Catalan numbers

June 15, 2019

1. Let hn denote the number of ways of dividing a convex polygonal region

with n + 1 sides into triangular regions by inserting diagonals that do not
intersect in the interior. Define h1 = 1. Then hn satisfies the recurrence
n−1
relation hn = h1 hn−1 + h2 hn−2 + · · · + hn−1 h1 =
P
hk hn−k n ≥ 2We
k=1
have defined h1 = 1, and we think of a line segment as a polygonal region
with two sides and no interior.
solution: We have h2 = 1, since a triangular region has no diagonals, and
it cannot be further subdivided. The recurrence relation holds for n = 2,
since h2 = h1 h1 = 1.Now let n ≥ 3.

Consider a convex polygonal region K with n+1 ≥ 4 sides. We distinguish

one side of K and call it the base. In each division of K into triangular
regions, the base is a side of one of the triangular regions T, and this
triangular region divides the remainder of K into a polygonal region K1
with k + 1 sides and a polygonal region K2 with n − k + 1 sides, for
somek = 1, 2, ..., n − 1. The further subdivision of K is accomplished by
dividingK1 and K2 into triangular regions by inserting diagonals of K1
and K2 , respectively, which do not intersect in the interior. Since K1 has
k + 1 sides, K1 can be divided into triangular regions in hk ways. Since

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K2 has n − k + 1 sides, K2 can be divided into triangular regions in hn−k
ways. Hence, for a particular choice of the triangular region T containing
the base, there are hk hn−k ways of dividing K into triangular regions by
diagonals that do not intersect in the interior. Hence, there is a total
n−1
of hn = h1 hn−1 + h2 hn−2 + · · · + hn−1 h1 =
P
hk hn−k − − − − − (1)
k=1
ways to divide K into triangular regions in this way. This establishes the
recurrence relation (1).
We now turn to the solution of (1) with the initial condition h1 = 1.
This recurrence relation is not linear. Moreover, hn does not depend
on a fixed number of values that come before it but on all the values
h1 , h2 , ..., hn−1 that come before it. Thus, none of our methods for solving
recurrence relations apply. Let be the generating function for the sequence
h1 , h2 , h3 , ..., hn , ... .
Multiplying g(x) by itself, we find that (g(x))2 = h21 x2 +(h1 h2 +h2 h1 )x3 +
(h1 h3 + h2 h2 + h3 h1 )x4 + ... + (h1 hn−1 + h2 hn−2 + ... + hn−1 h1 )xn + ....
Using (1) and the fact that h1 = h2 = 1, we obtain (g(x))2 = h21 x2 +h3 x3 +
h4 x4 + ... + hn xn + · · · = h2 x2 + h3 x3 + h4 x4 + ... + hn xn + · · · = g(x) − x.
Thus, g(x) satisfies the equation (g(x)2 − g(x) + x = 0.
This is a quadratic equation for g(x), so, by√ the quadratic formula,g(x) √
=
g1 (X) or g(x) = g2 (X), where g1 (X) = 1+ 21−4x andg2 (X) = 1− 21−4x .
From the definition of g(x), it follows that g(0)√= 0. Since g1 (0) = 1 and
1
g2 (0) = 0, we conclude that g(x) = g2 (X) = 1− 21−4x = 21 − 12 (1 − 4x) 2
1
The coefficient of xn (n ≥ 1) in (1 − 4x) 2 is
1 1
− 1)( 12 − 2) · · · ( 21 − n + 1)
1
2 (−4)n = 2(2
n n!

1 1 · 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 3)
= (−4)n ( )n (−1)n−1
2 n!

 
n (2n − 2)! n (2n − 2)! 2 (2n − 2)! 2 2(n − 1)
= −2 = −2 =− = −
n!2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n − 2) n!2n−1 (n − 1)! n (n − 1)!(n − 1)! n n−1
Thus
∞  
1 1 1 X 1 2n − 2
g(x) = − (1 − 4x) 2 = xn
2 2 n n−1
n=1

Thus  
1 2n − 2
hn =
n n−1

for n ≥ 1 This is the Catalan number.

