1.

1 Introduction, Objectives, Functions, Evolution

1. What is an operating system?

➤ An OS is a system software that manages hardware and software resources and
provides services for computer programs.

2. Mention two main objectives of an OS.

➤ To make the computer system convenient to use and to use resources efficiently.

3. List any three key functions of an OS.

➤ Process management, memory management, file system management.

4. What are batch systems?

➤ Batch systems execute batches of jobs without user interaction during processing.

5. Difference between multiprogramming and multitasking?

➤ Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization; multitasking allows users to perform
multiple tasks simultaneously.

6. How does the OS act as an interface?

➤ It provides a user interface and manages communication between hardware and user
applications.

7. What are real-time OS?

➤ RTOS respond to inputs within a guaranteed time; used in critical systems like robotics
or medical devices.

8. How has the OS evolved?

➤ Evolved from batch → multiprogramming → multitasking → GUI-based OS → modern
distributed & mobile OS.

📘 1.2 OS Structures

9. What is meant by OS structure?

➤ The organization of the OS code into layers/modules for better maintainability and
performance.

10. What is a layered OS structure?

➤ It organizes the OS in layers, each built on top of lower ones, like the OSI model.

11. One advantage/disadvantage of layered OS?

➤ Advantage: Modularity; Disadvantage: Slower due to layer-by-layer access.

12. What is a monolithic kernel?

➤ An OS with all services in one large block of code running in kernel mode.
13. What is a microkernel?
➤ An OS with only essential core functions in the kernel; rest runs in user space.

14. Compare monolithic and microkernel.

Feature Monolithic Kernel Microkernel

Size Large Small

Modules All in kernel space Only essentials

15. Performance issues in microkernels?

➤ More context switches and inter-process communication reduce performance.

16. Why is modularity important in OS?

➤ For easier debugging, upgrades, and maintenance.

📘 1.3 Linux Kernel, Shell, System Calls

17. What is the Linux kernel?

➤ It is the core part of the Linux OS managing hardware and system processes.

18. Responsibilities of the Linux kernel?

➤ Process control, memory management, device management, and system calls.

19. What is a shell in Linux?

➤ It is a command-line interface that interprets user commands.

20. Difference between shell and kernel?

➤ Shell is user interface; kernel interacts directly with hardware.

21. Define system call.

➤ It is a programmatic way to request a service from the OS kernel.

22. What happens during a system call?

➤ Control is transferred from user to kernel mode to perform operations.

23. Categories of system calls?

➤ Process control, file manipulation, device management, info maintenance.

24. Tricky: Can a shell access hardware directly?

➤ No, shell interacts with kernel which then accesses hardware.

🟨 UNIT 2: Process and Scheduling

 📘 2.1 Process, PCB

25. What is a process?

➤ A process is an instance of a running program.

26. Program vs Process?

➤ Program is passive code; process is the execution of that code.

27. List process states.

➤ New, Ready, Running, Waiting, Terminated.

28. What is a PCB?

➤ It stores process-specific information like PID, registers, state.

29. What info is stored in PCB?

➤ Process ID, state, CPU registers, memory limits, I/O status.

30. What is context switching?

➤ Saving the state of one process and loading the state of another.

31. What causes context switching?

➤ Time slice expiration, I/O request, priority changes.

📘 2.2 Scheduling

32. Define CPU scheduling.

➤ Choosing which process runs on CPU at a given time.

33. Preemptive vs Non-preemptive scheduling?

Type Can Interrupt? Example

Preemptive Yes RR, SRTN

Non-preemptive No FCFS, SJF

34. Explain FCFS.

➤ First come, first served – jobs are scheduled in arrival order.

35. Explain SJF.

➤ Shortest Job First – process with the least execution time runs first.

36. What is SRTN?

➤ Shortest Remaining Time Next – preemptive version of SJF.

37. What is priority scheduling?

➤ Processes are scheduled based on assigned priority values.
38. What is starvation?
➤ When a low-priority process never gets CPU time.

39. What is Round Robin?

➤ Each process gets a fixed time quantum in cyclic order.

40. Advantages of RR?

➤ Fair, good for time-sharing systems.

41. Effect of time quantum in RR?

➤ Small quantum increases context switches; large quantum resembles FCFS.

📘 2.3 Threads and Multithreading

42. What is a thread?

➤ A lightweight process; a unit of CPU execution inside a process.

43. Threads vs Processes?

➤ Threads share memory space; processes are isolated.

44. Types of threads?

➤ User-level and kernel-level threads.

45. Advantages of multithreading?

➤ Improved performance, resource sharing, responsiveness.

46. Challenges of multithreading?

➤ Synchronization, deadlocks, race conditions.

47. Tricky: Can multithreading occur on one core?

➤ Yes, using time-slicing by the OS.

🟦 UNIT 3: Synchronization and Deadlocks

📘 3.1 Concurrency, IPC

48. What is concurrency?

➤ Multiple processes running at the same time, possibly interleaved.
49. Why synchronization is needed?
➤ To avoid race conditions and ensure consistency in shared data.

50. What is IPC?

➤ A mechanism to allow processes to communicate and synchronize.

51. IPC methods?

➤ Shared memory and message passing.

52. Shared memory IPC?

➤ Processes access common memory space for communication.

53. Race condition example?

➤ Two processes updating the same counter variable without sync.

54. What are critical sections?

➤ Code segment where shared resources are accessed.

55. How to handle critical sections?

➤ Using synchronization tools like semaphores, mutex, monitors.

📘 3.2 Mutual Exclusion and Semaphores

56. What is mutual exclusion?

➤ Only one process can access a resource at a time.

57. Requirements of mutual exclusion?

➤ Mutual Exclusion, Progress, Bounded Waiting.

58. What is TSL?

➤ Test and Set Lock – hardware instruction for implementing locks.

59. What is a semaphore?

➤ A variable used for signaling, accessed via wait() and signal().

60. Types of semaphore?

➤ Binary and Counting.

61. Binary vs Counting semaphore?

➤ Binary = 0/1; Counting can have any integer value.

62. Producer-consumer using semaphore?

➤ Use empty, full, mutex semaphores to coordinate production and consumption.

63. Tricky: Are semaphores enough for all synchronization?

➤ Yes, but they can be complex and error-prone.
 📘 3.3 Deadlocks

64. What is deadlock?

➤ A state where processes are stuck waiting for each other’s resources.

65. Four conditions of deadlock?

➤ Mutual exclusion, Hold and wait, No preemption, Circular wait.

66. What is a Resource Allocation Graph?

➤ A visual way to detect circular waits and possible deadlocks.

67. What is deadlock prevention?

➤ Eliminating one of the four conditions.

68. Two techniques of prevention?

➤ Request all resources at once, use resource ordering.

69. What is deadlock avoidance?

➤ The system checks resource requests before granting, e.g., Banker’s.

70. What is Banker’s Algorithm?

➤ It ensures that resources are allocated only if it keeps the system in a safe state.

71. Safe state meaning?

➤ There exists at least one safe sequence for all processes.

72. What is deadlock detection and recovery?

➤ System detects cycles and recovers by killing or rolling back processes.

73. Dining philosopher problem?

➤ Philosophers need two forks; deadlock occurs if all pick up one and wait.

74. Deadlock solution for dining philosophers?

➤ Use semaphore or resource ordering; allow only (n-1) to sit.