Here are concise and readable notes on the provided sources:

Unit 1: Introduction to Internet

• Internet Definition: A global system of interconnected computer networks using TCP/IP

to serve billions of users. The largest network of networks, joining government,
university, and private computers.

• Primary Purpose: Sharing of information and communicating with remote PCs.

• Impact of Internet: Revolutionized how individuals and businesses:

o Access information and electronic files

o Communicate personally and professionally

o Shop for products and services

o Share resources

• ARPANET and Internet History:

o ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency) started an experimental network

ARPANET on January 2, 1969.

o 1971: Ray Tomlinson developed e-mail.

o 1972: Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn developed TCP/IP.

o 1990: ARPANET was eliminated, its legacy evolving into the internet.

o 1991: Tim Berners-Lee created HTML, HTTP, the first Web browser and Web
server.

o 1993: Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina developed the MOSAIC browser.

o 1994: Marc Andreessen and Jim Clark founded Netscape Communication and
the Netscape Navigator browser.

• Owners of the Internet: No single person or organization owns the Internet entirely.
It's more of a concept relying on physical infrastructure. Organizations establish its
structure but don't own it. Thousands of people and organizations own different parts.

• Anatomy of Internet: Enormous group of computers linked by cable and satellites using
common network protocols. Includes both hardware and software.

o TCP breaks information into packets of data.

 o Packets travel through networks and ISPs.

o Hardware involved: Hubs, Bridges, Gateways, Repeaters, Routers, Servers, Client

Computers, Cable/Satellite Communications.

o Protocols are basic instructions for handling data.

• Growth of Internet: (Presents user statistics over time).

• Basic Internet Terminology:

o WWW (World Wide Web): Interactive collection of linked hypertext pages.

o URL (Uniform Resource Locator): Address of a web document.

o Server: Computer providing a service to another computer.

o Search Engine: Finds web pages with specific content.

o ISP (Internet Service Provider): Organization providing internet access services.

o Cookie: File on a computer storing user login, preferences, etc..

o Browser: Software to "browse" the Internet (e.g., Internet Explorer, Netscape

Navigator).

o Domain Name: Unique name identifying an Internet site.

o HTML (HyperText Markup Language): Standardized system for tagging text files
for web page effects.

o HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Protocol for connecting to Web servers.

o Uploading: Sending data from your computer to the Internet.

o Downloading: Receiving data from the Internet.

o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Facility for downloading and uploading files.

o Bookmark: Saved web page location for future reference.

o ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): Standard way to

represent characters using numeric codes.

o Home page: Page the computer goes to upon initial internet login.

o Link/Hyperlink: Text on a web page that takes the user to another web location
when clicked.
 • Netiquette: Internet Etiquette, governing socially acceptable online conduct. Respecting
privacy and avoiding annoying others. Important in e-mail, online chats, and
newsgroups.

• Internet Applications:

o Commerce on the Internet: All commercial activity online (auctioning, orders,

payments, etc.). A subset of electronic commerce (e-commerce).

o Governance on the Internet: Development and function by governments, private

sector, and civil society of shared principles, norms, rules, etc., shaping internet
evolution and use. Covers technical and public policy issues like combating online
crime.

• Impact of Internet on Society: Large impact on way of living. Saves money and time
(e.g., price comparisons). Changed relationships, education (online degrees),
fundraising, and political action.

• Crime on/through the Internet: Any illegal online action. Includes cyberbullying,
financial extortion, data theft, password trafficking, copyright violations, online child
pornography, credit card theft, phishing, virus spreading, domain hijacking. Punishing
offenders is complicated due to geographic spread.

Unit 2: Internet Connectivity

• Internet Connectivity: Various types, broadly classified into Level One, Level Two, and
Level Three.

• Level One Connectivity (Gateway Access): Access from a network not on the Internet,
limited access to internet tools allowed by the provider (e.g., AOL, CompuServe). Often
limited to e-mail access.

• Level Two Connectivity (Dial-up Connection): Connection through a dial-up terminal.

Client computer uses a modem to access a Host computer connected to the Internet.
Also known as 'Remote Modem Access'.

o Shell Connection: Textual matter only, no graphics.

o TCP/IP Connection: Supports both text and graphics.

o ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network): Up to 128 Kbps using digital phone
lines.

o Requirements for Dial-up: Computer, Modem, Telephone Connection, ISP

account (Shell/TCP/IP/ISDN), Internet client software.
• Level Three Connectivity (Leased Connection/Direct Internet Access): Secure,
dedicated, and expensive direct connection using high-speed lines. Online 24/7, high
bandwidth, reliable but costly, not for single users.