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2. 2n points are chosen on a circle. In how many ways can you join pairs of
points by nonintersecting chords?
3. A "legal” sequence of parentheses is one in which the parentheses can be
properly matched, like ()(()) . It’s not hard to see that this is possible
precisely when the number of left and right parentheses is the same, and
every initial segment of the sequence has at least as many left parentheses
as right. For example, ()). . . cannot possibly be extended to a legal
sequence. Show that the number of legal sequences of length 2n is Cn =
2n 2n
. The numbers Cn are called the Catalan numbers.



n − n+1

4. The number of sequences < an > of 2n terms that can be formed by using
exactly n (1)s and exactly n (−1)s whose partial sums are always positive:

a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ≥ 0∀k1, 2, · · ·, 2n

equals the nth Catalan number

 
1 2n
Cn =
n+1 n

Solution: We call a sequence < an > of n (1)s and n (−1)s acceptable

if it satisfies and unacceptable otherwise. Let An denote the number of
acceptable sequences of n (1)s and exactly n (−1)s, and let Un denote the
number of unacceptable sequences. The total number of sequences of n
(1)s and n (−1)s is  
2n
An + U n =
n
and we evaluate An by first evaluating U n and then subtracting from 2n n .

Consider an unacceptable sequence. Because the sequence is unacceptable,

there is a first k such that the partial sum a1 + a2 + · · · + ak < 0. Because
k is first, there are equal numbers of + Is and - I s preceding ak. Hence
we have
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak−1 = 0, ak−1 = −1
In particular, k is an odd integer. We now reverse the signs of each of the
first k terms; that is, we replace ai by bi = −ai for each i = 1, 2, ..., k and
leave unchanged the remaining terms. The resulting sequence

b1 , b2 , · · ·, bk−1 , ak , ak+1 , · · ·, a2n

is a sequence of (n + 1)(+1)s and (n − 1)(−1)s. This process is reversible:

Given a sequence of (n+1)(+1)s and (n−1)(−1)s. there is a first instance
when the number of (+1) s exceeds the number of (-1)s (since there are
more (+ 1)’s than (-1)s). Reversing the signs of the (+1)s and (−1)s.
up to that point results in an unacceptable sequence of (n)(+1)s and
(n)(−1)s.. Thus, there are as many unacceptable sequences as there are

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 sequences of (n + 1)(+1)s and (n − 1)(−1)s. The number of sequences of
(n + 1)(+1)s and (n − 1)(−1)s. is the number
 
(2n)! 2n
Un = =
(n + 1)!(n − 1)! n−1

of permutations of objects of two types, with n + 1 objects of one type

and n - 1 of the other. Hence,

(2n)! (2n)! (2n)!

An = − = (n + 1 − n)
n!n! (n + 1)!(n − 1)! (n + 1)!(n)!
 
(2n)! 1 (2n)! 1 2n
An = = =
(n + 1)!(n)! (n + 1) (n)!(n)! (n + 1) n
     
2n 2n 1 2n
An = − =
n n−1 (n + 1) n

5. There are 2n people in line to get into a theater. Admission is 50 cents. Of

the 2n people, n have a 50-cent piece and n have a $1 dollar bill.4 The box
office at the theater rather foolishly begins with an empty cash register.
In how many ways can the people line up so that whenever a person with
a $1 dollar bill buys a ticket, the box office has a 50-cent piece in order to
make change? (After everyone is admitted, there will be n $1 dollar bills
in the cash register.)
6. A big city lawyer works n blocks north and n blocks east of her place of
residence. Every day she walks 2n blocks to work. (See the map below
for n = 4.) How many routes are possible if she never crosses (but may
touch) the diagonal line from home to office?

OR
Cn is the number of monotonic lattice paths along the edges of a grid
with n × n square cells, which do not pass above the diagonal. A mono-
tonic path is one which starts in the lower left corner, finishes in the upper
right corner, and consists entirely of edges pointing rightwards or upwards.
Counting such paths is equivalent to counting Dyck words: X stands for

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 "move right" and Y stands for "move up". The following diagrams show
the case n = 4:

7. n is the number of ways to tile a stairstep shape of height n with n rect-

angles. The following figure illustrates the case n = 4:

8. Cn is the number of ways to form a "mountain range" with n upstrokes

and n downstrokes that all stay above a horizontal line. The mountain
range interpretation is that the mountains will never go below the horizon.

9. In chemical engineering Cn−1 is the number of possible separation se-

quences which can separate a mixture of n components.