Dewatering:

Dewatering is the process of removing water (usually groundwater or surface water)

from a construction site, mining area, or excavation pit to make the ground dry and stable
for work.
It is essential for:
 Providing dry working conditions
 Improving soil stability
 Preventing water pressure from causing excavation failures
Methods of Dewatering (Explained in Detail):
1. Open Sump Pumping (Gravity Drainage)
 How it works:
o Water naturally collects into a sump (pit) at the lowest point of the site.
o Pumps are used to remove the accumulated water from the sump.
 Best for:
o Shallow excavations with low groundwater.
 Advantages:
o Simple, low cost, easy to set up.
 Disadvantages:
o Not effective for deep excavation or permeable soils (like sand).
Example: Removing rainwater from a shallow foundation pit.

2. Well Point System

 How it works:
o A series of small wells (well points) are installed around the excavation.
o Well points are connected to a header pipe attached to a vacuum pump.
o The pump continuously sucks water through the well points.
 Best for:
o Shallow depths (up to 6 meters).
o Sandy or loose soils.
 Advantages:
o Good control over groundwater levels.
o Easy to relocate if needed.
 Disadvantages:
o Needs constant power supply.
o May require multiple stages for deep excavations.
Example: Dewatering for sewer line installation.

3. Deep Well System

 How it works:

1
 oDeep wells (larger diameter than well points) are drilled around the
excavation.
o Each well has a submersible pump at the bottom.
o Water is pumped out continuously.
 Best for:
o Deep excavations (more than 6 meters).
o Permeable soils like gravel or coarse sands.
 Advantages:
o Effective for deep water tables.
o Pumps can handle large volumes.
 Disadvantages:
o High initial cost (drilling + pumps).
o Skilled labor needed.
Example: Dewatering for building basements or tunnels.

4. Eductor System (Jet Pumping)

 How it works:
o Uses high-pressure water through ejectors (educators) placed in wells.
o The high-pressure jet creates a vacuum, drawing water up from the ground.
 Best for:
o Low permeability soils (silt, clayey sand).
o Moderate depths (up to 15 meters).
 Advantages:
o Works well where other systems struggle (fine soils).
 Disadvantages:
o High energy consumption.
o Complex setup.
Example: Dewatering for a power plant foundation in silty soils.

5. Drainage by Sand Drains

 How it works:
o Vertical columns (drains) filled with sand are installed into the ground.
o They act as pathways for water to flow easily towards the surface or sump.
 Best for:
o Compressible clay soils.
 Advantages:
o Accelerates consolidation of soft soils.
 Disadvantages:
o Slow process compared to pumping.
Example: Ground improvement for embankment construction.

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6. Vacuum Dewatering (for Concrete Flooring)
 How it works:
o Water is sucked out from freshly poured concrete using a vacuum system.
o Helps to reduce water-cement ratio quickly, improving strength.
 Best for:
o Large concrete slabs (like factory floors).
 Advantages:
o Increases concrete strength and durability.
 Disadvantages:
o Specialized equipment required.
Example: Industrial warehouse flooring.

Summary Table:
Method Best for Depth Notes
Simple, shallow
Sump Pumping <5m Easy but not for permeable soils
sites
Sandy soils,
Well Point System up to 6 m Good control, portable system
shallow
Deep, high water
Deep Well System >6m Powerful, costly
table
High energy use, good for low
Eductor System Fine soils (silt) up to 15 m
permeability
Sand Drains Soft clayey ground varies Ground improvement method
Vacuum Surface
Concrete floors Improves concrete properties
Dewatering level

1. Sumps and Interceptor Ditches

➔ Sumps:
 Definition:
A sump is a small pit or basin dug at the lowest part of a construction site where
water naturally collects.
 How it Works:
Water from rain, seepage, or groundwater flows by gravity into the sump. Then,
it is pumped out using centrifugal or submersible pumps.
 Use:
o For small, shallow excavations.
o Common in roadwork, small foundations, or during site grading.

3
  Advantages:
o Simple, cheap, quick to install.
 Disadvantages:
o Not suitable for deep excavations.
o May cause soil erosion if poorly managed.

➔ Interceptor Ditches:
 Definition:
Shallow trenches or ditches dug around or across a site to intercept surface
water or shallow groundwater before it reaches the excavation.
 How it Works:
o Collects surface runoff.
o Guides water into sumps or drains.
 Use:
o Useful in sloped areas or when rainfall is expected.
o Protects excavation sites from outside water inflow.
 Advantages:
o Reduces load on pumping systems.
o Helps control erosion.
 Disadvantages:
o Needs maintenance (cleaning debris, keeping channels open).

2. Well Point Systems

Now, let's get specific into the different types:

➔ Single-Stage Well Points

 Definition:
A system where one row of well points is installed around the excavation area.
 How it Works:
o Well points are small-diameter pipes (typically 50 mm).
o They are spaced 1 to 2 meters apart.
o Connected to a header pipe.
o A vacuum pump sucks water through all the well points.
 Use:
o Shallow depths (up to 5-6 meters).
o Sandy or permeable soils.
 Advantages:
o Easy and fast to set up.

4
 o Good for small to medium projects.
 Disadvantages:
o Not effective for deeper excavations.

➔ Multi-Stage Well Points

 Definition:
A setup where multiple rows or layers of well points are installed at different
levels vertically.
 How it Works:
o After dewatering with the first stage, a second row of well points is
installed deeper.
o Each stage works to lower the water table gradually.
 Use:
o Needed when excavation is deeper than 6 meters.
o Useful in soils with high permeability.
 Advantages:
o Allows for deeper dewatering.
o Step-by-step lowering of groundwater reduces risks.
 Disadvantages:
o More costly and labor-intensive.
o Needs careful planning.