• Hardware Requirement: Minimum specs (Windows XP+, processor, RAM, sound card,
etc.). Recommended DSL or Cable connection with minimum speeds.

• Selection of a Modem:

o Check the service: Different modems for cable and DSL.

o Ensure interfaces: Modem must connect to the device (USB, PC card, etc.).

o Don't overlook leasing: Easier, ensures suitability.

o Don't forget about price: Internal modems cheapest, others more expensive.

• Software Requirement:

o Operating System: Windows XP Pro/Home (compatibility notes for Vista, Mac,

Linux).

o Security: Important concern, measures include Minimal Non-Administrator

account, Anti-Virus, PC lock down software, NO LINKS in created content, Hide
the keyboard.

• Modem Configuration: Connect modem to power, then Ethernet cable to PC. Open
browser, type http://192.168.1.1/ for configuration page. Default username/password
often admin/admin.

• Telephone line Options:

o Dial-up Connections: Operates through standard phone lines using a modem.

Connection like a phone call between computers. Slower and quality varies. User
chooses username/password, modem "handshake" establishes connection. Least
expensive but slowest.

o Dedicated Access: Reliable and scalable, maximizes VPN connectivity needs.

Cost-effective, provides reliable access.

o ISDN Connection: Integrated Services Digital Network for voice, video, and data
over digital/normal phone lines. Supports 64 Kbps. Mostly for leased lines, uses
Terminal Adapter (TA), not a modem. Two types: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) (2 B-
channels, 1 D-channel) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI) (23 B-channels, 1 D-
 channel in US). Original ISDN uses baseband, B-ISDN uses broadband (fiber optic,
up to 1.5 Mbps, not widely used).

o ISDN Services: Telephony, telecopy, analog terminals, call forwarding/waiting,

CLIP/CLIR, three-party conference, advice of charge, malicious call identification.

o Advantages of ISDN: Digital, less error, direct fast connection, higher bandwidth,
multiple users, multitasking.

o Disadvantages of ISDN: More expensive installation, not easy to set up, not
available in all exchanges.

• Protocol Options:

o Secure Shell (SSH): Secure channel for data exchange between networked
devices, primarily on Linux/Unix for shell accounts. Replaces Telnet, encrypts
data (passwords).

o SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol): Mostly obsolete encapsulation of IP over

serial ports/modems. Largely replaced by PPP (more features, no pre-set IP). No
error detection, not ideal for error-prone dial-up.

o PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): Data link protocol for direct connection between
two nodes. Encapsulation for IP over point-to-point links. Full duplex, works on
various media, preferred over SLIP (synchronous/asynchronous, shares line, error
detection).

• Service Options:

o E-mail (Electronic Mail): Exchange of computer-stored messages. Worldwide

communication system.

o WWW (World Wide Web): System of interlinked hypertext documents accessed

via the Internet. Facilitated information spread due to easy and flexible format.

o Firewall: Program/device acting as a barrier to keep destructive elements out of

a network/computer. Configured to block unauthorized access. Filters network
traffic by blocking unsafe incoming packets.

• Network Definition: Collection of independent computers communicating over a shared

medium. Two or more connected computers. Allows sharing of files and peripherals.

• Local Area Network (LAN): Group of computers in a limited geographical area (home,
school, office). Can be wired or wireless. Size limited to a few kilometers. Designed for
resource sharing (hardware, software, data). Common topologies: bus, ring, star.
 Wireless LANs are the newest evolution. Basic structures: Peer-to-Peer and
Client/Server.

o LAN Applications: Mostly in office environments for Sharing (hardware like

printers), Interoffice Communication, Internet Communication.

• Wide Area Network (WAN): Spans a large geographical area (state, country). Different
from MAN due to distance. The Internet is the best example. Connects computers and
users in different locations via telephone lines, fiber optics, or satellites. Uses TCP/IP
with routers, switches, firewalls, and modems.

o WAN Connection Types:

▪ Dedicated connection (Point-to-point/Leased): Uses synchronous serial

lines up to 45Mbps, constant data transfer.

▪ Circuit switching: Like a phone call, connection established before data

transfer, for low-bandwidth (e.g., Dial-up, ISDN).

