Mastering PLC Programming Ebook N ria eC A COMPLETE GUIDE OF INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION THE ENGINEERS GROUPLl PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS... TODO LIST 21 INTRODUCTION 211 Ladder Logic 212 Programming 2.13 PLC Connections 2.14 Ladder Logic Inputs 2.15 Ladder Logic Outputs 22 ACASE STUDY 23 SUMMARY 24 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 25 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 26 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS PLC HARDWARE. 31 INTRODUCTION 32 INPUTS AND OUTPUTS 3.2.1 Inputs 3.2.2 Output Modules 33 RELAYS 3.4 ACASE STUDY 35 ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAMS 3.5.1 JIC Wiring Symbols 36 SUMMARY 37 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 3.8 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 3.9 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS LOGICAL SENSORS.. 41 INTRODUCTION 42 SENSOR WIRING 421 Switches 422 Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) 423 — Sinking/Soureing 424 Solid State Relays 43 PRESENCE DETECTION 43.1 Contact Switches 432 Reed Switches 433 Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors 434 Capacitive Sensors 435 Inductive Sensors 436 Ultrasonic 437 Hall Effect438 Fluid Flow 426 426 427 430 436 44 SUMMARY 45 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 46 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 47 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS, LOGICAL ACTUATORS.. 5.1 INTRODUCTION 52 SOLENOIDS 53 VALVES 54 CYLINDERS, 55 HYDRAULICS 5.6 PNEUMATICS 57 MOTORS 58 OTHERS. 5.9 SUMMARY 5.10 PRACTICE PROBLEMS SL PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 5.12 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS, BOOLEAN LOGIC DESIGN. 6.1 I ODUCTION 6.2 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 63 LOGIC DESIGN 63.1 Boolean Algebra Techniques 64 COMMON LOGIC FORMS 64.1 Complex Gate Forms 64.2 Multiplexers 65 SIMPLE. IGN CASES, 65.1 Basic Logic Functions 652 Car Salety System 65.3 Motor Forward/Reverse 654 A Burglar Alarm 66 SUMMARY 67 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 68 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 69 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS, KARNAUGH MAPS.. WW INTRODUCTION 72 SUMMARY 73 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 74 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 5.10page ili 7S ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS, PLC OPERATION. 8.1 INTRODUCTION 82 OPERATION SEQUENCE 8.2.1 The Input and Output Scans 8.22 The Logic Sean 83 PLC STATUS 84 MEMORY TYPES 85 SOFTWARE BASED PLCS. 86 SUMMARY 87 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 88 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS: 89 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS LATCHES, TIMERS, COUNTERS AND MORE. 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 9.10 91 STRUCTURED LOGIC DESIGN. 10.1 10.2 103 104 105 106 10.7 108 INTRODUCTION LATCHES ‘TIMERS COUNTERS MASTER CONTROL RELAYS (MCRs) INTERNAL BITS DESIGN CASES 97.1 Basic Counters And Timers 97.2 More Timers And Counters 97.3 Deadman Switch 974 Conveyor 975 Accept/Reject Sorting 9.7.6 Shear Press SUMMARY PRACTICE PROBLEMS PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS INTRODUCTION PROCESS SEQUENCE BITS TIMING DIAGRAMS DESIGN CASES SUMMARY PRACTICE PROBLEMS, PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 9.26 927 928 932 943 10.1 10.1 10.2 10.6 10.9 10.9 10.9 10.10 10.14i 12. 13. 13.11 14 page iv FLOWCHART BASED DESIGN. 1d id INTRODUCTION 1 112 BLOCK LOGIC M4 113. SEQUENCE BITS Wat 114 SUMMARY 1s Ws PRACTICE PROBLEMS, 11S 116 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS. 11.16 117 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 11.26 STATE BASED DESIGN. 