➔ Vacuum Well Points

 Definition:
Specialized well point systems that apply higher vacuum pressure to suck water
more efficiently, especially in soils with low permeability (like silty sands).
 How it Works:
o Uses booster pumps to increase the vacuum effect.
o Increases suction power at the well points.
 Use:
o Fine-grained soils that normal well points cannot handle.
 Advantages:
o Works in difficult soil conditions.
o Faster and more efficient removal of water.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires strong pumps and energy.
o More complex system and maintenance.

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3. Horizontal Wells
 Definition:
A method where perforated pipes (screened pipes) are installed horizontally into
the ground to collect and drain water.
 How it Works:
o Horizontal pipes are inserted using trenchless drilling or in shallow
trenches.
o Water drains into the pipes and is carried away to a sump or pump station.
 Use:
o Wide shallow excavations (like highways, large industrial foundations).
o Especially when vertical well points are not feasible (low headroom).
 Advantages:
o Covers a large area with fewer pipes.
o Minimal surface disruption.
 Disadvantages:
o More complicated installation (needs specialized drilling equipment).
o Limited depth compared to vertical wells.

1. Foundation Drains
➔ Definition:
 Foundation drains are perforated pipes or systems placed around the foundation
(usually at the footing level) to collect and remove groundwater.
 Their main purpose is to prevent water pressure against basement walls and
avoid water seepage into buildings.
➔ How It Works:
 A perforated pipe (usually wrapped in a filter fabric) is laid at the base of the
foundation wall.
 Water enters through the pipe holes and is carried away to a sump pit, storm
drain, or natural drainage area.
➔ Construction Steps:
1. Dig a trench along the foundation.
2. Place a gravel layer at the trench bottom.
3. Lay the perforated pipe (holes facing down or sideways).
4. Cover with more gravel.
5. Wrap in filter fabric to prevent soil clogging.
➔ Applications:
 Basements

6
 Retaining walls
 Buildings in areas with high water tables

2. Blanket Drains
➔ Definition:
 Blanket drains are horizontal layers of highly permeable material (like gravel or
coarse sand) placed over a large area to collect and drain water.
 Think of it as a blanket laid across the ground to help water move horizontally
toward a collection system.
➔ How It Works:
 Surface water percolates through the soil until it hits the blanket.
 It then flows horizontally through the blanket material towards a drain or sump.
➔ Applications:
 Under roads, railways
 Under embankments
 Large flat sites (airports, industrial yards)
➔ Construction Steps:
1. Excavate a shallow area where drainage is needed.
2. Lay a geotextile filter (optional).
3. Place coarse gravel, crushed stone, or a similar free-draining material.
4. Install pipes if necessary for guided drainage.

3. Criteria for Selection of Fill Material Around Drains

Choosing the right material is critical! The wrong fill can clog the drain
and cause failure.
➔ Main Criteria:
Property Explanation Example
Material must allow Gravel,
Permeability
easy water flow. coarse sand
Should be large
enough to avoid 5 mm to 25
Grain Size
clogging but fine mm gravel
enough to filter soil.
Should prevent
Use filter
Filter migration of
fabric if
Compatibility adjacent soil into
needed
the drain material.
Durability Material must resist Hard, clean

7
 Property Explanation Example
weathering,
aggregates
decomposition.
Should be free from
Washed
Cleanliness clay, silt, organic
gravel
material.
➔ Rules of Thumb:
 D15 (drain material) ≥ 4–5 × D85 (soil to be protected)
 Uniformly graded materials are preferred to avoid clogging.
(Where D15 and D85 are sieve sizes where 15% and 85% of material
passes.)

4. Electro Osmosis
Now this is a very interesting and special method!
➔ Definition:
 Electro-osmosis is a technique to move water through fine-grained soils (like
clays) using electric current.
➔ How It Works:
 Electrodes (anodes and cathodes) are inserted into the soil.
 A DC electric current is applied.
 Water molecules migrate from the anode (positive) to the cathode (negative).
 Water is collected at the cathode and pumped out.
➔ Mechanism:
 Clay particles are negatively charged.
 Water near clay moves toward the positive electrode, and then under electric
field influence, flows toward the negative electrode.
Movement of water is very slow naturally in clay — electro-osmosis
speeds it up dramatically!
➔ Applications:
 Stabilizing soft clay foundations.
 Dewatering deep excavations in silty clays.
 Strengthening embankments, tunnels.
➔ Advantages:
 Works in very low permeability soils (like clays and silts).
 Reduces soil moisture and improves strength.
➔ Disadvantages:
 Expensive due to electricity use.
 Requires careful electrode management.

8
 Quick Summary Table:
Topic Key Points
Foundation Pipes near foundation base, remove water,
Drains prevent wall pressure
Horizontal permeable layers, move water
Blanket Drains
sideways
Fill Material Must be permeable, durable, clean,
Selection compatible with soil
Electro Osmosis Use electricity to move water through clays

Unit 2
Grouting: A Complete Detailed Explanation

1. Definition of Grouting
Grouting is a process where a fluid material (called grout) is injected into soil, rock,
concrete cracks, voids, or other porous media to either:

9
  Strengthen the structure,
 Fill gaps and voids,
 Reduce permeability,
 Improve load-bearing capacity, or
 Correct defects in foundations.
Formal Definition:
Grouting is the process of injecting a pumpable material into a soil or rock formation to
change its physical characteristics for engineering purposes such as strengthening,
reducing permeability, or correcting defects.
In simpler words, grouting "stabilizes, strengthens, or seals" the ground or structures.

