Office product to get online templates).

If you don’t want to use a theme, you can add Background Styles. From this
selection, you can add some pre-set background styles that change according to the
colours you've chosen.

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 Using the Format Background feature, you can choose fill
colours, gradients, transparencies, textures, or pictures for
your background.

When you have the desired background fill effect, select Close
to apply it to the selected slide or choose Apply to All to add
the background to all of the slides in the presentation.

Designs can be added to all of the slides or selected slides. To

Text select multiple slides, click on a slide in the Thumbnail pane
of the navigation bar, hold down the control key and click on any other slides you
want to apply the design to.

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10.4.5.8 Adding Content

Text is the default content of the slide below. The format for the default text is a
bulleted list. To add text, click and begin typing. To add other content, click on the
icon within the content group on the new slide. Each icon will open the appropriate
dialogue box or task pane in the Drawing Tool

s contextual Tab.
Drawing Tools

The icons represent the six standard graphical elements that you might want to
insert.

Clicking on an icon will open the associated dialogue box. Note that these icons, as
well as several other insertion options, are also displayed in the Insert tab on the
Ribbon.

10.4.5.9 Tables

Set the number of columns and rows as needed in the Insert Table dialogue box and
click OK. Methods for editing and the design and layout of your table are located on
the Table

Tools contextual tab.

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 Table Tools

10.4.5.10 Charts

Select the type of chart you want and click OK. Once inserted into the slide, you can
click on the chart to activate the Chart Tools contextual tab, where you’ll find tools
for editing chart data and changing layouts and styles.

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10.4.5.11 Header and Footer

When printing slides or handouts, it is often nice to be able to add a title or an author
to the Header and Footer section of the printout.

1. In the Slides printing options, let’s choose the printing option 3 slides per
page in the Handout section and change the Orientation back to Portrait.
2. Note in the preview pane that the date and page number can be seen. These
items are not part of the header or footer, but rather, they are options that
can be defined in the Handout Master View.
3. Click on the Edit Header & Footer link at the bottom of the Settings. A
dialogue box opens.

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 4. Click the Notes and Handouts tab.
5. Note the small preview area where sections of the print areas are called out.
Note that the page number is checked on by default, and it is called out in
the Preview in the lower right corner.
6. Click in the Header checkbox and note where that section of the print area
is called out in the Preview.
7. In the Header field, type our presentation title, which is Band Boosters
Meeting.
8. Click in the Footer check box and type your name in the field below it.

9. Click the Apply to All button.

10.4.5.12 Viewing Presentations

There are four different ways to view your presentation in PowerPoint. The views
can be accessed using the buttons in the status bar or by using the View Tab on the
Ribbon.

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Normal view displays a single slide as it appears in the presentation, as well as
thumbnails and an outline tab, where you can organize the structure. Speaker notes
can be added in the bottom section of this window. This view is used to create and
edit slides.

Slide Sorter View shows thumbnails of your slides. From this view, you can reorder
slides by dragging and dropping them, or you can set the timing for the slide show.
You can also hide slides in this view. Hiding a slide will keep it in the file, but it will
not show when you view the presentation.

Notes Page View allows the speaker to create notes to use during a presentation.
Each page corresponds to one slide. These can be printed to assist the presenter
during the presentation. Use this view when you’re composing speaking topics.

Reading View/Slide Show View displays the slides as an audience will see them. Use
the arrows and icons on the lower right side of the Status Bar to advance slides or
switch Slide Show Tab.

The Slide Show Tab allows you to review the slide show from beginning to end or
from the current (active) slide. You can also control how the show will be presented
and rehearse timings in the Set Up Slide Show drop-down box.

10.4.5.13 Transitions

If you've ever seen a PowerPoint presentation that had "special effects" between
each slide, then you've seen slide transitions. A transition can be as simple as fading
to the next slide, or it can be a flashy, eye-catching effect. That means you can choose
transitions to fit the style of any presentation. Applying a Transition

1. Open FlashCards.pptx from your flash drive.

2. Select Slide 1.
3. Click the Transitions tab and locate the Transition to This Slide group.
4. Notice how the None option has a grey background. This means that the
currently selected slide does not have a transition. This is the default setting
for all slides.

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5. Click the More button to display all of the transitions.

a. Note that transitions are grouped into three categories: Subtle,

Exciting, and Dynamic Content.
b. The categories are self-explanatory except for Dynamic Content. In
that category, the transitions affect the content of a slide, such as text
boxes or images, instead of the entire slide.

6. Click on the Dissolve transition in the Exciting category to apply it to Slide 1.

This will automatically preview the transition as well.

Transition could be modified and viewed.

Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive understanding of word processing,
spreadsheet and graphic presentation application software, with regard to Microsoft
Office, Word, Excel and PowerPoint. It features word processing, spreadsheet and
graphic presentation with hands-on practice on how to use them. A handful of
exercises were given for the students to work on.

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Exercises
1. What is word-processing?
2. Mention the features of a word-processing application.
3. Give some examples of word-processing application software.
4. What is a spreadsheet?
5. Mention the basic features of a named spreadsheet.
6. Give some examples of spreadsheet application software.
7. What is Graphic presentation?
8. Mention the features of Graphic presentations.
9. Give some examples of Graphic presentation application software.
10. Create a Word document and save it.
11. Create a Spreadsheet book and save it.
12. Create a Presentation slide and save it.
13. Define the following terms:
i. Ribbon
ii. Quick Access
iii. Tabs
iv. Transition
v. Function
vi. Mail Merge

References
"Microsoft Power Point Basics Creating a PowerPoint Slide Presentation." (n.d.).
University of Florida Health. Retrieved from
http://media.news.health.ufl.edu/misc/training/Handouts/PowerPoint/2
016/2016_PowerPoint-Basics.pdf

"MICROSOFT POWERPOINT 2016: STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE." (2018). Retrieved from

http://www.leverett.us/Docs/ComputerLab/ClassResources/Microsoft%2
0PowerPoint%202016/PowerPoint%202016%20Step-by-Step%20Guide.pdf

"Microsoft Word 2019 Fundamentals Manual." (n.d.). University of Pittsburgh

Technology Services. Retrieved from
https://www.technology.pitt.edu/sites/default/files/Microsoft%20Word
%202019%20Fundamentals%20Manual.pdf

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"Microsoft Excel 2019 Fundamentals Manual." (n.d.). University of Pittsburgh
Technology Services. Retrieved from
https://www.technology.pitt.edu/sites/default/files/Microsoft%20Excel
%202019%20Fundamentals%20Manual.pdf

"Microsoft PowerPoint 2019 Fundamentals Manual." (n.d.). University of Pittsburgh

Technology Services. Retrieved from
https://www.technology.pitt.edu/sites/default/files/Microsoft%20Power
point%202019%20Fundamentals%20Manual.pdf

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 Chapter Eleven
11. Browsers, Search Engines and Online

Resources

Overview
This chapter provides sufficient knowledge about browsers, search engines, and
online resources. It sheds light on the definitions, types, and importance of the
applications in modern-day information retrieval systems, such as major concepts in
search engines and browsers and the importance of online resources. The chapter is
summarised, and selected exercises are provided for the readers.

Objectives
This chapter provides students with basic knowledge of browsers, search engines,
and online resources. Specifically, students should be able to:

a) Define browsers, search engines, and online resources.

b) Describe types of browsers and search engines
c) List the examples of search engines
d) Explain the formulation of typical queries for retrieving text documents using
BOOLEAN logic.
e) List the steps required to send and receive requests from the Internet
through the browser.
f) Illustrate the components of the search engine with a diagram
g) Explain the available online resources and their usefulness in society.

11.1 Importance of Online Resources

Online resources are digital tools or platforms (e.g., websites, mobile apps,
databases, online communities, search engines, and so on) that are available on the
Internet. These applications are developed to offer solutions to problems through a

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wide range of information and services in different areas of human lives, such as
education, government, healthcare, transportation, commerce, communication, and
so on. The resources are affordable and offer flexibility in learning, collaboration,
information sharing, and time management. Examples of online resources are social
media, online libraries, e-learning platforms, e-commerce, and so on.

The importance of online resources is summarised under different areas of

application as follows:

1. Research and learning: There are available online resources used for
research. Examples of online resources used for research, teaching, and
learning are online libraries, eLearning platforms, and online tools.

Online libraries: These are resources that offer access to a vast digital collection of
books, articles, journals, and other documents for reading and downloading by users.
The libraries are accessed through browsers or specific apps developed for the
libraries. These resources are accessed conveniently, making them an alternative to
traditional libraries in terms of the ability to read and listen to materials on various
mobile gadgets. Specific contents offered by the libraries include ebooks,
audiobooks, images, videos, multimedia, and scholarly articles. Services offered by
online libraries are summarized as follows:

a) Subscription: Some online libraries may require a subscription or

membership fee, while others are entirely free to use.
b) Search: Resources of various categories and collections in the libraries can be
accessed through queries submitted to the search engines via devices, such
as smartphones, tablets, and e-readers.
c) Recommendation: There are provisions for recommendation services based
on the profile and reading history or preferences of users.

