Introduction: Language is the divine gift of God. Language is an essential part of human life.

It is the
language which distinguishes human beings from animals. Every language is the pride of the people who
use it. Only for language, man is called as a talking animal. Without a language, human society is totally
unthinkable. It is the only means of communication of thought and ideas either in speech or writing. It is
also the life and blood of our culture. Through language, a person can win the heart of others. It also
helps a person in the development of his personality. After all man is man through language alone.

Meaning of language: Etymologically the term “Language” has been derived from the Latin word
“lingua” which implies tongue. French word “langua” and “parole” is also related to language. Langua is
a specific form of speech which is conventional and belongs to a particular community. For example -: In
India we have language like Punjabi, Oriya, and Bengali…..etc.

A language is means or vehicles for communicating ideas, thoughts, feelings, experiences and
emotions. Language consists of letters / alphabets, words, idioms, and syntax and it is through language
that we learn to think, feel, imagine, judge and express. Language is one of the most important forms of
human behavior, which every one shows from birth to death. Language is verbal as well as non-verbal.
Verbal language is used for expressing ideas and experiences, where non-verbal language is used for
giving direction.

Definition of language

“Language is a means of communicating thoughts”

“Language is a means of social control”

“Language is a social activity rather than a means of individual self expression”

: By Allen

“Language is the instruction whereby human communicate and interact each other by means of
habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbol”

: By R.A. Hall (1964 )

“Ideas and feelings are the realizations but when these are revealed through mouth is known as
language”

: By Plato
“Language reveals ideas and feelings through meaningful sound of words”

: By Sweet

Characteristics of Language: On the account of the above definition, the characteristics of the language
are as given below:

● Language is not inborn rather it can earn and learn.

● Language is acquired by the people from the people or society.

● Language is based on social control and environment.

● Language is conventional, traditional, and a result of evolution.

● Language is dynamic in character.

● Language is not complete in its form.

● Language is universality in character.

● Language is unique.

● Language goes from simple to complex and from synthesis to analysis.

● Language is verbal and non-verbal.

● No two language are alike as they grow in different cultural background.

● Language is a vehicle for communicating our ideas.

● Language is a God given gift.

● Language is primarily a speech.

● Language is science where literature is an art.

● Language is a skill because it required maximum practice.

● Language is for communication.

● Language is oral and written.

● The system of language is arbitrary.

● Language is the property of the people and the society.

Kinds of Language: On the basis of Historical, Cultural, Geographical, Experimental and Originator of
language, it may be classified in the following categories- :

1. Sub- Dialect, Local Dialect or regional language: It is not at the level of literary language. The
differences between language and dialect are like the difference of mountain and hill.

2. Code Language: It is secreting language. The meaning of this language is only confined within the
encoder and decoder, the speaker and the listener. It is not open to all.

3. Mixed Language: Combination of so many language and dialects. As per example- the language used
by the people of Palwal, Haryana. Their language is considered as a mixed language because their
spoken language is affected by the people of Rajasthan, Haryana, and Utter Pradesh.

4. Commercial Language: The language which is used or varied from profession to profession is called as
a professional or commercial language.

5. Mother Language: When the child born, he does not know any language. He first learns language
from his parents by imitation which is called as mother language or first language.

6. Foreign Language: When a language migrated from one country to another country is called foreign
language. As per example English is consider as a foreign language for the Indian peoples.

7. International Language: The language which is used by all the people in the world is called as an
international language. English is a language which is used in all over the world, so for that it is consider
as international language.

8. Ideal Language: It is a literary language.

Branches/Parts of Language: There are five main parts of the language which are discussed in the
followings-:

symbol is a representation of certain things. The symbolic language will function well if its symbol is
known to both the speaker and the listener. Symbols are used while crossing the roads, while road signal
stands for- STOP and green signal stands for- GO.