2. Objectives of Grouting
Grouting is performed with several important objectives in mind, depending on the
situation and desired outcomes:
Main Objectives:
 1. Strengthening and Stabilization
o To enhance the strength and stiffness of soil or rock.
o To consolidate loose soils or fractured rocks.
 2. Reduction of Permeability
o To create a waterproof barrier.
o To reduce seepage through foundations, dams, tunnels, and underground
structures.
 3. Filling Voids and Cavities
o To fill underground voids created by erosion, mining, or sinkholes.
o To fill cracks in concrete structures.
 4. Underpinning Foundations
o To support existing structures experiencing settlement by strengthening
their foundations.
 5. Alignment Control
o To control ground movement during tunneling, excavation, or pile driving.
 6. Structural Repair
o To repair cracks in concrete by injecting grout to bond and restore
structural integrity.
 7. Sealing of Leaks
o In tunnels, pipelines, dams, and underground tanks.
 8. Improving Load-Bearing Capacity
o To increase the bearing capacity of foundations and footings by soil
strengthening.

10
3. Types of Grouts and Their Properties
Different types of grout materials are used depending on the purpose, ground
conditions, and required properties:
A) Cementitious Grouts
 Composition: Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), sometimes mixed with sand,
water, or additives.
 Properties:
o Good strength development.
o Cost-effective.
o Shrinkage can occur unless shrinkage-compensating additives are used.
o Used for soil stabilization, filling cracks, and large voids.
 Types:
o Neat cement grout (cement + water).
o Sanded grout (cement + sand + water).

B) Chemical Grouts
 Composition: Solutions of chemical resins or gels such as:
o Sodium silicate,
o Polyurethane,
o Acrylic,
o Epoxy resins.
 Properties:
o Very low viscosity (similar to water) — can penetrate very fine cracks and
pores.
o Adjustable setting times.
o Used for fine soil stabilization and water sealing.
 Advantages:
o Excellent penetration.
o Effective waterproofing.
 Disadvantages:
o Expensive compared to cement grouts.
o Some chemicals may be toxic or hazardous.

C) Bituminous Grouts
 Composition: Asphalt emulsions.
 Properties:
o Flexible, sticky, waterproof.

11
 o Used in areas where water resistance is important, e.g., dam and canal
repairs.

D) Resin Grouts
 Composition: Polyester, epoxy, or polyurethane resins.
 Properties:
o High adhesive strength.
o Rapid setting.
o Used for structural repairs, anchoring bolts, and sealing.

E) Clay Grouts
 Composition: Bentonite clay mixed with water.
 Properties:
o Highly plastic and impermeable.
o Used mainly for sealing and reducing permeability in loose soils.

4. Grouting Methods (Techniques)

Grouting can be carried out using several methods depending on the situation:
A) Permeation Grouting
 Process:
o Grout is injected at low pressure so it permeates into the void spaces
between soil or rock particles.
 Suitable For:
o Sands, gravels, fissured rocks.
 Applications:
o Underpinning foundations.
o Groundwater control.
 Key Feature:
o No significant ground displacement or change in volume.

B) Compaction Grouting
 Process:
o A thick, viscous grout is injected to form a bulb that displaces and
compacts the surrounding soil.
 Suitable For:
o Loose, granular soils.
 Applications:
o Mitigating settlement.
o Increasing soil bearing capacity.

12
  Key Feature:
o Ground is physically displaced and densified.

C) Jet Grouting
 Process:
o High-velocity jets of grout (and sometimes air or water) erode and mix
with the soil to form columns of grouted soil.
 Suitable For:
o A wide variety of soils, including silts and clays.
 Applications:
o Deep soil mixing.
o Creating cutoff walls for groundwater control.
 Key Feature:
o Soil mixing and grouting occur simultaneously.

D) Fracture Grouting (Hydraulic Fracturing)

 Process:
o Grout is injected at high pressure to fracture weak soils or rocks, and grout
then fills the fractures.
 Suitable For:
o Dense sands, rock formations.
 Applications:
o Increasing permeability for oil and gas recovery.
o Controlled ground movement.
 Key Feature:
o Fracture creation and filling.

E) Compensation Grouting (or Compensation Grouting System, CGS)

 Process:
o Grout is injected in a controlled manner to counteract or "compensate"
for ground movements (like settlement during tunneling).
 Suitable For:
o Urban environments, sensitive buildings.
 Applications:
o Protecting nearby structures during excavation or tunneling.
 Key Feature:
o Grouting is controlled based on real-time monitoring of ground
movement.

13
F) Curtain Grouting
 Process:
o Grout is injected in a pattern to form a vertical curtain barrier against
water seepage.
 Suitable For:
o Dams, retaining walls.
 Applications:
o Creating impervious barriers.
 Key Feature:
o Barrier or "curtain" formed to block water flow.

G) Tube-à-Manchette (TAM) Grouting

 Process:
o Grout is injected through a pipe with valves (TAM pipe) that allows staged
and repeated injections.
 Suitable For:
o Precision grouting operations in soils and rocks.
 Applications:
o Fine-tuned ground improvement.
 Key Feature:
o Multiple injections possible at different depths.