12.1 121 INTRODUCTION 121 12.1.1 State Diagram Example 124 12.1.2 Conversion to Ladder Logie 127 Block Logic Conversion 127 State Equations 12.16 State-Transition Equations 12.24 122. SUMMARY 12.29 123. PRACTICE PROBLEMS 12.29 124 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 12.34 125 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 12.49 NUMBERS AND DATA... 00cccecceeeeneesee BI 14 INTRODUCTION 13.1 132 NUMERICAL VALUES 132 1321 Binary 13.2 Boolean Operations BS Binary Mathematics 13.6 13.2.2 Other Base Number Systems 13.10 13.2.3 BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) 13.1 133 DATA CHARACTERIZATION 13.11 13.3.1 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) 133.2 Parity 13.14 13.3.3. Checksums 13.15 1334 — Gray Code 13.16 134 SUMMARY 13.17 135 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 13.17 136 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS, 13.20 13.7 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 13.23 PLC MEMORY, 14.1 141 INTRODUCTION 141 142 PROGRAM VS VARIABLE MEMORY. 141143. PROGRAMS. 144 VARIABLES (TAGS) 14.4.1 Timer and Counter Memory 14.4.2 PLC Status Bits 14.4.3 User Function Control Memory 145 SUMMARY 146 PRACTICE PROBLEMS: 147 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 148 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS, LADDER LOGIC FUNCTIONS..... 15.1 INTRODUCTION 152 DATA HANDLING 15.2.1 Move Functions 15.2.2 Mathematical Functions 15.2.3, Conversions 15.24 Array Data Functions Statistics Block Operations 153 LOGICAL FUNCTIONS 15.3.1 Comparison of Values 15.3.2 Boolean Functions 154 DESIGN CASES: 15.4.1 Simple Calculation 154.2 For-Next 15.4.3. Series Caleulation 15.44 Flashing Lights 15.5 SUMMARY 15.6 PRACTICE PROBLEMS: 15.7 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 158 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS, ADVANCED LADDER LOGIC FUNCTIONS... 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 INTRODUCTION LIST FUNCTIONS 162.1 Shift Registers 1622 Stacks 16.2.3 Sequencers PROGRAM CONTROL 163.1 Branching and Looping 16.3.2 Fault Handling 16.3.3 Interrupts INPUT AND OUTPUT FUNCTIONS 16.4.1 Immediate I/O Instructions 143 143 14.6 148 14.11 14.12 14.12 14.13 14.15 15.1 15.1 153 153 15.5 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.15 15.15 15.21 15.22 15.22 15.23 15.24 15.25 15.25 15.26 15.28 15.34 16.1 16.1 16.1 16.1 16.3 16.6 16.9 16.9 16.14 16.15 16.17 16.1720. 16.5 DESIGN TECHNIQUES 16.19 165.1 State Diagrams 16.19 166 DESIGN CASES 16.24 166.1 If Then 16.24 166.2 Traflic Light 16.25 167 SUMMARY 16.25 168 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 16.26 169 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 16.28 16.10 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 16.37 OPEN CONTROLLERS. ..0.00.0.0..0.0c0ccecscccesetes essere TL 171 INTRODUCTION 171 172 IEC 61131 172 173 OPEN ARCHITECTURE CONTROLLERS 173 174 SUMMARY 174 175 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 174 176 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 174 177 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 174 INSTRUCTION LIST PROGRAMMING...........:c0:ccesceeeeeneereee 18.1 18.1 INTRODUCTION 18.1 18.2 THE IEC 61131 VERSION 18.1 183 THE ALLEN-BRADLEY VERSION 184 184 SUMMARY 18.9 18.5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 18.10 18.6 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 18.10 18.7 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 18.10 STRUCTURED TEXT PROGRAMMING. lO 19.1 INTRODUCTION 191 192 THE LANGUAGE 192 19.2.1 Elements of the Language 193 19.2.2 Putting ‘Things Together in a Program 199 193 AN EXAMPLE 19.14 194 SUMMARY 19.16 195 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 19.16 196 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 19.16 197 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 19.16 SEQUENTIAL FUNCTION CHARTS. 20.1 INTRODUCTION 20.1 202 A COMPARISON OF METHODS 20.16 203 SUMMARY 20.1621 22, 204 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 20.17 205 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 20.18 206 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 20.25 FUNCTION BLOCK PROGRAMMING.. 2211 211 INTRODUCTION 211 212 CREATING FUNCTION BLOCKS 213 213. DESIGN CASE 214 214 SUMMARY 214 215 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 215 216 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 215 217 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 215 ANALOG INPUTS AND OUTPUTS........00:cccssstesssseeesereeeeeee 22,1 22.1 INTRODUCTION 22.1 222 ANALOG INPUTS 22 22.2.1 Analog Inputs With a PLC-5 29 223 ANALOG OUTPUTS. 22.13 22.3.1 Analog Outputs With A PLC-5 22.16 22.3.2 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Outputs. 