SCHOOL OF Engineering and Technology

NOTES

Program: BCA Semester: IIIrd

Course: Computer Networks Course Code: CAP 303-22

UNIT: 1
Data Communication Concepts

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via form of
transmission media such as a wire cable. Data communication is said to be local if communicating
devices are in the same building or a similarly restricted geographical area.
The meanings of source and receiver are very simple. The device that transmits the data is known as
source and the device that receives the transmitted data is known as receiver. Data communication
aims at the transfer of data and maintenance of the data during the process but not the actual generation
of the information at the source and receiver.

The effectiveness depends on four fundamental characteristics of data communications

1. Delivery: The data must be deliver in correct order with correct destination.
2. Accuracy: The data must be deliver accurately.
3. Timeliness: The data must be deliver in a timely manner. Late delivered Data useless.
4. Jitter: It is the uneven delay in the packet arrival time that cause uneven quality.

Components of data communication system

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,
sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver computer
is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and receiver depends
upon the types of network used in between.

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4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to the
receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless
like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender and
receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.

Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer connected to the
internet and they are:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into packets
on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the destination or recipient
computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the information about the source of the message
data, the destination of the message data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-
assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
 IP (Internet Protocol): Do you ever wonder how does computer determine which packet
belongs to which device. What happens if the message you sent to your friend is received by your
father? Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling the address of the destination computer
so that each packet is sent to its proper destination.
A PROTOCOL PERFORMS THE FOLLOWING FUNCTIONS:
1. Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data
sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets, and
to correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
2. Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.
3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet
constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
4. Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow
receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow of

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data on communication lines.

5. Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission of
correct messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a
block having error is discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.
6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to use the
communication lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities assigned to them.
7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections are established,
maintained and terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate with each other.
8. Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication software
packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
9. Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop log information, which
consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that have taken place. Such information may be
used for charging the users of the network based on their usage of the network resources.

Measuring Capacity of Communication Media:

Bandwidth

Bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies available for transmission of data through that
channel. Higher the bandwidth, higher the data transfer rate. Normally, bandwidth is the difference of
maximum and minimum frequency contained in the composite signals.

Bandwidth is measured in Hertz (Hz).

1 KHz =1000 Hz 1 MHz =1000 KHz = 1000000 Hz

Data Transfer Rate

Data travels in the form of signals over a channel. One signal carries one or more bits over the channel.
Data transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted between source and destination in one second. It is
also known as bit rate. It is measured in terms of bits per second (bps).

The higher units for data transfer rates are:

1 Kbps=210 bps=1024 bps

1 Mbps=220 bps=1024 Kbps

1 Gbps=230 bps=1024 Mbps

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1 Tbps=240 bps=1024 Gbps

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices connected over
a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of
information. There are three types of transmission modes. They are:

1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode

3. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is done in
Simplex Systems where we just need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard
and monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier,
but not at the same time.

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For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, one
workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from the same
direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line
(one that can carry data in both directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages are sent
in both the directions.

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same time in
other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons
by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.

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 MODEM
Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer from
one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The computer network
works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines.
Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end
and demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of
converting analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of another computer network so
they can be processed by a receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.

When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices called Data
Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a terminal or a computer.

The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE into an analog signal
by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end demodulates the carrier and hand over the
demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a switched telephone
circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the modems are connected to the local telephone
exchanges. Whenever data transmission is required connection between the modems is established
through telephone exchanges.

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Types of Modems
It can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways.
• Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem.

Half duplex and full duplex Modems

 Half duplex
1. A half duplex modem permits transmission in one direction at a time.
2. If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, I gives an indication of the incoming carrier to the
DTE through a control signal of its digital interface.
3. As long as they camel' IS being received; the modem does not give permission to the DTE to transmit
data.

Full duplex
• A full duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission in both directions.

• Therefore, there are two carriers on the line, one outgoing and the other incoming. Wire and 4-wire
Modems

• The line interface of the modem can have a 2-wire or a 4-wire connection to transmission medium. 4-
wire Modem

• In a 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the outgoing carrier and the other pair is used for
incoming carrier.

• Full duplex and half duplex modes of data transmission are possible on a 4- wire connection.

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• As the physical transmission path for each direction is separate, the same carrier frequency can be used
for both the directions.

2-wire Modem
• 2-wire modems use the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming carriers.
• A leased 2-wireconrlection is usually cheaper than a 4-wire connection as only one pair of wires is
extended to the subscriber's premises.
• The data connection established through telephone exchange is also a 2-wire connection.
• In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same frequency for the incoming
and outgoing carriers can be easily implemented.
• For full duplex mode of operation, it is necessary to have two transmission channels, one for transmit
direction and the other for receive direction.
• This is achieved by frequency division multiplexing of two different carrier frequencies. These carriers
are placed within the bandwidth of the speech channel.

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Asynchronous & Synchronous Modems

Asynchronous Modem
• Asynchronous modems can handle data bytes with start and stop bits.
• There is no separate timing signal or clock between the modem and the DTE.
• The internal timing pulses are synchronized repeatedly to the leading edge of the start pulse .

Synchronous Modem
• Synchronous modems can handle a continuous stream of data bits but requires a clock signal.
• The data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal.
• There are separate clocks for the data bits being transmitted and received.
• For synchronous transmission of data bits, the DTE can use its internal clock and supply the same to
the modem.