1. Ascending, Descending, and Stage Grouting

A) Ascending Grouting
Definition:
 In ascending grouting, grout is injected at a lower point and allowed to rise
upwards through the ground or structure.
 The process typically involves injecting the grout into the lower parts of the area
to ensure that the grout fills voids and spaces, gradually moving upwards.
Applications:
 Ground Improvement: It’s often used in soils with high permeability (e.g., sands
and gravels), where the grout needs to travel through the pores and fractures
upward.
 Sealing: For sealing groundwater leaks in dam foundations or tunnels.
 Void Filling: Common in foundation grouting for large structures like dams,
bridges, or buildings.
Advantages:
 Grout tends to rise to the surface, filling larger voids or fractures.

14
  Effective for preventing groundwater flow from below in underground
construction.

B) Descending Grouting
Definition:
 In descending grouting, grout is injected from the top and allowed to flow
downward through the porous medium or rock formation.
Applications:
 Stabilization of foundations: Used in situations where the grout needs to
permeate and solidify in deep soil strata or fractures that are located deep
beneath the surface.
 Waterproofing: Common for sealing cracks or fissures that run downward into
the ground.
 Hydraulic Structures: Effective in dams and tunnels to reduce permeability from
the upper sections of a rock mass.
Advantages:
 Allows control of the flow of grout as it moves downward.
 Can be particularly useful in rock formations where the fractures are mostly
concentrated in deeper layers.
Challenges:
 Less control over how the grout spreads, especially if there are larger fractures
near the top.
 Difficult to control grout distribution if there's poor permeability in the deeper
layers.

C) Stage Grouting
Definition:
 Stage grouting involves injecting grout in stages or steps, often with the grout
being injected at multiple points at different depths or intervals.
 Grouting is carried out in several rounds to achieve the desired effect, often with
waiting periods between injections.
Applications:
 Tunneling Projects: Especially in tunneling under urban environments where
precision is key.
 Dams and Reservoirs: For creating multiple waterproof layers or reinforcing
deeper strata.

15
  Complex Ground Conditions: Used when the geotechnical conditions are difficult
or variable (i.e., hard rock overlaid by soft soil).
Advantages:
 Allows for better control of grout injection, minimizing the risk of excessive grout
loss.
 Can be used in combination with monitoring tools to evaluate ground response
at each stage.
 Often produces better results in highly heterogeneous soils or rocks.
Process:
 Stage 1: First injection at shallow depth.
 Stage 2: Another round at deeper layers after initial curing.
 Stage 3: Further injections may be carried out to fully treat the ground.

2. Hydraulic Fracturing in Soils and Rocks

Definition:
Hydraulic fracturing (often called fracking) involves injecting high-pressure fluid into
rock or soil formations to create or propagate fractures. The fluid is usually a mixture of
water, chemicals, and proppants (like sand) to hold open the fractures.
In grouting, hydraulic fracturing is sometimes used to create fractures in the ground,
then inject grout to fill the fractures or improve ground properties.
A) Hydraulic Fracturing in Rocks
 Purpose: Hydraulic fracturing in rocks is typically used to create fractures in hard
rock formations (e.g., granite, basalt) to increase permeability or to facilitate
groundwater flow control.
 Applications:
o Waterproofing: Used to block water flow in tunnels, dams, or foundations
by fracturing the rock and filling the fractures with grout.
o Oil and Gas Exploration: It’s also widely used in petroleum extraction to
increase flow from wells.
o Geotechnical Engineering: Sometimes applied to difficult rock layers to
increase grouting efficiency.
 Process:
o Water (and sometimes additives) is injected under high pressure into a
borehole.
o This causes the rock to fracture, creating pathways for grout injection.
o Grout is then injected into the fractures to seal or strengthen the rock.
B) Hydraulic Fracturing in Soils

16
  Purpose: Hydraulic fracturing can also be used in loose, granular soils (e.g., sands)
where grout cannot easily permeate. High-pressure injection causes fractures in
the soil, which are then filled with grout, improving strength and reducing
permeability.
 Applications:
o Ground stabilization: Fracturing loose soil to allow grout to fill fractures,
improving the soil's load-bearing capacity.
o Foundation strengthening: Used beneath foundations to enhance bearing
capacity.
 Challenges:
o Limited to certain soil types where fractures can be controlled.
o More expensive and technically complex than other grouting methods.
Key Considerations:
 Fracture Control: Managing the depth, width, and orientation of fractures is
critical to ensure the grout is effectively retained in the ground.
 Material Selection: The fluid used in hydraulic fracturing must have specific
properties (e.g., low viscosity, ability to carry proppants) to control the fracturing
process and grout distribution.

3. Post-Grouting Tests
Once grouting has been completed, post-grouting tests are essential to evaluate the
effectiveness of the grouting process. These tests help to assess whether the grout has
achieved the desired results and identify areas that may require additional work.
A) Injection Pressure Test
 Purpose: To measure the grout injection pressure at different stages.
 Method: Pressure gauges are attached to the grouting equipment to record the
pressure applied during injection.
 Interpretation:
o A sharp drop in pressure may indicate grout loss or failure to fill voids.
o A stable or increasing pressure indicates successful penetration.
B) Grout Take (Volume) Test
 Purpose: To quantify how much grout is injected into the ground.
 Method: The total volume of grout injected is measured and compared to the
expected or calculated volume for the grouted area.
 Interpretation:
o Underfilled: A lower-than-expected volume suggests poor penetration or
loss of grout.