22:18 22.3.3, Shielding, 22.20 224 DESIGN CASES 2.22 22.4.1 Process Monitor 222 225 SUMMARY 22.22 226 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 22.23 227 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 22.24 228 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 22.29 CONTINUOUS SENSORS. ...00...0.ccscccesccseeeeseeeeeeetieneeeeeeeneee 23.1 23.1 INTRODUCTION 23.1 232 INDUSTRIAL SENSORS 23.2 23.2.1 Angular Displacement 2.3 Potentiometers 23.3 23.2.2 Encoders Ba ‘Tachometers 2B 23.2.3 Linear Position 23.8 Potentiometers 238 Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)23.9 Moire Fringes 23.11 Accelerometers 23.12 23.2.4 Forces and Moments 23.15 Strain Gages 23.15 Piezoelectric 23.18 23.2.5 Liquids and Gases 23.20Pressure Venturi Valves Coriolis Flow Meter Magnetic Flow Meter Ultrasonic Flow Meter Vortex Flow Meter Positive Displacement Meters Pitot Tubes: 23.2.6 Temperature Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs) ‘Thermocouples Thermistors Other Sensors 23.2.7 Light Light Dependant Resistors (LDR) 23.2.8 Chemical pH Conductivity 23.2.9 Others 233 INPUT ISSUES 234 SENSOR GLOSSARY 235 4 SUMMARY 236 REFERENCES 237 PRACTICE PROBLEMS: 23.8 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 23.9 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS CONTINUOUS ACTUATORS. 24.1 INTRODUCTION 242 ELECTRIC MOTORS 24.2.1 Basic Brushed DC Motors 24.2.2 AC Motors 24.2.3. Brushless DC Motors 24.2.4 — Stepper Motors 24.2.5 Wound Field Motors 243 HYDRAULICS, 244 OTHER SYSTEMS 24.5 SUMMARY 246 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 247 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 248 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS: CONTINUOUS CONTROL. 25.1 INTRODUCTION 23.21 23.22 23.23 23.24 23.24 23.24 23.25 23.25 23.25 23.26 23.26 23.28 23.30 23.30 23.30 2331 2331 2331 23.32 23.32 23.35 23.36 23.37 23.37 23.38 23.40 24.1 24.1 24.1 243 24.7 24.15 24.17 24.19 24.23 24.24 24.25 24.25 24.26 24.27 25.1 25.126. 27. 28. 25.2 CONTROL OF LOGICAL ACTUATOR SYSTEMS 25.4 253 CONTROL OF CONTINUOUS ACTUATOR SYSTEMS 25.5 253.1 Block Diagrams 25.5 25.3.2 Feedback Control Systems 256 25.3.3. Proportional Controllers 25.8 25.3.4 PID Control Systems 25.12 254 DESIGN CASES 25.14 254.1 Oven Temperature Control 25.14 25.4.2 Water Tank Level Control 25.17 25.4.3 Position Measurement 25.20 25.5 SUMMARY 25.20 256 PRACTICE PROBLEMS: 25.21 25.7 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS, 25.22 258 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 25.26 FUZZY LOGIC... eec te ec tetereteee terete reeneereeeesneeeres 26,1 26.1 INTRODUCTION 26.1 262 COMMERCIAL CONTROLLERS, 26.7 263 REFERENCES 26.7 264. SUMMARY 267 265 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 268 26.6 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS, 26.8 267 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 268 SERIAL COMMUNICATION. 271 INTRODUCTION 272 SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS 272 272.1 RS-232 215 ASCII Functions 279 273 PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS 27.13 274 DESIGN CASES 27.14 274.1 PLC Interface To a Robot 27.14 275 SUMMARY 27.15 276 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 27.15 277 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 27.16 278 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 27.18 NETWORKING... 0. ccccecessceesess ees eesteseeesieseeesessresienessessaesseereen 28,1 28.1 INTRODUCTION 28.1 28.1.1 Topology 28.2 28.1.2 OSI Network Model 28.3 28.1.3 Networking Hardware 28.5 28.1.4 Control Network Issues 28.7 282 NETWORK STANDARDS, 28.829. 282.1 Devicenet 28.22 ‘CANbus 28.23 Controlnet 28.24 Ethernet 28.2.5 Profibus 28.2.6 Sercos, 283 PROPRIETARY NETWORKS 283.1 Data Highway 284 NETWORK COMPARISONS 285 DESIGN CASES. 285.1 Devicenet 28.6 SUMMARY 287 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 288 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 28.9 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS INTERNET. 