SCHOOL OF Engineering and Technology

NOTES

Program: BCA Semester: IIIrd

Course: Computer Networks Course Code: CAP 303-22

UNIT: II
COMPUTER NEWORKS

Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical fibres or
optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.

The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices. In the case of
computer network technology, there are several types of networks that vary from simple to complex
level.

Components of Computer Network:

Major components of a computer network are:

NIC(National interface card)

NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network interface card
contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the system on the
network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

o Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is made using
the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.

o Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.

Hub

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer requests for
information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the
interconnected computers.

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Switches

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to another
device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it sends the
message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the message directly
from source to the destination.

Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of cables:

o Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
o Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive than
twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
o Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light beams. It
provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive as compared
to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router

Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect the distinct
networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.
Modem

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not integrated with
the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.

Uses of Computer Network

o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and
user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central
computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the
machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the users.
For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the employees
use for daily communication.

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 o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their
business over the internet.

Features of Computer network

Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For example, we can do
video conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore, the computer network is a great way to
share our knowledge and ideas.

File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network provides us to share
the files with each other.

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Back up and Roll back is easy
Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to take the back up
from the main server.

Software and Hardware sharing

We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the applications centrally. So,
we do not need to install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be shared.

Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files and applications.

Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be scalable so that we
can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection and data of the
transmission speed also decreases, this increases the chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome
by using the routing or switching devices.

Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any hardware failure.

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers
are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

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Peer-To-Peer network
 Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege
and responsibilities for processing the data.
 Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
 Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
 Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a
problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore, it
cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network
 Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
 The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients.
 A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.

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  A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
 All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send
some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends
the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages of Client/Server network:

 A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily.
 A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole
system.
 Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared resources.
 It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages of Client/Server network:

 Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
 A server has a Network Operating System (NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of
NOS is very high.
 It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

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 Computer Networks
Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any
medium.Computer Network is a system of interconnected computers that enable the computers to
communicate with each other and share their resources, data and applications. The physical location
of each computer is tailored to personal and organizational needs. A network may include only
personal computers or a mix of PCs, minis and mainframes spanning a particular geographical
area. Computer networks that are commonly used today may be classified as follows:

1. Local Area Networks (LANs)

2. Wide Area Networks(WANs)

3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a group of computers that are connected in a small area such as building, home, etc. Through
this type of network, users can easily communicate with each other by sending and receiving
messages. LAN is generally used for connecting two or more personal computers through some
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable etc. Through the number of computers connected in a LAN
is limited, the data is transferred at an extremely faster rate.

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Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition, the
connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters
and Ethernet cables). LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometers) and are
privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to
design and maintain. A Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial
cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.

Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger
LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections
for increased speed and security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault
tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in this network. For example: A bunch of
students playing Counter Strike in the same room (without internet).

Advantages of LAN

Here are pros/benefits of using LAN:

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks. This
significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software
for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the LAN
users.
Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of LAN:
 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
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  The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good
privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able to
secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a group of computers that are connected in a large area such as continent, country, etc.
WAN is generally used for connecting two or more LANs through some medium such as leased
telephone lines, microwaves, etc. In WAN, data is transferred at slow rate.Wide area network (WAN) is
a type of network that provides transmission of voice, data, images, and videos over the large
geographical area. WAN is made with the combinations of LAN and MAN.

Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public networks, such as
the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN
in existence is the Internet.WAN implementation can be done either with the help of the public
transmission system or a private network.The transmission of data is carried out with the help of hubs,
switches, fiber optics, modem, and routers. To transfer data from any computer over the internet we
use some technologies including:

1. ISDN (Integrated service digital network)

2. SMDS (Switched multimegabit data server)
3. SONET (Synchronous optical network)
4. HDLC (High data link control)
5. SDLC (Synchronous data link control)
6. Frame relay

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Examples of wide area network (WAN)
 Some examples of WAN are below:
 Internet
 U.S defense department
 Most big banks
 Airline companies
 Stock brokerages
 Railway reservations counter
 Large telecommunications companies like Airtel store IT department
 Satellite systems
 Cable companies
 Network providers and many more.
Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/ pros of using WAN:
 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

Disadvantage of WAN
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Here are drawbacks/cons of using WAN:
 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city, college
campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single
building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an
area from several miles to tens of miles.