17
 o Overfilled: A higher-than-expected volume could indicate excessive grout
pressure or poor material control.
C) Core Sampling
 Purpose: To verify the grout's bond with the surrounding soil or rock and assess
the quality of the grout.
 Method: After grouting, samples (cores) are drilled from the grouted area for
laboratory testing.
 Interpretation:
o Good Bond: Strong adhesion between grout and surrounding material
confirms effective grouting.
o Weak Bond: Poor bond strength may suggest poor grout mixing or
improper curing.
D) Permeability Tests (e.g., Falling Head, Constant Head)
 Purpose: To evaluate how well the grout has sealed the ground and reduced
permeability.
 Method: Water is allowed to flow through the grouted area, and the rate of flow
is measured.
 Interpretation:
o Low Permeability: A significant reduction in water flow confirms that the
grouting has sealed the ground effectively.
o High Permeability: Higher flow rates suggest that the grout did not
adequately fill voids or fractures.
E) Settlement and Movement Monitoring
 Purpose: To ensure that the ground or structure has not experienced unwanted
movement or settlement after grouting.
 Method: Surveying techniques, such as leveling or differential GPS, are used to
monitor changes in surface elevation.
 Interpretation:
o No Movement: Indicates that the grouting has effectively stabilized the
ground.
o Movement: May indicate insufficient grout strength or improper grouting
techniques.
F) Visual Inspections (e.g., Dye Tracing)
 Purpose: To verify the extent and coverage of grout in an area.
 Method: Tracers (such as dyes) are added to the grout before injection. After
grouting, the presence of dye is checked to verify grout spread.
 Interpretation:
o Full Coverage: A thorough spread of dye indicates effective grouting.

18
 o Incomplete Spread: Areas without dye show insufficient grout
penetration.

Unit 6
Geosynthetics: Description, Properties, Functions, and Applications

1. Description of Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics are synthetic products used to solve civil engineering problems. They are
typically made from polymeric materials such as polypropylene (PP), polyester (PET),
polyethylene (PE), and polyamide (nylon). Their synthetic nature allows them to
withstand biological and chemical degradation that would otherwise compromise
traditional natural materials like wood, steel, or natural fibers.
Definition (Formal):

19
Geosynthetics are planar products manufactured from polymeric materials used with
soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical engineering-related materials as an integral part
of a civil engineering project, structure, or system.
Types of Geosynthetics:
 Geotextiles (woven and non-woven fabrics)
 Geomembranes (impermeable membranes)
 Geogrids (grid-like structures)
 Geonets (net-like structures)
 Geocomposites (combinations of geosynthetics)
 Geofoam (lightweight blocks of expanded polystyrene)
 Geocells (three-dimensional honeycomb-like structures)
Each type is engineered for a particular set of functions and environments.

2. Properties of Geosynthetics
The performance and suitability of geosynthetics are determined by a range of physical,
mechanical, hydraulic, and chemical properties:
a) Physical Properties
 Mass per unit area: Weight of the material (g/m²).
 Thickness: Distance between the upper and lower surfaces under specified
pressure.
 Density: Mass per unit volume; important for buoyancy and placement.
b) Mechanical Properties
 Tensile Strength: Resistance to breaking under tension; crucial for reinforcement
applications.
 Elongation: Ability to stretch without breaking; important for accommodating
ground movements.
 Puncture Resistance: Ability to withstand forces from sharp objects (e.g., rocks,
debris).
 Tear Resistance: Ability to resist propagating tears after initial damage.
c) Hydraulic Properties
 Permittivity: Rate of water flow through the geosynthetic.
 Transmissivity: Ability to transmit water in-plane.
 Apparent Opening Size (AOS): Related to pore size; affects filtration capability.
d) Durability and Chemical Properties
 UV Resistance: Stability when exposed to sunlight.
 Biological Resistance: Resistance to mold, fungi, and bacterial attacks.
 Chemical Resistance: Resistance to acids, alkalis, and other chemicals present in
the soil.

20
  Creep Behavior: Deformation under a constant load over time.
e) Thermal Properties
 Melting Point: Critical for high-temperature applications.
 Thermal Stability: Ability to maintain structure under varying temperatures.

3. Functions of Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics serve one or more of the following primary functions:
a) Separation
 Prevents mixing of dissimilar materials (e.g., soil and aggregate layers).
 Commonly used between subgrade soil and road base to maintain layer integrity.
b) Filtration
 Allows water to flow across the plane of the geosynthetic while retaining soil
particles.
 Prevents clogging and soil erosion.
c) Drainage
 Facilitates the movement of liquids or gases within the plane of the geosynthetic.
 Used in landfills, retaining walls, and road drainage systems.
d) Reinforcement
 Provides tensile strength to soils that have little or no tensile strength.
 Used in embankments, retaining structures, and steepened slopes.
e) Containment (Barrier)
 Acts as an impermeable layer to prevent the migration of liquids or gases.
 Geomembranes are used for lining ponds, canals, and landfills.
f) Protection
 Protects geomembranes from puncture or mechanical damage by distributing
loads.
 Provides cushioning and prevents abrasion.

4. Applications of Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics have a broad range of applications across multiple fields of engineering,
particularly geotechnical, transportation, environmental, hydraulic, and structural
engineering:

A) Transportation Infrastructure
 Roads and Highways:
o Separation of subgrade and base layers.
o Reinforcement of weak subgrades.
o Subsurface drainage systems.

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  Railways:
o Stabilizing ballast and sub-ballast layers.
o Preventing pumping of fines into ballast.
 Airfields:
o Stabilization of runway shoulders.
o Reinforcement beneath pavements.

