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DEPT. OF CSE
U21CSG05 COMPUTER NETWORKS
COURSE OUTCOMES

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Syllabus
TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCES

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 UNIT -I Introduction & Physical Layer
CO1:
Summarize the network models and functionality
of physical layer (Understand)

5
 Topics
• Fundamentals of data communication
• Networks
• Internet protocols and standards
• Topologies
• OSI model
• TCP/IP protocol suite
• Transmission media
• Circuit, datagram and virtual networks
• Modem
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 Fundamentals of Data
Communication
• The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance.
• The word data refers to information presented in whatever form
is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.
• Data communications are the exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable.
• Types:
1. Local:
– If the devices are restricted in a geographical area.
2. Remote:
– If the devices are farther away without any
geographical restriction. 7
 Fundamentals of Data
Communication
• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics:
• Delivery : The system must deliver data to the correct
destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
• Accuracy : The system must deliver the data accurately.
Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
• Timeliness : The system must deliver data in a timely
manner.
• Jitter : Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival
time
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 Components of
Data communication

9
 Components of Data
Communication
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be
communicated. Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera,
and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It
can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television,
and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical
path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some
examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
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 Components of Data
Communication

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data

communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking
French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
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 Data Representation
• Text : In data communications, text is represented as a bit
pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
• Numbers : Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers.
• Images : Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its
simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of pixels
(picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
• Audio : Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound
or music. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or
images. It is continuous, not discrete.
• Video : Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a
picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous
entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of
images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of
motion
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 Direction of dataflow

Communication between two devices can be:

Simplex
Half-Duplex
Full-Duplex
 Direction of dataflow

Simplex (one way street)

The communication is unidirectional
Only one device on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive
Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data
Example: Keyboards, Monitors

Data
 Direction of dataflow

Half-Duplex (one-lane with two-directional traffic)

Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time
When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice versa
The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the
transmitting device
Example: Walkie-talkies

Data

Data
 Direction of dataflow

Full-Duplex (Duplex) (two-way street)

Both stations can transmit and receive at same time
Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of the
link
Sharing can occur in two ways:
Link has two physically separate transmission paths
One for sending and the other for receiving
The capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in
both directions
Example: Telephone network

Data

Data
 Exercise

What mode of data flow the following exhibits shows?

Data

Data

Answer: Full-Duplex
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 Networks
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium
which can transport a signal carrying information.
• Topics discussed in this section:
• Network Criteria
• Physical Structures
• Categories of Networks
 Network Criteria
• A network must meet a number of criteria to be
considered as effective and efficient.
1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security
 Network Criteria : Performance
• Transit time-It is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another device.
• Response time-It is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
• The performance of a network depends on a number of factors
• Number of user- Large number of concurrent users produces
slow response time and heavy traffic loads.
• Type of transmission medium-Medium defines the speed of
data travel.
• Hardware- type of hardware can affect the speed and capacity of
transmission.
• Software-software can affect speed and reliability of a network
link.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay.
Network Criteria : Reliability & Security

• Reliability
• The reliability is measured by frequency to failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a failure
and the networks robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security
• Network security issues include protecting data
from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
Physical Structures : Types of connections
Physical Structures : Types of connections
• A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is
a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to
another.
• There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
Point-to-Point :
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices.
Multipoint :
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link.
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.
 Categories of Networks

Local Area Networks (LANs)

• Short distances
• Designed to provide local interconnectivity
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
• Long distances
• Provide connectivity over large areas
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
• Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a
campus
Local Area Network
Local Area Network
Metropolitan Area Network
Wide Area Network
 Internet Protocols and Standards

Protocol synonymous with rule

Standards: agreed-upon rules

Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications
Defines What, How, and When it is communicated
 Protocols and Standards

Elements of a protocol:
Syntax: structure or format of data
Example: 8-bits address of sender, 8-bits address of receiver

Semantics: meaning of each section of bits

It includes control information for coordination & error handling
How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is
to be taken based on that interpretation?
Example: Does the address is a route to be taken or the final
destination of the message

Timing: when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent
Example: sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
process data at only 1 Mbps  overload and data loose
 Standards

• Essential in creating and maintaining an open and

competitive market for equipment manufactures
• Guaranteeing national and international
interoperability of data and telecommunication
technology and processes
• Providing guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers to
ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in
today’s marketplace and in international
communications
 Standards

Two categories
De facto (meaning "by fact" or "by
convention"): not approved by an organized
body but adopted as standards through
widespread use
De jure (meaning "by law" or "by
regulation“): Legislated by an officially
recognized body
 Standards Organizations

Standards are developed through the cooperation of:

Standards Creation Committees
ISO, ITU-T, CCITT, ANSI, IEEE, EIA
Forums
Created by special-interest groups
Present their conclusions to the standards bodies
Regulatory Agencies
Ministry of Telecommunication and Information Technology (KSA)
Purpose: Protecting the public by regulating radio, television, and
communication
Standards Organizations

Standards Creation Committees

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• The ISO is a multinational body
• The ISO is active in developing cooperation in the realms of
scientific, technological, and economic activity
International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T).
• Its private and this committee was devoted to the research and
establishment of standards for telecommunications in general
and for phone and data systems in particular
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
• Its private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated with the U.S.
federal government
• all ANSI activities are undertaken with the welfare of the United
States and its citizens occupying primary importance
Standards Organizations