Characteristics of MAN

Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
Here are pros/benefits of using MAN system:
 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.

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  A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/ cons of using the MAN network:
 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender and
receiver) through lines of connection. In other words, Geometric representation of how the computers are
connected to each other is known as topology.

BUS Topology

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Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are two
dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This structure
forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another device then it
sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is
intended for other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended device receives it

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Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone

wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will

have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are

used in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections

between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in

them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through

each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes

having tokens can transmit data.

2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

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 3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. If one device wants to send
data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the
designated device.

Features of Star Topology

 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial cable.
 Advantages of Star Topology
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Cost of installation is high.

 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
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There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:

1. Routing

2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct
the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information
about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure
the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required.
The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the
network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion
as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

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 2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.

3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

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It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in
an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting
these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.

2. Effective.

3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.

2. Costly.

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 Switching Techniques in Data Communication
Switched communication networks are those in which data transformed from source to destination is routed
between various intermediate nodes.

There are mainly three typical Switching Techniques available for digital traffic:

1. Circuit Switching
2. Message Switching
3. Packet Switching

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1) Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will
remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request
signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability
of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Advantages:
o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages:
 More bandwidth is required.
 Connection establishment time is more.

 More expensive than any other switching techniques because a dedicated path is required for each
connection.

 Inefficient use of communication channel.

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2) Message Switching
 In message switching there is no dedicated path required between two communicating devices,
because the message switching is the follow the connectionless network.
 With message switching there is no need to establish dedicated path between two stations.

 When a station sends a message, the destination address is appended to the message.

 The message is then transmitted through the network in its entirety, from node to node.

 Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its entirety on disk and then transmits the message
to the next node. This type of network is called a store and forward network.

Advantages:

 Efficient traffic management.

 Large storing capacity required.

Disadvantages:

 Is not compatible with interactive applications.

 Store and forward devices are example.

3) Packet Switching
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  In packet switching message are broken up into packet.
 Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination address.

 Individual packets take different routes to reach the destination.

Packet switching: Datagram

 Datagram packet switching is a packet switching technology by which each packet is treated as a
separate entity and are called as datagram.
 Packets have their own complete addressing information attached.

 Each packet follows different routes to reach the destination.

 So, the packets may arrive at different times, and may be in a disturbed order. In this case reordering is
done.

Packet switching: Virtual

 In this type of switching a preplanned route is established before the packets are sent.
 Sender sends a "call request packet" to establish a logical connection and receiver sends back an
acknowledgement packet "packet accepted".

 It is a cross between circuit switching network and packet switching network.

Advantages:

 Packet switching is cost effective.

 Offers improved delay characteristics.

 Packet can be rerouted if any problem occurs.

Disadvantages:

 Packet switching protocols are typically more complex.

 If packet gets lost sender needs to resend the data.

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Communication Channels and Its Types
A path through which information is transmitted from one place to another is called communication
channel. It is also referred to as communication medium or link. The twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber
optic cable, microwave, satellite etc. are examples of communication channels.
In a communication channel, data is transmitted in the form of signals (analog signal). The data
transmission is measured in bandwidth. The bandwidth will be higher if more signals can be transmitted.
Actually, the bandwidth measures the amount of information that can be transmitted through the media
within the given period of time. For analog signals, bandwidth is represented in hertz (Hz). It means
number of signals transmitted per second. For digital signals, it is represented in bits per second (bps).
Different transmission media have different bandwidths. The higher the bandwidth of the transmission
media, the more information can be transmitted.