B) Environmental Engineering
 Landfills:
o Geomembranes act as primary liners to prevent leachate leakage.
o Geonets and geocomposites for leachate collection and removal.
o Geotextiles as cushioning layers to protect liners.
 Waste Containment:
o Covers and liners for hazardous waste facilities.
o Gas collection systems using geonets.
 Mining:
o Heap leach pads lined with geomembranes.
o Drainage layers and collection pipes enveloped by geotextiles.

C) Hydraulic Engineering
 Dams and Reservoirs:
o Geomembranes for waterproofing faces.
o Geotextile filters to prevent soil erosion.
 Canals:
o Impermeable geomembrane linings.
o Geotextile filters under riprap protection.
 Coastal Protection:
o Geotextile tubes and containers used as breakwaters.
o Scour protection under coastal structures.

D) Structural Engineering
 Retaining Walls and Embankments:
o Geogrids for reinforcement.
o Geocomposite drainage systems behind walls.
 Bridge Abutments:
o Soil reinforcement to prevent settlement.

E) Agriculture and Forestry

 Erosion Control:

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 o Geotextiles used as silt fences.
o Biodegradable geosynthetics to protect young vegetation.
 Irrigation Systems:
o Lining canals with geomembranes to prevent seepage losses.

F) Others
 Sports Fields and Golf Courses:
o Drainage systems beneath playing surfaces.
 Tunnels:
o Waterproofing membranes to prevent water ingress.
 Urban Infrastructure:
o Geosynthetics in underground drainage and containment systems.

Unit 4
Reinforced Earth: Principles, Components, and Design of Reinforced
Earth Walls

Reinforced Earth is a construction technology that combines soil with reinforcement

materials (such as geotextiles, metallic strips, or other materials) to create a stable
structure, typically used in the construction of retaining walls, slopes, embankments,
and other geotechnical applications. The concept is based on the principle that soil can
be reinforced to perform as a structural material capable of supporting loads that would
otherwise require traditional concrete walls or masonry.

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1. Principles of Reinforced Earth
A) Basic Concept
The principle behind Reinforced Earth involves the use of tensile reinforcement (often
in the form of strips, grids, or sheets made of materials like steel, fiberglass, or synthetic
polymers) to reinforce the soil mass. The soil, when reinforced in this way, behaves
more like a composite material—offering both the compressive strength of soil and the
tensile strength of the reinforcement material.

B) Stress Distribution
In a reinforced earth structure, the soil is strengthened by the reinforcement materials,
which act in tension to resist shear stress and earth pressure. These reinforcements
help to distribute the load and reduce the potential for failure due to soil sliding or
overturning. The soil-structure interaction is key to ensuring stability.
The tensile reinforcement material is embedded in the soil and holds the soil particles
together, preventing lateral movements and ensuring that the soil mass does not fail or
deform excessively under load.

C) Mechanism of Reinforcement
 Shear Stress Reduction: The reinforcement materials take up a portion of the
shear stress within the soil, reducing the load on the soil itself.
 Soil Confinement: The reinforcement also helps confine the soil, preventing
lateral deformation and enhancing its overall stability.
 Frictional Resistance: The friction between the reinforcement and the
surrounding soil further contributes to the strength of the soil mass.

2. Components of Reinforced Earth

A) Soil
The primary material in reinforced earth is soil—usually granular materials such as sand,
gravel, or fill material. The soil must meet certain engineering properties to be suitable
for reinforcement. For example, the soil should be well-graded with good compaction
characteristics to ensure that it works effectively with the reinforcement material.

B) Reinforcing Materials
The reinforcement materials are the key to the success of reinforced earth walls and
structures. These materials help hold the soil together, increasing the overall strength
and stability of the wall or embankment. The reinforcement materials can be:

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  Metallic Strips: Steel strips or steel meshes are commonly used due to their high
tensile strength.
 Geogrids: Polymer-based geogrids or fiberglass grids are used for their high
durability and resistance to environmental degradation.
 Geotextiles: These are often used in conjunction with geogrids for additional
tensile strength and are typically made from polyester, nylon, or polypropylene
fibers.
 Steel Bars: In some cases, steel bars or rods are used as reinforcement elements,
especially in larger, more load-bearing structures.
The reinforcement material is typically placed horizontally at regular intervals,
extending horizontally or diagonally from the face of the wall into the soil mass. The
length of the reinforcement depends on the required stability and wall height.

C) Facing Elements
The facing is the outer layer of the reinforced earth structure. This element provides the
final form of the structure and can be designed in different ways depending on aesthetic
or functional requirements. The types of facing include:
 Precast Concrete Panels: These are often used in retaining walls.
 Metallic Facings: Corrugated steel panels or other metal systems can be used.
 Stone or Brick Facings: In some cases, stone or brick facings may be used for
aesthetic purposes.

D) Drainage Systems
Effective drainage is essential in reinforced earth systems to prevent water from
accumulating within the reinforced soil mass, which can lead to erosion, instability, and
hydrostatic pressure behind the wall. Proper drainage systems include:
 Weep Holes: Small openings that allow water to drain from the wall.
 Geocomposite Drains: Materials that help redirect water away from the
structure.
 Drainage Pipes: Positioned behind or within the reinforced soil structure to direct
water flow.