1.The system of language is arbitrary: Here arbitrary symbol means there is no visual relationship
between the language and the object it stands for. As per example in English the word “ BOOK “stands
for a set of printed pages bound together in a cover, but in Hindi, it is called “ PUSTAK “ or “ KITAB “ In
Urdu. There is no logical or scientific explanation why we call these words so. We call it these so because
it has been called so from earlier times.

2.Language is symbol and vocal: Different visual and auditory symbols are used in language, as per
example ---: Gesture, color is visual symbols and beating a drum, ringing of bells are auditory symbols.
The Language is vocal because it produced by tongue. Language primarily is a speech; writing is the
graphical representation of speech.

3. Language is unique: No two languages are alike in this world. They differ from each other in words,
sounds, and structures. The grammar which is true for Latin may not be true for French.

4.Language is a skill subject: Language is a skill subject because it required a lot of practice in speaking,
reading and writing of the language. As it is a skill, without practice learning of language is impossible.

5.Language is for communication: All language are used for the purpose of communication. A language
is a means by which a person expresses his thoughts and feelings to others. Without language
communication is impossible.

6.Language is related to culture: Language is the product of culture from which it belongs. Therefore
there no equally exact words in any two languages. In short, languages are different because cultures
are different. As per example -: The name of “ARISTOTLE” is also spelt in Hindi as “ARASTU”.

7. Language is not static: We live in a changing world. We cannot possible think in terms of static state of
affairs in language or anything else. In the 20th century, the change in the vocabulary of science and
technology is an outstanding example of change in the language. For example in 16th century the letter
K was sounded in the words – Know, Knife, Knowledge but now it is not sounded in the above said
words.

8.Language is habit formation: Language is essentially a habit forming process. This process is made up
of habits and one requires continuous practice in the use of language.

9.Language is historical: Every language has a own legacy. The traditional develop at social level,
language is acquired. Man takes the impression of language from society. Every rich language has its
history. Slowly and steadily, the language takes its form.

10.Language is a powerful tool: No doubt language is very powerful tool for human civilization.

Court to the local district court all cases are presented and judgments are given in English.

1. English is a language of trade, Commerce, and Industry: All kind of work like maintenance of accounts
and correspondence in the field of trade, Commerce, and industry is carried out in English. Efficiency and
success in these fields depend upon an adequate knowledge of English.

2. English is social life: English is playing an important role in our social life. Sophisticated and educated
section of the society feels more comfortable and convenient for communicating in English. Many words
like Rail, Public, Engineer, and Mobile have been a permanent part of vocabulary of Hindi.

3. Importance in Science and Technology: English is useful for Indians in multiple ways. It is very
useful to study science. All technical knowledge is in English. Science subject cannot be gained well
without English. Without English a Doctor and an Engineer cannot have latest information and
knowledge of new technologies.

4. Cultural importance: English is a language which promotes universal brotherhood, friendship and
tolerance. Only through English language we are able to keep the different cultural groups of India
united. In fact, English has helped us in building new cultural traditions. It has also resulted in the
process of modernization of Indian society.

5. English is a international language: English is only one language which spread in all over the world.
It is the first language in UK. USA, CANADA and AUSTRALIA and the second language in India. Africa,
Russia, France, Pakistan etc. It promotes better understanding and sympathy among different nations of
the world.

* English is important for national integration.

* English is for International understanding.

* English is the language of Journalism.

* Understanding the western way of life.

* English is being a education also.

* English plays a vital role in politics

Functions of English Language: Language is the foremost requirement of man, which plays a vital role in
the field of human beings. The use of language makes our life easier and better. God has bestowed us
with sense and the language is only the means which helps us for expressing our senses. Apart from the
role and nature of a language in the experience of individual and community, language has many
functions. Language is a means of expression and the process of communication. No language, no
communication will take place. Animals other than man also communicate with one another. They
stimulate one another to action by means of cries. Most of the animals utter cries that are expressive of
fear, pleasure, anger, revenge etc. The ways of communication are certainly different than man because
the man alone who uses language for communication. Language also helps in developing our skills of
reading, writing, speaking and listening. There are some important functions which are explained
below….