Other services include the ability to highlight salient points on pages, take notes,
bookmark pages, and download materials for offline use.

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eLearning platforms: These are application software that provides educational
resources in the form of video lectures, interactive modules, quizzes, and
assignments, online courses, training programs, and educational resources for
learners of all ages and backgrounds, and so on. It offers a flexible and accessible
approach to learning and developing skills. Examples of eLearning platforms are
Moodle, Blackboards, Coursera, Udemy, Khan Academy, and more. Services offered
by online libraries are summarized as follows:

a. Online learning: Support for live virtual classrooms enhances online delivery
of educational content, where learners can interact with instructors and other
students in real time.
b. Remote access to online courses and educational content: eLearning
platforms utilize technology to deliver educational content, enabling learners
to access courses and materials remotely.
c. Development of new skills: It offers opportunities to students at all levels of
education, from nursery to higher education, as well as professionals seeking
to develop new skills or enhance existing ones. Also, it provides training to
employees or offers professional development opportunities to governments,
organizations, institutions and agencies.

Online tools: These are applications or web-based programs that provide various
functionalities and features to help users perform tasks, create content, and manage
projects through collaboration. These tools offer opportunities to create and
collaborate on documents, store and share files, and manage projects in real-time at
desired locations. Online tools are typically accessed through a browser without any
need for download or installation. They are highly customizable, allowing users to
tailor the application to specific needs and preferences. There are numerous types
of online tools available, including productivity tools, design tools, collaboration
tools, communication tools, and educational tools. Online tools offer several
benefits, such as accessibility, ease of use, and cost-effectiveness. Users can access
online tools from any device with internet connectivity via a browser. These

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convenient and flexible resources are available to a wide range of users at free or
low cost. However, online tools can also have limitations, such as limited
functionality, security concerns, and potential reliability issues. It's important for
users to choose online tools that meet their specific needs and requirements and to
take appropriate precautions to protect their data and privacy. Some examples of
online tools include Google Drive for document creation and sharing, Canva for
graphic design, Trello for project management, Slack for team communication, and
Khan Academy for online learning.

2. Communication and social networking: The online resource used to create,

share, and interact with the Web content and connect with other users is
social media.

Social media: This is an application that is designed to facilitate social networking and
communication. It allows users to share information, opinions, and experiences with
others to meet specific needs. Users can also interact with content by liking,
commenting, and sharing it with their network of friends and followers on issues
related to marketing, advertising, learning, banking, healthcare and more. These
interactions and other activities can extend the reach and engagements to the target
audience on a large scale, thereby expanding the business. However, social media
can also have negative effects on mental health, privacy, and personal relationships.
Examples of social media applications are Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn,
YouTube and more.

3. Commerce: Online marketplaces are facilitated applications that support

transactions between buyers and sellers on a commission or fee basis. An
example of an online resource for facilitating commerce is the eCommerce
platform.

eCommerce platform: This is an application used to access a large customer base and
a variety of marketing and advertising tools to promote products, sales, and services.
It is capable of processing fast and accurate transactions, including payments, as well
as performing price comparisons among different sellers. Also, product reviews and

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ratings from other buyers are readily available for buyers to make informed
purchasing decisions. Examples of eCommerce platforms are Jumia, Konga, JiJi,
Amazon, eBay, Etsy, Alibaba and more.

11.2 Types of Browsers

A browser (otherwise called a Web browser) is an application for accessing the Web.
It provides an interface for the Web user (i.e. client) to communicate with the
database (i.e. server). The browser initiates a HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
request to the server through the information provided by the client via Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). Examples of URLs are http://www.nuc.edu.ng,
http://www.uniuyo.edu.ng, http://cbn.org, and more. HTTP is the protocol for
transmitting data, and nuc.edu.ng is the domain name.

The following steps are defined for a web page to be displayed on a browser:

a) A browser initiates an HTTP request.

b) The destination server responds to the browser's request with required
information defining the content of the Web page, such as text, audio, and
video.
c) The response to the request ends a session.
d) Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) parser interprets the structure of the
page specified using tags.
e) HTML parse creates a Document Object Model (DOM) representation.
f) DOM is used to identify the components of the Web page

The functions of the browser include:

i) Provides the interface for users to send requests to the Web

ii) Rendering of markup codes for Web pages
iii) Delivers interactiveness in terms of full-motion videos and animations.
iv) Displays Web pages of unstructured data of documents.

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There are different types of web browsers available for use on the Web, such as:

Google Chrome: It is a cross-platform browser characterized by high speed,

simplicity, and wide usage and developed by Google.

Mozilla Firefox: It is characterized by privacy features and add-ons and developed by

Mozilla.