Characteristics of communication channels

The communication channels mentioned earlier, have the following characteristics:
1. Transmission speed: It is the total amount of information that can be transmitted through
any telecommunication channel and is measured in Bits Per Second (BPS). This speed is sometimes also
referred to as “baud rate.”
2. Bandwidth: It is the capacity of the communications channel as measured by the difference
between the highest and the lowest frequencies that can be transmitted by that channel.
3. Transmission modes: Transmission could be effected in different modes, viz., asynchronous
transmission and synchronous transmission. In asynchronous transmission, one character is transmitted at
a time and is used for low-speed transmission. In synchronous transmission, a group of characters is
transmitted simultaneously. It is used for high-speed transmission of the block of characters.
4. Transmission direction: The data can be transmitted in the different direction using simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex transmission. While in simplex transmission, data can travel only in one direction
at all times, in half-duplex transmission, data can travel/flow both ways, although it can travel in only one

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direction at a time. In full-duplex transmission, data can be directed/sent in either direction,
simultaneously.
5. Communication processors: Data transmission and reception in a telecommunication
network requires various processors. Some of them are mentioned below.
i. Front-end processors: It is a small computer dedicated to communication management and
attached to the main/ host computer. It performs special processing activities like formatting, editing,
routing, etc. related to communication.
ii. Concentrator: It is a programmable computer which collects messages from terminals and
stores them till a bunch of messages — an economic size — is available. These messages are then sent
together (“burst”) to the host computer.
iii. Controller: It is a specialized computer which supervises communication traffic between the
CPU and peripheral devices.
iv. Multiplexer: It is a device, which enables a single communication channel to carry data
transmissions from multiple sources, simultaneously.
v. Telecommunication software: The software resides in the host computer, front-end
processor and other processors of a network. The special software is required to control and support the
activities of the telecommunication network. Network control, access control, transmission control, error
detection/correction, and security are some of the major functions of the telecommunication software.

Types of Communication Channel:

The communication channel or media is divided into two types.
1. Guided Media.
2. Unguided Media.

1. Guided Media:
In guided communication media, communication devices are directly linked with each other via cables or
physical media for transmission of data. The data signals are bounded to a cabling media. Therefore,
guided media is also called bounded media. The guided media are usually used in LAN. The examples of
guided or bounded media are:
 Twisted pair wire.
 Coaxial cable.
 Fiber optic cable.

Twisted Pair Cable:

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Twisted pair cable is one of the most commonly used communication media. It is used in local area
network (LAN) for data communication between different computers. It is also used in telephone lines to
carry voice and data signals.
A twisted pair cable consists of a pair of thin diameter copper wires. These wires are covered by insulating
material (such as plastic). These pair of wires are twisted together to form a cable. The wires are twisted
around each other to minimize (or reduce) interference from other twisted pairs in the cable.
The data transmission speed through twisted pair cable is about 9600 bits per second in a distance of 100
meters. However, this transmission speed is less than coaxial cable or optical fiber.
Types of Twisted–Pair Cables
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair ( UTP ): These generally comprise of wires and insulators.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair ( STP ): They have a braided wired mesh that encases each pair of insulated
wires

The twisted pair cable has been the standard communication channel for voice and data communication.
But now its use is reducing because today more reliable communication media are available such as coaxial
cable, fiber optic cable microwave and satellite.

Advantages of twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world. This is due to the many
advantages that they offer −

 Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

 Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions

 Least expensive for short distances

 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too −

 Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

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  High error rate for distances greater than 100m

 Very thin and hence breaks easily

 Not suitable for broadband connections

Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable is also referred to as Coax. It carries signals of higher frequency ranges
than twisted-pair cable.
Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so that transmitted
signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists of these layers, starting
from the innermost −
 Stiff copper wire as core called inner conductor
 Insulating material surrounding the core
 Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the insulator
 Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire

Coaxial cable can be used for telephone lines for voice and data transmission with very high frequency. The
bandwidth of coaxial cable is 80 times greater than that of twisted pair media. Coaxial cable is also widely
used in local area network (LAN). It is more expensive than twisted-pair wire.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables

These are the advantages of coaxial cables −

 Excellent noise immunity
 Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km cable
 Can be used for both analog and digital signals
 Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables

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  Easy to install and maintain