1. Expressive Function: The mind of human beings is filled up with some feelings, emotions, thoughts,
ideas, which he wants to share or express with somebody. Thus, language is only the means which helps
him in the process of expression. It also brings and develops mutual understanding by expression. By
expressing, a person can become a good orator, a good poet and writer. Only through language, a
teacher can able to express or to impart knowledge to the student to have a desirable change in the
behavior of the students.
2. Informative Function: Without language a person can never passing information to anybody.
Language helps an individual in giving information to others. In the classroom a teacher is considered as
a informer. It seems to be a difficult task of passing information to the students without language. Thus,
language helps to do so effectively and efficiently and to do his duty properly. Thus language has an
informative function at all.

Directive Function: This is also one of the major functions of the language is Stimulus-Response function.
As every response demands stimulus, more the stimulus results in more response. In classroom---:
teacher, In examination hall---: Superintendent, On the way---: Traffic Police, they use language for
giving direction. Thus the function of language is directive also.

3. Interactive Function: Language is not the one way communication rather it has both way
communication which is known as interaction. Interaction process is the means of development. The
seminars, conferences, group discussions, interview, meetings etc are organized for interaction on
certain issues and problems. Similarly a teacher in his class always interacts with students for their
development.

4. Communicative Function: As we have already say that the language is the means of communication
which do the work of a vehicle to transfer thoughts, ideas, feelings, emotions etc from one to another in
oral or written form. Daily news paper, T.V, Journals, Magazines, Letters, Telegrams, Tele fax which are
meant for communication of events in speech or written form. So language has a significant function of
communication.

5. Preservative Function: language is born for human beings. Language is preservative by nature as
an individual can preserve his knowledge, experiences, observations, findings, ideas etc in written form.
Thus this written or stored knowledge which can be used by the coming generation. As per example--:
We come to know the detail history of M.K Gandhi from his biography.

6. Evolutionary Function: The advancement of country depends on its economic, social and
technological development. The evolution of the country is governed by its National language. An
advancement of a country is basically depends on its language development. As English is an
international language and window to the world, which contributed in the evolution of the world.

Linguistic Principles of Language: Learning a foreign language is a difficult task as it requires special part
on the part of the learner as well as the teacher. Therefore, language teaching should be based on some
sound principles that serve as a guide to the teachers in directing learners towards the attainment of
educational goals and objectives. Various principles of teaching have been formulated which is based on
the psychological, Linguistic and pedagogical principles. These principles of teaching help the teacher in
teaching foreign language in a successful manner. In India English is taught both as a second language
and as a foreign language. It also occupies as a vital role in the field of education. So, it is necessary for
the Indian students that they should not only understand English when it is spoken or written but also
be able to speak and write it. Therefore a sound knowledge of the linguistic principles of teaching
English language is needed. “A mother tongue is caught not taught, a foreign language is taught to be
caught.” In general, linguistic principles are the combination of two wards, which is linguistic and
principles. According to Advance Learners Dictionary “the word linguistic principles which is related to
the language and the word principles means basic general truth that is foundation of something. Thus
linguistic principles which gives us insights about the language and helps us to use of these insights in
language teaching. There are many principles which are found to be of immense help for the English
Teacher which are given in the followings-:

* Principles of Habit Formation: H.E Palmer says “Language Learning is essentially a habit forming
process during which we acquire new habits” . Language Learning is a habit forming process in which we
develop speech habits. Habits are formed through repetition. Therefore, continuous drill work and
practice are needed for it. For the development of four skills such as -: Reading, Writing, Speaking and
listening is depends upon continuous practice. Therefore the teacher must give adequate drill and
practice to the students because as we know that “Practice makes a man perfect”. The English Teacher
should therefore make a conscious effort to drill the following habits in the students.

Listen carefully to the sounds of English words.

§ To speak and read with correct intonation pattern.