▪ Packet switching: Shares bandwidth, transfers packets across a carrier

network (56Kbps to T3/45Mbps) (e.g., Frame Relay, X.25, Internet
Protocol, Ethernet).

• Node: System/device connected to a network (computer, PDA, phone, etc.). Each has a
unique network address (MAC address).

• Host: One or more networked computers handling user visits/information requests.

Responsible for tasks (e.g., online game players, sending web pages). Connected
computers are Clients.

• Workstation: High-performance computer for a single user with advanced graphics,

storage, and powerful CPU. More capable than a PC, less than a mid-range computer.

• Bandwidth: Amount of information transmitted through a channel in a given time

(capacity). Often in bits/bytes per second. Expresses network link capacity or data
transfer rate. Higher bandwidth means faster information transfer.

• Interoperability: Ability of different networks/programs to work together without extra

tools. TCP/IP enables interoperability.

• Network Administrator: Responsible for network/server maintenance and operation.

Tasks include allocating storage, network design, expansion, user support, installing
equipment, managing filters/firewalls, monitoring, resetting passwords, setting up
devices, security testing. Examples of certifications: MCSA, Network+, CCNP, CNA, RHCE.
• Network Security: Securing network infrastructure, handled by network/system
administrators. Involves security policies, software/hardware to protect against
unauthorized access and ensure adequate employee access. Relies on layers of
protection, including monitoring and security software/hardware.

• Servers: Network computers with large storage capacity and assigned roles, controlling
other computers and labor division. Provide services to other computers, hold files,
programs, and network OS.

• Clients: Any computer on a common network other than the server. Less powerful than
servers, access network and shared resources.

• Communication Media: Interconnect computers in a network.

o Wired (Bounded): Twisted-pair wire, Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable.

o Wireless (Unbounded): Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Transmitter/Receiver.

• Peer to Peer Network: No dedicated servers or hierarchy, all computers are equal peers.
Each acts as Client/Server, no central administrator. Good for small organizations in the
same area, where security isn't a major issue and limited growth is expected.

o Advantages: Easy/simple to set up (hub/switch), access shared files, failure of

one computer doesn't affect others.

o Disadvantages: Security not great (password protection only), connection issues

can cause access problems, inefficient with many computers (best for 2-8).

• Domain Name System (DNS): Invented for e-mail on ARPANET, now supports the global
Internet. Network of servers mapping domain names (e.g., www.livinginternet.com) to
IP addresses. Allows domain names to remain constant despite network topology/IP
changes. Client/server architecture, distributes mapping job among domain servers.

• Domain Name and their Organization: Alphanumeric identifiers for hosts on the
Internet. Structure described in RFC 819, syntax in RFC 822. Four main types:

o Top-level domains: Rightmost part (e.g., .com, .gov, .edu, .org, .mil, .net).

o Second-level domains: Registered by individuals/organizations (e.g., yahoo.com,

livinginternet.com). Used for web hosting and email, up to 61 characters (letters,
numbers, hyphen).

o Third-level domains: Created by owners of second-level domains for specific

purposes (e.g., www.livinginternet.com, mail.livinginternet.com). Fourth and
higher levels can exist but are usually not needed.
 o Country domains: Unique alphabetic designation for each country (e.g., .in, .au,
.ca, .us).

• Understanding the Internet Protocol Address:

o IP address: Identifier for a computer/device on a TCP/IP network. Used for

routing messages.

o What is My IP Address?: Use ipconfig command in command prompt or Google

search "what is my IP address".

o Format of an IP Address: 32-bit numeric address in four numbers (0-255)

separated by periods (e.g., 1.160.10.240). Identifies a network and a host. Private
networks need registered IP addresses for internet connection to avoid
duplicates.

o Static IP address: Never changes, permanent Internet address.

o Dynamic IP address: Temporary address assigned each time a device accesses

the internet.

• Network Topology: Arrangement of network elements.

o Star Topology: Devices connected to a central hub/switch via point-to-point links.

Central node transmits messages between peripherals. Reduces damage from
line failure, easy control, simple traffic flow.

▪ Advantages: Isolation of devices (easy to disconnect), benefits from

centralization (easy modification, traffic inspection, fault detection), no
disruption when adding/removing, easy installation, node failures don't
bring down the whole network.

▪ Disadvantages: Central hub failure causes whole network failure, each

device needs its own cable, moderately difficult installation in hierarchical
networks, large amount of cable required.

o Ring Topology: Each computer connected to the next, forming a ring. Data travels
node to node, each handling every packet. Single pathway, so link failure can
disrupt the network. Signals travel in one direction, each computer retransmits,
active network, no termination needed.