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables −

 Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables

 Not compatible with twisted pair cables

Fiber-Optic Cable: In twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable, data is transmitted in the form of electric
frequencies. The fiber optic cable uses light to transmit data. The data transmission speed is very high
(because fiber-optic cable uses light to transmit data). The data transmission speed is up to billions bits per
second. Today, most of the telephone companies and cable TV operators are using fiber optic cables in
their networks.
 Digital signals are sent as light pulses which are translated back into electrical signals
 Composed of fine glass fibre/strand. A typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand or fiber
of glass called the core. It is thinner than a human hair.
 The core is surrounded by a concentric layer of glass called Cladding. The diameter of a core is 62.5
microns (I micron = 10-6 meters).
 The diameter of cladding is about 125 microns.
 The cladding is coated with insulating material such as plastic, which is called the Jacket.
 Glass cladding reflects light back into the core, guiding the light along the wire
 Thousands of transmissions can be carried on a single strand
 Can transmit signals faster than twisted pair and coaxial cables

Advantages of Optical Fibre

Optical fibre is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages that it offers −

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  High bandwidth
 Immune to electromagnetic interference

 Suitable for industrial and noisy areas

 Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

Despite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fibre may not be a viable option for
every one due to these disadvantages −

 Optical fibre cables are expensive

 Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and maintaining optical fibre cables

 Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex transmission

2. Unguided Media:
In unguided communication media, data is communicated between communication devices in the form of
wave. Unguided media provides means to transmit data signals but does not guide them along a specific
path. The data signals are not bounded to a cabling media. Therefore,. unguided media is also called
unbounded media.
This transmission medium is used when it is impossible to install the cables. The data can be transmitted all
over the world through this medium. The examples of unguided or unbounded media are:
I. Microwave
II. Satellite
III. Radio Broadcast
IV. Cellular Radio

Microwaves: In microwave transmission, data is transmitted through air or space, instead of through
cables or wires. Microwaves are high frequency radio waves. These waves can only travel in straight lines.
The data is transmitted and received through a microwave station. A microwave station is also called relay
station or booster. A microwave station contains an antenna, transmitter, receiver, and other equipments
that are required for microwave transmission. Microwave antennas are placed on the high towers or
buildings and these are placed within 20 to 30 miles of each other. There may be many microwave stations
between the sender and receiver. Data is transmitted from one microwave station to another. Each
microwave station receives signals from previous microwave station and transmits to next station. In this
way, data is transmitted over larger distances.
The data transmission speed of microwave transmission is up to 150 Mbps. Microwave transmission is
used in environments where installing physical transmission media is impossible and where line-of-sight
transmission is available, it is used in wide-open areas. Today, it is used by telephone companies, cable
television providers, universities etc.

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Satellite Communication: A communication satellite is a space station. It receives microwave signals (or
messages) from earth stations. Satellite transmission station that can send and receive messages is known
as earth station. The earth based stations often are microwave stations. Other devices, such as PDAs and
GPS receivers, also functions as earth based stations.
Satellites rotate approximately 22,300 miles above the earth in precise locations. The communication
satellite consists of solar powered, transceiver that receives and sends signals. The signals are transmitted
from one earth station to the satellite. The satellite receives and amplifies the signals and sends them to
another earth station. This entire process takes only a few seconds. In this way, data or messages are
transferred from one location to another. Transmitting a signal from ground or earth station to a satellite
station in space is called up-linking and the reverse is called the down-linking. The data transmission speed
of communication satellite is very high such as upto 1 Gbps.
Different communication satellites are used to carry different kinds of information such as telephone calls,
television transmissions, military communication, weather data, and even radio stations use them for
broadcasting. The global positioning systems and Internet also use the communication satellites.
Radio Broadcast: It is a wireless transmission medium that is used to communicate information through
radio signals in air, over long distance such as between cities and countries.
In this medium, a transmitter is required to send messages (signals) and receiver is required to receive
them. To receive the radio signal, the receiver has an antenna that is located in the range of signal. Some
networks use a special device called transceiver used to send and to receive messages in the form of radio
signals. The data transmission speed of radio broadcast is up to 54 Mbps.

Advantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Inexpensive mode of information exchange

 No land needs to be acquired for laying cables

 Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

Disadvantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Insecure communication medium

 Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

Cellular Radio: Cellular radio is a form of radio broadcast that is used for mobile communications such as
cellular telephones and wireless modems. A cellular, telephone is a telephone device that uses high
frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital messages. Some mobile users connect their laptop
computer or other mobile devices to a cellular telephone to access the Web, send and receive e-mail etc.
while away from a standard telephone line.

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