Microsoft Edge: It is a high-speed and secure browser developed by Microsoft and

pre-installed on Windows 10 devices.

Apple Safari: The browser is fast and compatible with Apple devices. Apple
developed it.

Opera: This browser has built-in Virtual Private Network (VPN) and ad blocker
features. Opera Software developed it.

Brave: The browser has privacy features and a reward program for users. It was
developed by Brave Software,

Vivaldi: The browser is known for its customization options and power user features.
Vivaldi Technologies developed it.

Konqueror: This browser is HTML 4.01 compliant and provides support for Java
Applets, JavaScript, CSS 1, CSS 2.1, as well as Netscape plugins.

Lynx: This browser is specifically developed for users on Unix, VMS, and other
platforms running cursor-addressable, character-cell terminals or emulators.

11.3 Types of Search Engines

A search engine is an application program that facilitates search and retrieval of
stored information from a database. To retrieve the content of web pages stored in
a large database, a request (i.e. query) is submitted to the search engine through the
user's interface. Query is a combination of terms using keywords and/or phrases (or
terms) that represent the attributes of the stored document. Query term(s) is used
by search engines to match against the indexed document in the database and
display a list of ranked results based on the order of relevance. Search engine

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comprises different components that work together to achieve the purpose of
retrieving relevant information (or feedback to users' queries) to meet the
information needs of its users. These components are the indexer, database, web
crawler and user interface. These components are illustrated in Figure 11.1.
Examples of Search engines are Google, Yahoo and more.

Crawler

INDEXER

Database
Indexes

Figure 11.1: Diagram showing different components of search engine

11.3.1 Components of Search Engine

1. User interface: The interface provides a platform for interaction between the
user and the database of indexed Web pages. It is implemented on Web
browsers, e.g. Chrome, Edge, Firefox and more.
2. Web crawler: This is an application that continuously searches, identifies and
collects information regarding new or Web pages with updated information
to be indexed. The Web pages are downloaded automatically from the seed
set, and links on the pages are extracted. This process continues recursively

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 using a set of predefined rules. A seed set is the starting set of URLs that
forms the input to the crawler.
3. Indexer is an application program that generates indexes for stored resources
on the Web.
4. Database provides storage for information on the Web pages, such as textual,
audio, video and multimedia.

11.3.2 Functions of Search Engine

1. Identification of Web information resources by crawling and submission of
pages.
2. Document indexing: Modified or new web pages are indexed using
information such as words on the Web page, the Web address (URL), parts
of the URL, links, metadata found in the "head" of the document, the URLs
of links on the page, image filenames, words in linked text and more. Also
the search system may also use attributes derived as language by analysis of
the document.
3. Retrieval and ranking of retrieved records in order of relevance: Records
retrieved as feedback to users' queries are often displayed in order of
relevance to the user information needs. The failure or success of ranking
algorithm determines the following: users' perception, users' continuous
usage and the commercial value of the search engine. Some of the factors to
be considered in the development of the algorithm for ranking search results
in order of relevance include:
a) Use of keywords in document titles, contents, headings,
subheadings and so on.

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 b) The number of external and internal links to the Web site indicates
its popularity.
c) Number of clickable text (hyperlinked or clickable text)
d) Quality of links leading out to other pages from the Web site.
4. Users' queries Interface: It provides the user of the search engine the
opportunity to interact with the Web using queries. The simplicity of a single
search box and menu-based interfaces appeal to less experienced users,
while the potential for using Boolean logic and "prefixes" (e.g., "title:")
appeals to developers of search engine programs.
5. Information filtering: Inappropriate or low-quality content (such as spam or
malware-infected pages) can be removed from the Internet by search
engines.
6. Personalization: Selected search engines can retrieve results based on the
users' profile, search history, and location, among other factors.

11.3.3 Formulation of Search Query

Queries are formulated with a view to improving the relevance of the retrieved
documents. There are various options to formulate or modify queries to meet the
information needs of users of the search engines. These options include Boolean
operators, phrase searching, title searching, language specification, and exact match
of URLs, links or titles.

Boolean operators: The operators include AND, OR, and NOT. The "AND" operator
suggests a particular group of terms mentioned in the query are present in the result.
For example, a query "student AND lecturer" indicates that all the retrieved
documents are acceptable if they contain "student" and "lecturer". The "OR"
operator signifies that any of the group of terms mentioned in the query is present
in the search result. For example, a query "student OR lecturer" signifies that all the
retrieved documents are acceptable if they contain any of "student" or "lecturer".

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"NOT" indicates that if a particular term is present, the item is rejected. Example:
"NOT student" indicates that any document with "student" in the content is rejected.

