Computer Networks

Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any
medium.Computer Network is a system of interconnected computers that enable the
computers to communicate with each other and share their resources, data and
applications. The physical location of each computer is tailored to personal and organizational
needs. A network may include only personal computers or a mix of PCs, minis and mainframes
spanning a particular geographical area. Computer networks that are commonly used today
may be classified as follows:

1. Local Area Networks (LANs)

2. Wide Area Networks(WANs)

3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a group of computers that are connected in a small area such as building, home, etc.
Through this type of network, users can easily communicate with each other by sending and
receiving messages. LAN is generally used for connecting two or more personal computers
through some medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable etc. Through the number of
computers connected in a LAN is limited, the data is transferred at an extremely faster rate.

Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition,
the connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs,
network adapters and Ethernet cables). LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited
to a few kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home,
hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used for
LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and
noise are minimized.

Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000
Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two
computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically
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relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless connections
can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in
this network. For example: A bunch of students playing Counter Strike in the same room
(without internet).

Advantages of LAN

Here are pros/benefits of using LAN:

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all
the LAN users.
Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the important cons/ drawbacks of LAN:
 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not
able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related
to software setup and hardware failures

Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a group of computers that are connected in a large area such as continent, country,
etc. WAN is generally used for connecting two or more LANs through some medium such as
leased telephone lines, microwaves, etc. In WAN, data is transferred at slow rate.Wide area
network (WAN) is a type of network that provides transmission of voice, data, images, and
videos over the large geographical area. WAN is made with the combinations
of LAN and MAN.

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Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public networks,
such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites.
The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.WAN implementation can be done either with
the help of the public transmission system or a private network.The transmission of data is
carried out with the help of hubs, switches, fiber optics, modem, and routers. To transfer data
from any computer over the internet we use some technologies including:

1. ISDN (Integrated service digital network)

2. SMDS (Switched multimegabit data server)
3. SONET (Synchronous optical network)
4. HDLC (High data link control)
5. SDLC (Synchronous data link control)
6. Frame relay

Examples of wide area network (WAN)

 Some examples of WAN are below:
 Internet

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  U.S defense department
 Most big banks
 Airline companies
 Stock brokerages
 Railway reservations counter
 Large telecommunications companies like Airtel store IT department
 Satellite systems
 Cable companies
 Network providers and many more.
Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/ pros of using WAN:
 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated
at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.

Disadvantage of WAN

Here are drawbacks/cons of using WAN:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of
different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired
and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly
limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of
network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.

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Characteristics of MAN

Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
Here are pros/benefits of using MAN system:
 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to
WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/ cons of using the MAN network:
 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

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NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection. In other words, Geometric representation of
how the computers are connected to each other is known as topology.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

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RING Topology
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are
two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This
structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to
another device then it sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a
repeater, if the received data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this data
until the intended device receives it

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if

someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,

then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to

prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2

connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite

direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the

network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass

through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only

the nodes having tokens can transmit data.

2. Cheap to install and expand

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Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. If one device
wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the hub
transmit that data to the designated device.

Features of Star Topology

 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial cable.
 Advantages of Star Topology
 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Cost of installation is high.

 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on
the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
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It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:

1. Routing

2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic
to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which
has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have
routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

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Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy .

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is
used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).

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Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.

2. Effective.

3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.

2. Costly.

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 MODEM
Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer
from one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines. The
computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for carrying
massages across phone lines.
Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog mode at the transmitting end
and demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end. The process of
converting analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of another computer
network so they can be processed by a receiving computer is referred to as digitizing.

When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices called
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a terminal or a
computer.

The modem at the transmitting end converts the digital signal generated by DTE into an
analog signal by modulating a carrier. This modem at the receiving end demodulates the
carrier and hand over the demodulated digital signal to the DTE.

The transmission medium between the two modems can be dedicated circuit or a switched
telephone circuit. If a switched telephone circuit is used, then the modems are connected to
the local telephone exchanges. Whenever data transmission is required connection between
the modems is established through telephone exchanges.

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Types of Modems
It can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways.
• Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:
1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.
2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem.

Half duplex and full duplex Modems

 Half duplex
1. A half duplex modem permits transmission in one direction at a time.
2. If a carrier is detected on the line by the modem, I gives an indication of the incoming
carrier to the DTE through a control signal of its digital interface.
3. As long as they camel' IS being received; the modem does not give permission to the DTE to
transmit data.

Full duplex
• A full duplex modem allows simultaneous transmission in both directions.

• Therefore, there are two carriers on the line, one outgoing and the other incoming. Wire
and 4-wire Modems

• The line interface of the modem can have a 2-wire or a 4-wire connection to transmission
medium. 4-wire Modem

• In a 4-wire connection, one pair of wires is used for the outgoing carrier and the other pair is
used for incoming carrier.

