SQL Queries and Their Uses
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
CREATE TABLE - Creates a new table
Example:
CREATE TABLE Student (
ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(50),
Age INT
);
ALTER TABLE - Modifies an existing table
Example:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Email VARCHAR(100);
DROP TABLE - Deletes a table completely
Example:
DROP TABLE Student;
TRUNCATE TABLE - Deletes all data from a table
Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
SELECT - Retrieves data
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student;
INSERT INTO - Adds new data
Example:
INSERT INTO Student (ID, Name, Age) VALUES (1, 'Ali', 22);
SQL Queries and Their Uses
UPDATE - Modifies existing data
Example:
UPDATE Student SET Age = 23 WHERE ID = 1;
DELETE - Removes data
Example:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE ID = 1;
3. Data Control Language (DCL)
GRANT - Gives access
Example:
GRANT SELECT ON Student TO user123;
REVOKE - Removes access
Example:
REVOKE SELECT ON Student FROM user123;
4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
COMMIT - Saves changes
Example:
COMMIT;
ROLLBACK - Undoes changes
Example:
ROLLBACK;
SAVEPOINT - Sets a checkpoint
Example:
SAVEPOINT sp1;
SQL Queries and Their Uses
SET TRANSACTION - Sets transaction properties
Example:
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE;
5. Clauses in SELECT Queries
WHERE - Filters results
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age > 20;
ORDER BY - Sorts results
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student ORDER BY Name;
GROUP BY - Groups records
Example:
SELECT Age, COUNT(*) FROM Student GROUP BY Age;
HAVING - Filters groups
Example:
SELECT Age, COUNT(*) FROM Student GROUP BY Age HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;
DISTINCT - Removes duplicates
Example:
SELECT DISTINCT Name FROM Student;
LIMIT - Limits number of rows
Example (MySQL):
SELECT * FROM Student LIMIT 5;
6. Joins
SQL Queries and Their Uses
INNER JOIN - Matches in both tables
Example:
SELECT s.Name, r.Date FROM Student s
JOIN Reserves r ON s.ID = r.S_Id;
LEFT JOIN - All from left + matches from right
Example:
SELECT s.Name, r.Date FROM Student s
LEFT JOIN Reserves r ON s.ID = r.S_Id;
RIGHT JOIN - All from right + matches from left
Example:
SELECT s.Name, r.Date FROM Student s
RIGHT JOIN Reserves r ON s.ID = r.S_Id;
FULL OUTER JOIN - Combines both sides
Example (PostgreSQL):
SELECT s.Name, r.Date FROM Student s
FULL OUTER JOIN Reserves r ON s.ID = r.S_Id;
7. Constraints
PRIMARY KEY - Unique row identifier
Example:
ID INT PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY - Link tables
Example:
FOREIGN KEY (S_Id) REFERENCES Student(ID)
NOT NULL - No null allowed
SQL Queries and Their Uses
Example:
Name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL
UNIQUE - No duplicates
Example:
Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE
CHECK - Condition-based validation
Example:
Age INT CHECK (Age >= 18)
DEFAULT - Auto value if none provided
Example:
Status VARCHAR(10) DEFAULT 'Active'
8. Advanced SQL Features
SUBQUERIES - Nested queries
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age > (SELECT AVG(Age) FROM Student);
VIEWS - Virtual tables
Example:
CREATE VIEW SeniorStudents AS SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age >= 22;
INDEXES - Faster search
Example:
CREATE INDEX idx_name ON Student(Name);
TRIGGERS - Auto actions
Example:
SQL Queries and Their Uses
CREATE TRIGGER age_check BEFORE INSERT ON Student
FOR EACH ROW BEGIN
IF NEW.Age < 0 THEN
SIGNAL SQLSTATE '45000' SET MESSAGE_TEXT = 'Age cannot be negative';
END IF;
END;
STORED PROCEDURES - Predefined tasks
Example:
CREATE PROCEDURE GetStudents()
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM Student;
END;
FUNCTIONS - Return values
Example:
CREATE FUNCTION getAgeCategory(age INT)
RETURNS VARCHAR(10)
RETURN CASE WHEN age >= 18 THEN 'Adult' ELSE 'Minor' END;