29.1 INTRODUCTION 29.1.1 Computer Addresses IPV6 29.12 Phone Lines 29.13 Mail Transfer Protocols 29.14 FTP - File Transfer Protocol 29.15 HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol 29.16 Novell 29.1.7 Security Firewall IP Masquerading 29.1.8 | HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language 29.19 URLs 29.110 Eneryption 29.111 Compression 29.112 Clients and Servers 291.13 Java 29.114 Javascript 29.115 CGI 29.1.16 ActiveX 29.1.17 Graphics 292 DESIGN CASES, 292.1 Remote Monitoring System 293 SUMMARY 294 PRACTICE PROBLEMS: 29.5 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS, 296 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 288 28.12 28.13 28.14 28.15 28.15 28.16 28.16 28.20 28.22 28.22 28.23 28.23 28.24 28.28 wee 29.1 291 29.2 29.3 29.3 293 294 294 29.4 29.5 29.5 29.5 29.5 29.6 29.6 29.7 29.7 299 29.9 29.9 29.9 29.10 29.10 29.10 29.11 29.11 29.11 29.1130. 31 32. HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACES (HMI). 30.1 30.2 303 304 30.5 30.6 30.7 INTRODUCTION HMI/MMI DESIGN DESIGN CASES SUMMARY PRACTICE PROBLEMS PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS. ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS: ELECTRICAL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION: 31d INTRODUCTION 312 ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAMS 312.1 Selecting Voltages 312.2 Grounding 3123 Wiring 31.24 Suppressors 312.5 PLC Enclosures 312.6 Wire and Cable Grouping 313 FAIL-SAFE DESIGN 314 SAFETY RULES SUMMARY 315. REFERENCES 316 SUMMARY 317 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 318 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS, 319 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS: SOFTWARE ENGINEERING. 32.1 INTRODUCTION 32.1.1 Fail Safe Design 322 DEBUGGING 322.1 Troubleshooting 322.2 Forcing 323 PROCESS MODELLING 324 PROGRAMMING FOR LARGE SYSTEMS 32.4.1 Developing a Program Structure 32.4.2 Program Verification and Simulation 325. DOCUMENTATION 326 COMMISIONING 327 SAFETY 32.7.1 IEC 61508/61511 safety standards 328 LEAN MANUFACTURING 32.9 REFERENCES: 32.10 SUMMARY 30.1 30.1 302 30.3 30.3 304 30.4 304 311 31.1 311 318 319 31.12 31.13 31.14 31.16 3117 3118 31.20 31.20 31.20 31.20 31.20 321 32.1 32.1 32.2 323 323 32.3 32.8 328 32.11 32.12 32.20 32.20 32.21 32.22 32.23 32.2333. 34, 35. 32.11 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 32.23 32.12 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 32.23 32.13 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 32.23 SELECTING A PLC... ceccsessseeeeeeeensseeenssees 33.1 INTRODUCTION 33.1 33.2 SPECIAL I/O MODULES 336 333 SUMMARY 33.9 33.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS 33.10 335 PRACTICE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS 33.10 33.6 ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 33.10 FUNCTION REFERENCE.... ue cscs 34.1 FUNCTION DESCRIPTIONS 34.1 34.1.1 General Functions 34.1 34.1.2 Program Control 343 34.1.3. Timers and Counters 345 34.1.4 Compare 34.10 34.1.5 Calculation and Conversion 34.14 34.1.6 Logical 34.1.7 Move 34.1.8 File 34.1.9 List 34.1.10 Program Control 34.1.1 Advanced Input/Output 341.12 String 34.2 DATA TYPES COMBINED GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 35.1 A 35.2 B 353 c 354 D 355 E 356 F 37. «G 358 H 35.9 I 35.10 J 3511 K 3512. L 35.13. M 3514 ON 3515 OPLC REFERENCES ...0.0...0.0cccccscesesseesseseesessseseseseseeseseeenerenreenees 36.1 SUPPLIERS 36.2 PROFESSIONAL INTEREST GROUPS 36.3 PLC/DISCRETE CONTROL REFERENCES GNU Free Documentation Licemse.......0......cccccccseseeseesesteeseesesenes 37.1 PREAMBLE 37.2 APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS 37.3 VERBATIM COPYING 374 COPYING IN QUANTITY 37.5 MODIFICATIONS 37.6 COMBINING DOCUMENTS 37.7 COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS 37.8 AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS 37.9 TRANSLATION 37.10 TERMINATION 37.11 FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE 37.12 How to use this License for your documents1.1 TODO LIST - Finish writing chapters - fuzzy logic chapter * - internet chapter - hmi chapter - modify chapters * - electrical wiring chapter - fix wiring and other issues in the implementation chapter - software chapter - improve P&ID section - appendices - complete list of instruction data types in appendix ~ small items - update serial IO slides -all chapters * ~ grammar and spelling check * ~ add a resources web page with links2. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS Topics: + PLC History + Ladder Logic and Relays + PLC Programming + PLC Operation + An Example Objectives: + Know general PLC issues + To be able to write simple ladder logic programs * Understand the operation ofa PLC 2.1 INTRODUCTION Control engineering has evolved over time. In the past humans were the main method for controlling a system. More recently electricity has been used for control and early electrical control was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched on and off without a mechanical switch. It is common to use relays to make simple logical control decisions. The development of low cost computer has brought the most recent rev: olution, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has become the most common choice for manufacturing controls. PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain predominant for some time to come. Most of this is because of the advantages they offer. + Cost effective for controlling complex systems. + Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily. + Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control. + Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime. + Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure. 2.1.1 Ladder Logic Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs. As mentioned before, ladder logic has been developed to mimic relay logie. The decision to use the relayple wiring -2.3 input coil o e OR — Oo |e eo le Figure 2.) Simple Relay Layouts and Schematics Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often high cur- rent) power source, while keeping them isolated. An example of a relay ina simple control application is shown in Figure 2.2. In this system the first relay on the left is used as nor- mally closed, and will allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input A. The second relay is normally open and will not allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input B, If current is flowing through the first two relays then current will flow through the coil in the third relay, and close the switch for output C. This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic form. This can be read logically as C will be on if A is offand B ison.ple wiring -2.5 push buttons —L. + power supply +24V com. inputs ladder logic ‘outputs 115Vaq ight Figure 23 APLC Illustrated With Relays Many relays also have multiple outputs (throws) and this allows an output relay to also be an input simultaneously. The circuit shown in Figure 2.4 is an example of this, itis called a seal in circuit, In this circuit the current can flow through either branch of the cir- cuit, through the contacts labelled A or B, The input B will only be on when the output B is on. IfB is off, and A is energized, then B will turn on. If B tums on then the input B will tum on, and keep output B on even if input A goes off. After B is turned on the output B will not turn off.2.1.3 PLC Connections When a process is controlled by a PLC it uses inputs from sensors to make deci- sions and update outputs to drive actuators, as shown in Figure 2.9. The process is a real process that will change over time. Actuators will drive the system to new states (or modes of operation). This means that the controller is limited by the sensors available, if an input is not available, the controller will have no way to detect a condition PROCESS ma a Feedback from conbeon'a sensors/switches actuajors ~~] | PLC Figure 2.9 The Separation of Controller and Process The control loop is a continuous cycle of the PLC reading inputs, solving the lad- der logic, and then changing the outputs. Like any computer this does not happen instantly. Figure 2.10 shows the basic operation cycle of'a PLC. When power is turned on initially the PLC does a quick sanity check to ensure that the hardware is working prop- erly. If there is a problem the PLC will halt and indicate there is an error. For example, if the PLC power is dropping and about to go off this will result in one type of fault. If the PLC passes the sanity check it will then scan (read) all the inputs. After the inputs values are stored in memory the ladder logic will be scanned (solved) using the stored values - not the current values. This is done to prevent logic problems when inputs change during the ladder logic scan. When the ladder logic scan is complete the outputs will be scannedMastering PLC Programming Ebook \ ra ET Dstt Cera DEK = bois ra A COMPLETE GUIDE OF INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION THE ENGINEERS GROUP