Phrase searching: It is one of the most useful ways of improving precision in

document retrieval from the Web by using quotation marks around the phrase.
Example: "School Teacher" (with quotation marks) retrieves only the Web pages
that contain the word "school" immediately in front of the word "teacher."

Title searching limits retrieval of Web pages to particular keywords or combinations

of words in the title of documents.

URL and domain searching retrieve Web pages with similar addresses. Examples of
URLs are www.nuc.edu.ng, www.ccbn.org,and more. Examples of domain names are
.com, .edu, .gov, .org and so on.

11.3.4 Categories of search engines

Search engines are considered to fall into one of the following four categories based
on their functions:

General Search Engines: These engines search for large portions of all pages that
exist on the Web on a wide range of topics. It matches the user's query with the
indexed content on the Web to provide relevant feedback to the users. Examples are
Google, Bing, Yahoo, GigaBlast, Ask, MSN Live, AOL, Exalead and more.

Speciality Search Engine: It focuses on searching the kind of information specific to

the user's niche, file type, or sources from a particular subject or geographic region.
This is a valuable tool for users whose information needs focus on specific problem
domains or industry. These are search engines specifically developed for; News,
commercial, medical travel, legal information and so on. Some examples are
Lexis/Nexis, Factiva, DIALOG, Technorati, IceRocket, Bloglines, Google Blog Search,
Podcastdirectory.com, Podcast.com, pip Search, Infobel, Yahoo People Search,
Intelius, PeopleFinders and more.

Visualization Search Engine: It performs the function of showing relationships in sets

of retrieved items, such as diagrams, images, or other "visuals". The search engine is
a valuable tool for users who need information in fields that involve complex visual

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data, such as science, engineering and design. There are different types of
visualization search engines, namely concept maps, image, video and 3D (three-
dimensional) search engines. Examples are Kartoo, TouchGraph, and Grokker, and
Quintura and more.

Metasearch Engine: It gathers together the search results on a specific topic from
multiple search engines simultaneously. It is useful for users who are interested in
multiple searches from multiple search engines so that results can be compared for
different search engines. Some examples of Metasearch engines are Dogpile,
MetaCrawler, DuckDuckGo, Clusty, Ixquick, and Mamma. Search.com and more.

11.3.5 Criteria for measurement of effectiveness of search engine

The following criteria can be used as measures to determine the effectiveness of the
performance of search engines.

Relevance: It measures the degree of similarity between results returned to the

user’s query and the actual query submitted by the user.

Speed: It measures the time lag between the submission of the query and the
expected results (or feedback) to the user.

Coverage: It measures the total number of websites and web pages indexed by the
search engine.

User interface: It measures user-friendliness, intuitiveness, ease of navigation and

ability to refine search queries and filter results effectively.

Personalization: This measures the ability to adapt search results to specific users'
information needs and preferences.

Security: It measures the level of privacy of users' data and protection from malicious
Web content.

Accessibility: This measures the level of accessibility to users with varied information
needs.

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Summary
This chapter presented a comprehensive overview of online resources, browsers,
and search engines. The definitions, functions, types and importance of these
software applications in modern-day information retrieval systems are explained in
the chapter. Also, an overview of concepts on search engine browsers and the
importance of online resources are discussed. The chapter is summarized, and
selected exercises are provided for the readers.

Exercises
1. Define a browser
2. List at least five examples.
3. List the functions of each of the following: (i) browser, (ii) search engine, (iii)
online resources.
4. Explain the types of each of the following: (i) browser, (ii) search engine.
5. Illustrate the components of a search engine with a diagram only.
6. Formulate a sample query using Boolean Logic.
7. Outline the criteria for evaluating search engines.
8. State the roles of online resources in (i) Education, (ii) Research, (iii) Commerce
9. Mention appropriate criteria for measuring the effectiveness of search
engines.
10. The output of searches obtained from search engines is otherwise called ------
-

References
Chang, Y., & Deng, H. (2021). Query Understanding for Search Engines (1st ed.).
Springer.

Croft, W., Metzler, D., & Strohman, T. (2009). Search Engines: Information Retrieval
in Practice (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley.

Goker, A., & Davies, J. (2009). Information Retrieval: Searching in the 21st Century
(1st ed.). Wiley.

Levene, M. (2010). An Introduction to Search Engines and Web Navigation (2nd

ed.). Pearson Education Canada.

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Patel, J. M. (2020). Getting Structured Data from the Internet: Running Web
Crawlers/Scrapers on a Big Data Production Scale (1st ed., pp. 3-12).
Apress.

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