3. Factors Governing the Design of Reinforced Earth Walls

Designing reinforced earth walls requires a deep understanding of several factors that
influence the structure’s performance and stability. The main factors to consider
include:
A) Soil Properties

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The type and properties of the soil used in reinforced earth structures play a crucial
role. The soil must have sufficient strength and compaction characteristics to interact
effectively with the reinforcement. Important soil properties to consider include:
 Cohesion: The ability of the soil particles to stick together.
 Friction Angle: The resistance of the soil to shear failure.
 Unit Weight: The weight of the soil, which influences the design of the structure’s
overall mass and stability.
 Granulometry: The particle size distribution in the soil which determines the
soil’s ability to compact and resist erosion.

B) Reinforcement Properties
The type of reinforcement material (geogrids, steel strips, etc.) will influence the tensile
strength, elasticity, and interaction with the soil. Factors such as durability, elongation,
tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity must be considered during design.

C) Wall Geometry
The dimensions of the wall, including height, thickness, and angle of inclination, are
crucial factors. The wall’s geometry will influence its stability, load-bearing capacity, and
the amount of reinforcement needed. Commonly, sloped backs (as opposed to vertical
walls) are preferred in reinforced earth designs as they help reduce the force exerted on
the structure.

D) Load Conditions
The type and magnitude of loads applied to the wall must be carefully considered.
These may include:
 Dead loads: The weight of the wall itself.
 Live loads: Traffic loads, surcharge from nearby buildings, or other moving loads.
 Hydrostatic Loads: Water pressure behind the wall.
 Seismic Loads: Forces caused by earthquakes.

E) Safety and Stability

The wall must be designed to withstand potential failure modes, including:
 Sliding: The tendency of the wall to slide along its base.
 Overturning: The risk of the wall rotating or tipping over.
 Bearing Failure: The potential for the base of the wall to sink into the foundation
soil.

F) Environmental Factors

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Environmental considerations like temperature fluctuations, wet conditions, and frost
should be taken into account as these factors can impact both the soil and
reinforcement properties.

Design Principles of Reinforced Earth Walls

The design of a reinforced earth wall is based on ensuring stability and adequate
strength both externally (whole wall) and internally (within reinforced soil mass).
The design is typically divided into two major checks:

A) External Stability
1. Sliding Check
o The wall must resist sliding along its base.
o Check if resisting force (friction + passive resistance) > driving force (earth
pressure).
Sliding Factor of Safety (FOS):
FOS=Resisting ForceDriving Force≥1.5FOS = \frac{\text{Resisting Force}}{\text{Driving
Force}} \geq 1.5FOS=Driving ForceResisting Force≥1.5
2. Overturning Check
o The wall must not rotate about its toe.
o Check if resisting moment (weight of structure) > overturning moment
(earth pressure moment).
Overturning Factor of Safety:
FOS=Resisting MomentOverturning Moment≥2.0FOS = \frac{\text{Resisting Moment}}{\
text{Overturning Moment}} \geq 2.0FOS=Overturning MomentResisting Moment≥2.0
3. Bearing Capacity Check
o The soil beneath the wall must safely bear the applied loads.
o Settlement should be within tolerable limits.

B) Internal Stability
1. Reinforcement Length
o The embedded length of reinforcement behind the potential failure plane
must be sufficient to anchor it.
o Typically, reinforcement extends 0.7H to 0.8H behind the face (where H =
wall height).
2. Reinforcement Spacing and Strength
o Reinforcement must be closely spaced and strong enough to resist tensile
forces induced by soil pressures.
o Vertical spacing typically 0.5–1.0 m.

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 3. Pullout Resistance
o The reinforcement must resist being pulled out from the soil mass.
o Pullout resistance depends on:
 Friction between soil and reinforcement,
 Effective area of reinforcement.
Pullout Resistance Equation:
Pr=2×L×σv×tan⁡(δ)P_r = 2 \times L \times \sigma_v \times \tan(\delta)Pr=2×L×σv×tan(δ)
Where:
o LLL = embedded length,
o σv\sigma_vσv = vertical stress,
o δ\deltaδ = interface friction angle.
4. Connection Strength
o The strength of the connection between the facing and reinforcement
must be checked to prevent failure at the joints.

C) Drainage Design
 Proper drainage behind the wall is crucial.
 Prevent buildup of hydrostatic pressure, which could cause wall failure.
 Use of drains, weep holes, and free-draining backfill material is essential.

D) Seismic Considerations
 In earthquake-prone areas:
o Additional seismic forces must be accounted for.
o Reinforcement layout might need to be denser.
o Wall facing needs to accommodate possible displacements without failure.

In-Situ Densification Methods in Granular Soils

Introduction
Granular soils (like sand and gravel) often require densification to improve their bearing
capacity, reduce settlements, and mitigate liquefaction risks (especially in seismic areas).
In-situ densification methods work by rearranging soil particles into a denser
configuration by applying energy in various forms (vibration, impact, pressure).
The goal is to:
 Increase soil density,
 Increase shear strength,
 Decrease compressibility and permeability,
 Improve stability against liquefaction.
These densification methods are chosen depending on:

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  Soil type (grain size, relative density),
 Groundwater conditions,
 Depth of treatment,
 Area size and accessibility.