§ To read newspaper, magazines, books and journals

§ To write in good handwriting.

§ To spell correctly.

§ To use correct grammatical structure during conversation.

§ To develop the habit of consulting library

§ To consult Dictionary, Encyclopedia and other reference materials.

* Principles of Naturalness: A child learns mother tongue in a natural environment created by the
family members and the neighborhoods. Right from the birth the child listen to his family members and
other members of the society, but it is not the case with the second language. He suddenly encounters
the second language in the school. Therefore, a teacher should try to create a natural environment for
the second language in the classroom by encouraging the use of second language. According to
JESPERSON, “The very first lesson in a foreign language ought to be devoted to initiating the pupils into
the world of sounds”. Therefore it should be spoken in family and neighborhoods right from the birth of
the child.
* Principles of Imitation: Imitation is natural to man right from the birth of the child. Robert Paul
says, “When we learn first language we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech,
when we learn a second language, we tend to filter the universe through the language already known”.
Language can be best learnt through imitation. For the purpose of imitation the teacher should also
provide good models of reading and writing and also a teacher can also seek the help of audio-aids for
the purpose of effective teaching of foreign language.

Principles of Imitation: Imitation is natural to man right from the birth of the child. Robert Paul says,
“When we learn first language we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech, when we
learn a second language, we tend to filter the universe through the language already known”. Language
can be best learnt through imitation. For the purpose of imitation the teacher should also provide good
models of reading and writing and also a teacher can also seek the help of audio-aids for the purpose of
effective teaching of foreign language.

* Principles of Motivation: “You can lead a horse to water but you can’t make him drink” Motivation
is the key of all success. Therefore for learning a foreign language, a teacher has to make the teaching
environment lively and interesting rather dull and boring and he should deals with the situation in such a
way that the learner should become interested in the subject matter. A teacher should remove the
feelings of necessary evils among the students.

* Principles of Mother Tongue: The mother tongue is always learnt easily because there is a natural
atmosphere for learning it. With the help of mother tongue we can also teach a foreign language easily.
This is also considering as a best method for learning English in India, which is known as Bi-lingual
method.

* Principles of Oral approach: Listening and speaking is the basic skills of a language. Teach listening
and speaking first rather reading and writing. So, in the teaching of English language, a learner should
maximum connected with ears and tongue than with eyes. Therefore the English teacher should provide
more situations for students to talk or speak rather than passive listener. So, in teaching English oral
work should be given top priority.

* Principles of Selection and Gradation: No one can learn the whole language at a time. Learning
language is a difficult task for beginners. In teaching English, one of the important task should be taken
into consideration that how much language are we going to teach the students and in what order. For
this purpose selection and gradation of the material is done. To ensure easy learning, selection and
gradation of basic sentence structure and vocabulary is essential which is based on the principles of
simplicity, usability and productivity.

Principles of linking with life: The principle of linking with life is very important from the psychological
point of view. Ryburn has rightly said, “Life is a continuous experience. Everything we do is linked up
with what has gone before and with what comes afterwards”. Learning becomes permanent when it is
correlated with daily life experience. Hence an English teacher should teach language structure by
relating it to life, customs and traditions of the child society. In this way teaching will be more effective
and meaningful.

* Principles of Purpose: Learning is purposive. Any work is done it is purposeful. Even a child when
shucking his thumb, his purpose is to satisfy his hungry. Similarly, language is best acquired when it has
commercial, social, scientific, academic or literacy purpose. An English teacher should clearly specify the
purpose and utility of studying English in the initial stage so that the students are aware of their aim.

* Principles of learning by doing: This principle is known as activity principles. The vital focus of
language teaching is to develop the four skills - : Reading, writing, speaking and listening. For learning of
any skills and various aspects of language learning such as words, phrases, sentences, idioms and
grammar need actual doing. Therefore practice and drill is essential in language teaching. Model
reading, imitation reading, silent reading, writing and spelling are the essential activities for teaching
language.