▪ Advantages: Cable failures easily found, equal access (no

monopolization), performs well under heavy load, no central node
 needed, easy fault identification and isolation (point-to-point), easy to
install/reconfigure (moving two connections).

▪ Disadvantages: Adding/removing nodes disrupts the network, difficult to

troubleshoot, failure of one node affects the whole network, more cable
cost.

o Bus Topology: Multiple devices connected to a single cable (bus/backbone). All

computers receive sent signals, but only the intended recipient accepts. Passive
topology, requires termination.

▪ Advantages: Easy to use and install, fewer connectivity devices, repeater

can extend, low cost.

▪ Disadvantages: Heavy traffic slows it down, difficult to troubleshoot,

cable failure affects all devices, difficult to add new nodes.

o Hybrid Topology: Uses two or more different topologies (bus, mesh, ring, star,
tree).

▪ Advantages: Combines benefits, modifiable, flexible, reliable, scalable,

easy error detection, handles large traffic, used for large networks.

▪ Disadvantages: Expensive, complex design, hardware changes needed for

different topologies, requires many cables in installation.

o Mesh Topology: All computers interconnected to every other via dedicated links.
Each node relays data. N(N-1)/2 links for N nodes. Point-to-point connections
(wired/wireless).

▪ Advantages: Single device failure won't break network, no traffic

problems (dedicated links), straightforward fault identification, multiple
paths (redundancy), high privacy/security.

▪ Disadvantages: Costly, difficult installation, higher power requirement,

complex process, high risk of redundant connections.

Unit 3: Internet Security Management Concepts

• Overview of Internet Security: Protecting websites and electronic files from hackers and
viruses in the vast internet. Essential for business users' confidence. Cyber criminals
constantly find new ways around security. Techniques to ensure data is not read or
compromised without authorization, often involving encryption and passwords.
 Connecting to a network involves risk. Basic measures: passwords, file permissions,
backups. Security is paramount in system enhancements.

• Aspects and need of security: Threats are expanding, business practices transforming.
Fight against well-financed criminals, not just pranksters. Concerned about web-based
malware, worms, application attacks. Primary customers are now citizens, organizations,
partners. Valued information in large databases linked globally. Need attention to server
configuration, application security, patching, authentication, malicious traffic. Need to
filter malicious websites, apply patches quickly, develop secure applications, secure
desktops/servers, use strong authentication, train employees, isolate data. Vendor
security tools are bundling, discounts for using only their products (even if not best
practice). Older products may not be top performers, support may decline as product
lines expand, push for long-term contracts. Limited price competition except for large
purchases. Vendors are improving threat identification and updates. Security must be a
core service-delivery requirement, not an add-on. Independent agency implementation
is inefficient. Need long-term strategies.

• E-mail threats and Secure E-mail: E-mail is like a postcard, can be intercepted. Secrecy
requires sender/receiver agreement on a secret key, logistical problems for distant
recipients. Public key cryptography (public/private key pair) solves this. Message signing
is another way to ensure secrecy.

• Web security and Privacy concepts: 'Internet options' in control panel allow setting
privacy and security levels for browsers. 'Security options' block unwanted/unsecure
sites, 'privacy option' blocks cookies by zone.

• What are cookies?: Small text strings stored on a user's computer by a web browser.
Message from a web server stored by the browser in a text file, sent back with each
page request. Main purpose is to identify users and possibly customize pages. Used to
collect demographic info, personalize user experience, monitor advertisements. Text
files that can be deleted, cannot spread viruses or access hard drive, do not act
maliciously.

• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Framework for managing internet
devices using TCP/IP. Provides operations for monitoring and maintaining. Uses a
manager (runs client program) and agent (runs server program). Management through
interaction between manager and agent. Agent keeps performance info in a database
accessible by the manager. Application level protocol with a few managers controlling
agents. Management based on: manager checking agent by requesting behavior info,
manager forcing tasks by setting values, agent warning manager of unusual situations.
 SNMP defines packet format, interprets results, creates statistics, responsible for
reading/changing object variable names and values.