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 Analog signal & Digital Signal

Analog signal
An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature (variable) of the signal is
a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. For
example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the signal varies continuously with
the pressure of the sound waves.

 Analog signal can have infinite number of values and varies continuously with time.
 Analog signal is usually represented by sine wave.
 As shown in figure each cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis followed by a single
arc below the time axis.
 Example of analog signal is human voice. When we speak, we use air to transmit an analog
signal. Electrical signal from an audio tape, can also be in analog form

Characteristics of Analog Signal

1. Amplitude
(i) Amplitude of a signal refers to the height of the signal.
(ii) It is equal to the vertical distance from a given point on the waveform to the horizontal axis.
(iii) The maximum amplitude of a sine wave is equal to the highest value it reaches on the vertical axis
as shown in figure.
(iv) Amplitude is measured in volts, amperes or watts depending on the type of signal. A volt is used for
voltage, ampere for current and watts for power.

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1. Period
i) Period refers to the amount of time in which a signal completes one cycle.
(ii) It is measured in seconds.
(iii) Other units used to measure period are millisecond (10- 3 sec.) microsecond (10-6 sec),
nanosecond (10-9 sec) and picoseconds (10-12 sec).
4. Frequency
(i) It refers to the number of wave patterns completed in a given period of time.
(ii) To be more precise, frequency refers to number of periods in one second or number of cycles per
second.
(iii) Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)
(iv) Other units used to express frequency are kilohertz (10 3 Hz) Megahertz (106 Hz), gigahertz
(10 Hz) and terahertz (1012 Hz).
9

(v) Frequency and period are the inverse of each other. Period is the inverse of frequency and
frequency is the inverse of period.
4. Phase
(i) Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
(ii) Phase describes the amount by which the waveform shifts forward or backward along the time axis.
(iii) It indicates the status of first cycle.
(iv)Phase is measured in degrees or radians.
(v) A phase shift of 360° indicates a shift of a complete period, a phase shift of 180° indicates a shift of
half period and a phase shift of 90° indicates a shift of a quarter of a period as shown in fig. below.

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Advantages of Analog Signals
(1) Best suited for the transmission of audio and video.
(2) Consumes less bandwidth than digital signals to carry the same information.
(3) Analog systems are readily in place around the world.
(4) Analog signal is less susceptible to noise.

DIGITAL SIGNAL
Computers are digital in nature. Computers process, store, and communicate information in binary
form, i.e. in the combination of 1s and 0s which has specific meaning in computer language. A binary
digit (bit) is an individual 1 or O. Multiple bit streams are used in a computer network.
A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of discrete values; at any
given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values

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 Characteristics of Digital Signals

1. Bit interval: It is the time required to send one single bit.

2. Bit Rate:
(i) It refers to the number of bit intervals in one second.
(ii) Therefore bit rate is the number of bits sent in one second
(iii)Bit rate is expressed in bits per second (bps).
(iv)Other units used to express bit rate are Kbps, Mbps and Gbps.
1 kilobit per second (Kbps) = 1,000 bits per second
1 Megabit per second (Mbps) = 1,000,000 bits per second
1 Gigabit per second (Gbps) = 1,000,000,000 bits per second

Advantages of Digital Signals

 The frequency of the carrier wave is usually higher

 The combined wave is transmitted.
 Carry more information per second than analogue signals
 Maintain quality over long distances better than analogue signals.
 They're automatic
 Easier to remove noise
 Can be very immune to noise

Disadvantages
 Can be complex
 Output subject to quantity errors from sampling

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 Data Transmission – Parallel vs. Serial
Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more digital devices. Data is
transmitted from one device to another in analog or digital format. Basically, data transmission enables devices or
components within devices to speak to each other.

Serial transmission
When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a specific
order, since they can only be sent one after another. The order of the data bits is important as it
dictates how the transmission is organized when it is received. It is viewed as a reliable data
transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the previous data bit has already been received.

Example of Serial Data Transmission

Serial transmission has two classifications: Asynchronous And Synchronous.

There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both these transmissions use
'Bit synchronization'
Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end of the data
transmission occurs.
Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end during a
transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.
Asynchronous Transmission

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• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character is either a letter of the
alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.
• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new group of bits. A
start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more
additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.

• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed in
asynchronous transmission.
• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time is also known as
Gap
• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called Asynchronous, because at
byte level sender and receiver need not to be synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If lines are
short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and idle time will not be
expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is corrupted
during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission

1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead of extra
bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits can be
missed or corrupted.

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Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver by
'timing' the transmission of each bit.
• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of receiver to
separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.
• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock
frequency.
Application of Synchronous transmission
• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission
1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop bit)
and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission
1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the two ends
of line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead
to increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper
synchronization which makes the system complicated.

Parallel transmission
When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over multiple
channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using serial
transmission methods.

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Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different subunits are too short.
Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a separate wire to carry each bit of
data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is exchanged using a parallel
transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal delays in transferring each word.
 In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.

• All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another i.e.
multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.

• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.

• As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to
receiver.

Advantages
Serial transmission

 It is cost-effective
 It is appropriate for long-distance communication.

 More reliable

Parallel transmission

 Transmits data at a higher speed.

 Suits better for short-distance communication.

 Set of bits are transferred simultaneously.

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Disadvantages
Serial transmission

 Data transmission rate is low.

 Throughput relies on the bit rate.

Parallel transmission

 It is a costly transmission system.

 In order to transmit the data over long ranges, the thickness of the wire has to be increased to diminish
signal degradation.

 There are multiple communication channels required.

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