Principles of multiple lines of approach: In the Teaching of foreign Language the multiple line of
approach is of unique importance. It should be followed as it helps the learners and the teachers in
many ways. As per example -: suppose we are going to teach about Present Simple Tense. First of all
there should be the practice of oral work. Then the pupil may be asked for writing practice, translation
and exercise etc. With the help of different approaches, a teacher can able to make his teaching
effective.

* Principles of balanced approach: During the time of language teaching, a teacher has to focus
equally on the different aspects of language in order to develop a harmonious teaching learning
environment. There should be proper coordination in teaching different aspects of foreign language. In
teaching a prose lesson, grammar aspects may be discussed side by side. While doing writing
composition, oral aspects should be covered. At the same time the teacher is also equally emphasized
on the skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing. By correlating different aspects and skills, the
teacher can make his teaching easy, interesting and effective.

* Principles of Concreteness: This principle is based on the maxim of “to proceed from concrete to
abstract”. The mental development of the pupil begins with concrete objects. Hence the teacher should
proceed by presenting object before words. As per example while teaching adjectives the teacher
should use the sentences like -: the blackboard is black, Rohit is tall etc. By presenting concrete
examples and objects before students, a teacher can able to draw the attention of the students easily.

* Principles of Accuracy: The principles of accuracy and correctness should be followed by the teacher
because it is very important in language learning. There is less chance of acquiring wrong habits while
acquiring mother tongue but this is not the case with second language. Therefore a teacher should
himself be accurate in his pronunciation, stress, intonation, spelling structure and expression. The words
with similar sound like‘s’ and ‘sh’ should be distinguished. Pupils should be given enough drill exercise,
so that they may develop the habit of accuracy from the beginning.

* Principles of maxims of Teaching: The Oxford Dictionary defines “Maxims” as a general truth drawn
from science of experiences. The maxims are universal and trust worthy. The knowledge of different
maxims helps the teacher to proceed systematically. Some maxims of teaching English are as noted
below -:

(A maxim is a short statement that expresses a general truth or rule of conduct, if you have knowledge
ha different maxims makatabang yadtu ha development sin teacher iban makahinduh siya marayaw)

From known to unknown.

§ From simple to complex.

§ From concrete to abstract.

§ From induction to deduction.

§ From psychological to logical.

§ From whole to part.

§ From near to far.

§ From definite to indefinite.

§ From analysis to synthesis.

§ From empirical to rational.]

§ From actual to representation.

* Principles of Individual Differences: This principle means that the individual difference of the pupils
should be taking into consideration. Psychological researches have proved that two individual is not
alike in this world. Hence each pupil is differing from each other. In order to develop all the pupils and to
get equal opportunities, the teacher should impart proper guidance to the talented pupils and sympathy
to the backward pupils. The teacher should maximize the development of all the pupils on the basis of
individual differences.

(Human is unique we have a different characteristics, ability, talent and strength natuh, as a teacher we
should treat our students in equal kasi ha class room yan aun talented aun slow learner and fast learner
misan biyadtu subay parin same treatment in hidihil mo kanila, in principles in pwede siya ha business,
exercise and teaching)
* Principles of Division: This principle says that the subject matter should be divided into small units
for presenting it in certain order. The division of the content should be followed by the presentation in
such a manner that each unit should be seem to be complete in itself. One unit should create curiosity
for other unit. This process make easy to teach and easy to learn also.

(Biyah siya thesis subay siya arrange bang hawno tuod siya hibutang in hambuok subject yadtu iban
subay complete in hambuok chapter yadtu)

* Principles of Reinforcement: Reinforcement is concerned with making the learning process

effective. In learning process, reinforcement means -: utilization of presentation or removal of such
stimuli, so that the possibilities of response is increase. As per example, If a teacher gives some reward
to the pupils for correct answer, it increases the possibilities of the similar behavior from the pupils.

(Magfucos siya ha learning process,)