• Full duplex and half duplex modes of data transmission are possible on a 4- wire connection.

• As the physical transmission path for each direction is separate, the same carrier frequency
can be used for both the directions.

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2-wire Modem
• 2-wire modems use the same pair of wires for outgoing and incoming carriers.
• A leased 2-wireconrlection is usually cheaper than a 4-wire connection as only one pair of
wires is extended to the subscriber's premises.
• The data connection established through telephone exchange is also a 2-wire connection.
• In 2-wire modems, half duplex mode of transmission that uses the same frequency for the
incoming and outgoing carriers can be easily implemented.
• For full duplex mode of operation, it is necessary to have two transmission channels, one for
transmit direction and the other for receive direction.
• This is achieved by frequency division multiplexing of two different carrier frequencies.
These carriers are placed within the bandwidth of the speech channel.

Asynchronous & Synchronous Modems

Asynchronous Modem
• Asynchronous modems can handle data bytes with start and stop bits.
• There is no separate timing signal or clock between the modem and the DTE.
• The internal timing pulses are synchronized repeatedly to the leading edge of the start pulse
.

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Synchronous Modem
• Synchronous modems can handle a continuous stream of data bits but requires a clock
signal.
• The data bits are always synchronized to the clock signal.
• There are separate clocks for the data bits being transmitted and received.
• For synchronous transmission of data bits, the DTE can use its internal clock and supply the
same to the modem.

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 Analog signal & Digital Signal

Analog signal
An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature (variable) of the
signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time
varying signal. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the signal
varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves.

 Analog signal can have infinite number of values and varies continuously with time.
 Analog signal is usually represented by sine wave.
 As shown in figure each cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis followed by a
single arc below the time axis.
 Example of analog signal is human voice. When we speak, we use air to transmit an
analog signal. Electrical signal from an audio tape, can also be in analog form

Characteristics of Analog Signal

1. Amplitude
(i) Amplitude of a signal refers to the height of the signal.
(ii) It is equal to the vertical distance from a given point on the waveform to
the horizontal axis.
(iii) The maximum amplitude of a sine wave is equal to the highest value it
reaches on the vertical axis as shown in figure.
(iv) Amplitude is measured in volts, amperes or watts depending on the
type of signal. A volt is used for voltage, ampere for current and watts for
power.

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3. Period
i) Period refers to the amount of time in which a signal completes one
cycle.
(ii) It is measured in seconds.
(iii) Other units used to measure period are millisecond (10- 3 sec.)
microsecond (10-6 sec), nanosecond (10-9 sec) and picoseconds (10-
12
sec).
4. Frequency
(i) It refers to the number of wave patterns completed in a given period
of time.
(ii) To be more precise, frequency refers to number of periods in one
second or number of cycles per second.
(iii) Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)
(iv) Other units used to express frequency are kilohertz (10 3 Hz)
Megahertz (106 Hz), gigahertz (109 Hz) and terahertz (1012 Hz).
(v) Frequency and period are the inverse of each other. Period is the
inverse of frequency and frequency is the inverse of period.
4. Phase
(i) Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
(ii) Phase describes the amount by which the waveform shifts forward or
backward along the time axis.
(iii) It indicates the status of first cycle.
(iv)Phase is measured in degrees or radians.
(v) A phase shift of 360° indicates a shift of a complete period, a phase shift
of 180° indicates a shift of half period and a phase shift of 90° indicates a
shift of a quarter of a period as shown in fig. below.

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Advantages of Analog Signals
(1) Best suited for the transmission of audio and video.
(2) Consumes less bandwidth than digital signals to carry the same
information.
(3) Analog systems are readily in place around the world.
(4) Analog signal is less susceptible to noise.

DIGITAL SIGNAL
Computers are digital in nature. Computers process, store, and communicate information in
binary form, i.e. in the combination of 1s and 0s which has specific meaning
in computer language. A binary digit (bit) is an individual 1 or O. Multiple bit streams are used
in a computer network.
A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of discrete values;
at any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values

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 Characteristics of Digital Signals

1. Bit interval: It is the time required to send one single bit.

2. Bit Rate:
(i) It refers to the number of bit intervals in one second.
(ii) Therefore bit rate is the number of bits sent in one second
(iii)Bit rate is expressed in bits per second (bps).
(iv)Other units used to express bit rate are Kbps, Mbps and Gbps.
1 kilobit per second (Kbps) = 1,000 bits per second
1 Megabit per second (Mbps) = 1,000,000 bits per second
1 Gigabit per second (Gbps) = 1,000,000,000 bits per second

Advantages of Digital Signals

 The frequency of the carrier wave is usually higher

 The combined wave is transmitted.
 Carry more information per second than analogue signals
 Maintain quality over long distances better than analogue signals.
 They're automatic
 Easier to remove noise
 Can be very immune to noise
Disadvantages
 Can be complex
 Output subject to quantity errors from sampling

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