1. Vibration at the Ground Surface (Surface Vibratory Methods)

Definition:
 Application of vibratory energy at the ground surface using specialized
equipment like vibratory rollers, vibratory plates, or surface vibrators.
 The vibrational energy propagates downward, causing soil particles to rearrange
into a denser state.
Equipment:
 Vibratory Rollers: Heavy rollers with internal vibrating mechanisms.
 Surface Vibrators: Specialized large-scale vibrators placed at the ground surface.
Mechanism:
 Vibration reduces inter-particle friction temporarily.
 Particles can easily move and rearrange into a denser packing.
 Densification occurs primarily near the surface but can reach moderate depths
depending on equipment power and soil conditions.
Depth of Influence:
 Typically effective up to 1 to 3 meters below ground surface.
Applications:
 Densification of granular fills,
 Preparation of sites for highways, airport runways,
 Ground treatment before foundation placement.
Limitations:
 Ineffective for deeper layers (> 3 meters).
 Not effective in cohesive (clayey) soils.
Key Factors:
 Grain size: Coarser soils respond better.
 Groundwater table: High water tables can aid particle rearrangement (lubrication
effect).
 Energy input: Higher amplitude and lower frequency vibration preferred.

2. Impact at the Ground Surface (Dynamic Compaction)

Definition:
 Heavy weights (typically 10–30 tons) are dropped from significant heights (10–30
meters) repeatedly onto the ground surface to densify deep granular soils.

29
  Also known as dynamic consolidation.
Equipment:
 Cranes or special rigs used to lift and drop the heavy weights.
Mechanism:
 The impact generates shock waves and high transient pore pressures.
 This causes soil particles to rearrange and densify.
 Pore water is expelled (if water table is high) leading to volume reduction.
Depth of Influence:
 Can densify soils to depths of 10–15 meters or more.
 Deeper than surface vibration methods.
Application Procedure:
1. Divide the site into a grid (spacing based on energy required).
2. Drop the weight repeatedly at each grid point.
3. Multiple passes may be done to increase density.
Applications:
 Preparation of land for industrial facilities, airports.
 Improving loose sands for liquefaction resistance.
 Treating backfills or land reclamation areas.
Advantages:
 Economical for large areas.
 Deep treatment possible without excavation.
Limitations:
 Ground vibrations may damage nearby structures.
 Not effective in cohesive soils (clay-rich soils).
Key Design Parameters:
 Weight (W),
 Drop height (H),
 Spacing between impact points,
 Number of drops per point.
Energy Input (E):
E=W×HE = W \times HE=W×H
Higher energy leads to deeper and more effective densification.

3. Vibration at Depth (Vibro-Compaction or Vibroflotation)

Definition:
 Vibratory probes (vibroflots) are inserted into the ground to specific depths.
 They apply vibration directly at depth, causing localized rearrangement of soil
particles.

30
  Water jets are often used to assist penetration and rearrangement.
Equipment:
 Vibroflot: A cylindrical probe (diameter 30–60 cm) with an electric or hydraulic
motor generating vibrations.
 Can vibrate both vertically and horizontally.
Mechanism:
 Vibration causes a temporary loss of inter-particle friction,
 Soil particles move into a denser arrangement under self-weight and vibratory
forces.
 Water jets help to fluidize the soil, making densification easier.
Depth of Influence:
 Effective for depths up to 20–30 meters.
 Deepest densification among vibratory methods.
Application Procedure:
1. Insert vibroflot to design depth.
2. Start vibrating and jetting.
3. Withdraw the probe slowly while adding granular material if needed (for stone
columns).
Applications:
 Densification of loose sandy soils.
 Increasing bearing capacity under foundations.
 Liquefaction mitigation for seismic safety.
 Formation of stone columns (vibro-replacement if needed).
Advantages:
 Highly effective for deep granular soils.
 Uniform improvement across the treated zone.
Limitations:
 Ineffective in cohesive soils.
 Requires specialized equipment and skilled operators.
Key Factors:
 Grain size: Best in clean sands and gravels.
 Saturation: Some water content aids process.
 Probe power: Stronger vibroflots needed for deeper or denser soils.

4. Impact at Depth (Compaction Grouting)

Definition:
 A thick, low-mobility grout (cement-sand mixture) is injected at depth under high
pressure.

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  The grout displaces and compacts the surrounding soils without significant
mixing.
Equipment:
 Grout pumps and steel casing pipes.
 Specialized drilling rigs to install grout injection points.
Mechanism:
 The grout is injected into the ground, forming bulbs or lenses.
 As grout bulbs expand, they push the soil particles together, increasing the soil
density.
 Compaction primarily occurs around the grout bulb, affecting the surrounding soil
mass.
Depth of Influence:
 Effective to depths of 10–30 meters depending on injection pressure and soil
type.
Application Procedure:
1. Drill boreholes to the desired depth.
2. Start injecting grout in stages (bottom-up).
3. Grout is injected in controlled volumes.
4. Monitor ground heave and injection pressure.
Applications:
 Densification of loose fills.
 Underpinning existing foundations.
 Increasing bearing capacity of soils.
 Preloading soils before new construction.
Advantages:
 Targeted densification at depth.
 Minimal surface disturbance.
 Can be used near existing structures.
Limitations:
 Higher cost compared to surface methods.
 Requires careful control and monitoring to avoid damage.
Key Factors:
 Grout mix design (low mobility, stiff grout).
 Injection pressure and volume.
 Spacing between injection points.

Comparison Table: In-Situ Densification Methods

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Method Energy Form Depth Soil Type Application
Vibratory energy Roadbeds, shallow
Surface Vibration 1–3 m Clean sands
at surface foundations
Surface Impact Heavy weight 10–15 Loose sands, Large area ground
(Dynamic Compaction) drops m gravels improvement
Deep Vibration (Vibro- Vibratory probe at 20–30 Clean sands, Foundations,
compaction) depth m gravels liquefaction mitigation
Loose to
Deep Impact Grout 10–30 Underpinning,
medium
(Compaction Grouting) displacement m structural improvement
sands

33