• VPN (Virtual Private Network): Allows a computer to connect to a corporate LAN over
the internet. Important, widely used technology. Carried over a shared/public network
(usually internet), encrypts messages accessible only to VPN client and server. Less costly
than dedicated connections (WAN) by using internet efficiency without compromising
security.

o VPN Connections: Used to establish WAN connections between distant networks

via internet access. Also for remote access connections enabling remote users to
access a private network through the internet.

o VPN Protocols: Must connect to internet using point-to-point protocols (usually

IP, can be IPX, NetBEUI, Apple talk). Both sides set up a tunnel through PPP
connections using a tunneling protocol. Three important protocols: Point-to-
Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP), Internet
Protocol Security (IPSec).

o VPN Client: Both sides need compatible VPN software and protocols. For remote
access, software depends on the VPN. Dedicated VPN solutions sell client
software for distribution.

• What is Firewall: A computer network is autonomous devices sharing communication

technology for information exchange. An internetwork is interconnected individual
networks behaving as one larger network. Internetworking changed how people live,
learn, work, but also brought dangers (anonymity, remote control, automation).
Firewalls act as conditional gateways to compensate for lack of natural boundaries.
Criteria to permit traffic defined in firewall policy, ideally related to the organization's
security policy. Enforced conditions depend on the firewall category. Each trust domain
can have multiple networks. Firewalls only control traffic passing through them. Requires
clear knowledge of client/server locations before policy definition.

• Internet security and Management concepts: Connecting to other systems on the

internet poses a risk of unauthorized access. Manipulating security is crucial for
commercial transactions to ensure message privacy and financial security.

• Authentication: Process of determining the identity of a user trying to access a system.

Verification of identity by passwords, personal challenge, response calculation, or
random password generator.

o Authentication methods:
 ▪ One time password systems: Token displays a current password verified
by the server.

▪ Challenge/ Response systems: Server sends a challenge, user enters in

token, token calculates a response based on the challenge, user enters
response back.

o Passwords: Most common form of computer security. Some networks require

multiple levels.

o Callback: Security feature where server hangs up after user dials in and enters
credentials, then calls back at a pre-defined number.

o Packet Filters: Network administrators can limit user access to specific network
services (e.g., send email but not copy files).

o Authentication servers: Set up in various ways based on network security

scheme. Basic process: user dials in, NAS forwards credentials to authentication
server.

• Authorization: Process of determining how an authenticated user can use specific

resources. Automatically enforces management policies regarding resource use (data
files, commands, devices, programs). Rules control confidentiality/integrity by
granting/denying read, modify, create, delete access. Authentication controls who can
access, authorization controls what they can do. Grants privileges to processes and
users, lets administrators control parts of the network (e.g., directories).

• Auditing and Accountability: Auditing is data collection/analysis to verify users and

authorization rules align with business/security policies. Individual accountability for
policy violations depends on monitoring security events, initiating an auditing feedback
loop. Monitoring can be continuous/automatic or occasional verification. Auditing
information used by security administrators, auditors, regulators, and in legal
proceedings.

• Information Privacy: User data (files, emails) not seen by others without permission.
Private communication when sender and receiver can read the message.

o E-mail Privacy: Message broken into packets with sender/recipient addresses

sent through different systems. Content and addresses examined by all routing
systems, so e-mail can be very public without code/protection. Most system
administrators adopt codes not to examine emails.
 o Electronic Communication Privacy Act (1986): Prohibits unauthorized access to
e-mail messages. Also prohibits government access without legal permission.
Allows system administrators to examine emails if necessary for operation or
security.

• Encryption: Message sent in secret code so it can't be read without the code (key) and
encryption method. Reader needs the key to decode the message.

• Copyright Issues: Tremendous number of online files/documents/images that can be

viewed/saved/printed/shared. Copying information is legal only with the owner's
permission (copyright).

• Cryptography: From Greek 'Kryptos'. Method of storing/transmitting data in a particular

form so only intended recipients can read/process it. Often associated with scrambling
plaintext into ciphertext (encryption) and back (decryption).

o Plaintext: Any unencrypted message.

o Encryption: Conversion of data into ciphertext (unintelligible form).

o Decryption: Process of converting ciphertext back to plaintext.

o Ciphertext (Cyphertext): Result of encryption using an algorithm (cipher).

o Cryptanalysis: Study of ciphers/ciphertext/cryptosystems to find plaintext/key.

Decryption and analysis of codes using mathematical formulas to find
vulnerabilities.

o Cryptology: Study of mathematics, linguistics, and other coding patterns.

Cryptology = Cryptography + Cryptanalysis. Involves number theory and its
application to cryptography and cryptanalysis.