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is the largest
professional engineering society in the world.
• International in scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and
product quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics,
and radio as well as in all related branches of engineering.
Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
• Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries Association is a
nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of electronics
manufacturing concerns.
• In the field of information technology, the EIA has made
significant contributions by defining physical connection
interfaces and electronic signaling specifications for data
communication
Standards Organizations

Forums
• Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature slow-
moving
• Created by special-interest groups made up of representatives from
interested corporations
• The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate, and
standardize new technologies.
Regulatory Agencies
• All communications technology is subject to regulation by
government agencies such as the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) in the United States.
• Purpose: Protecting the public by regulating radio, television, and
communication
 Standards

Internet standards
• Tested thoroughly tested specification that is useful to
be adhered to by those who work with the Internet
• Formalized regulation that must be followed
• Specification become Internet standard
• Begins as Internet draft for 6 months
• Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities draft
published as Request for Comment (RFC)
• RFC is edited, assigned a number, and made available to all
interested parties
 Topology
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes)
to one another.
• There are four basic topologies possible: mesh,
star, bus, and ring.
Mesh Topology
 Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.
• The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
Advantages :
1. First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry
its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when
links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust.
3. There is the advantage of privacy or security
4. point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy
Disadvantages :
1. Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.
2. Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult.
3. Bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space
4. Expensive
Star Topology
 Star Topology
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a
star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
Advantages :
1. First, A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology
2. Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain
active.
3. Easy fault identification and fault isolation
Disadvantages :
1. One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole
topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
Bus Topology
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the devices in a network
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps

Advantages :
1. First, ease of installation
2. Bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies
Disadvantages :
1. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
2. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices
3. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology
• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in
one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along
Advantages :
1. First, A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure
2. In addition, fault isolation is simplified
Disadvantages :
1. Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
2. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable
the entire network
3. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission
Hybrid Topology
Protocol Layering
 OSI MODEL

• International Standards Organization (ISO) is

a multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s.
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
Seven layers of the OSI model
 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.58
 Physical layer
• 1st Layer of OSI model.
• “The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual
bits from one hop (node) to the next”
• Devices: Cables, Connectors, Hubs and repeater
• PDU : Bits (0’s and 1’s)
• Functions : Bits Synchronization , Defines the type of
transmission media ,Gives transmission rate (no of bits sent
per second)
 Data link layer
• 2nd Layer of OSI model.
• “The data link layer is responsible for moving frames
from one hop (node) to the next”
• Devices: switches, network interface card
• PDU : Frames
• Protocols : PPP, Ethernet, token ring , FDDI , ATM
• Functions : Data flow control, Error Control ,User
Access control, Framing ,Physical addressing
 Network layer
• 3rd Layer of OSI model.
• “The network layer is responsible for the delivery of
individual packets from the source host to the destination
host”
• Devices: Routers
• PDU : Packet
• Protocols : IP , ICMP , ARP , IPSec, etc
• Functions : Routing , Logical Addressing ,Forwarding ,Find the
best possible routes
 Transport layer
• 4th Layer of OSI model.
• “The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a
message from one process to another”
• Devices: Routers
• PDU : Segments
• Protocols : TCP and UDP
• Functions : Port addressing , Segmentation and
reassembly ,Connection control (Connection
oriented (TCP)-ACK and Connectionless (UDP)- No ACK)
,Flow control and Error Control
Reliable process-to-process delivery
of a message
 Session layer
• 5th Layer of OSI model.
• “Its responsible for dialog control and
synchronization i.e. its establishing,maintianing &
terminates the interaction among communicating
systems”
• Functions : dialog control (it defines half or full
duplex),synchronization
 Presentation layer
• 6th Layer of OSI model.
• “This layer is responsible for translation,
compression and encryption”
• Services : Data compression ,Encryption ,Data
translation and Decryption
 Application layer
• 7th Layer of OSI model.
• “It is responsible for providing services to the
users”
• Services : Mail services , Remote login , www
services and File accessing
Summary of layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can
say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five
layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.
TCP/IP and OSI model
 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• One of the important concepts in protocol layering in
the Internet is encapsulation/decapsulation
 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.72
 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.73
 Physical Address (MAC Address)
Format: Typically
Definition: A unique represented as six pairs
identifier assigned to a of hexadecimal digits
network interface card separated by colons or
(NIC) for communications hyphens (e.g.,
at the data link layer of a 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
network segment. Use: It is used to
identify devices on a
local network. It’s
essential for routing
data packets within the
same network.
 Logical Address (IP Address)
Format:IPv4: Four decimal
numbers separated by periods
Definition: An address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
assigned to each device IPv6: Eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits separated by
connected to a network colons (e.g.,
that uses the Internet 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2
Protocol for e:0370:7334).
Use: Used to identify devices on
communication. different networks. It helps in
routing packets between
networks, enabling
communication over the
internet.
 Port Address
Format: A 16-bit
Definition: A number number, ranging from 0
assigned to a specific to 65535.Use: It’s part
process or service on a of the TCP/IP protocol
device, used to identify stack and is used to
the specific application direct data to the
or service within a correct application on a
device. device. For example,
HTTP typically uses port
80, while HTTPS uses
port 443.
 Specific Address Use: The use and
Definition: This is a meaning of a specific
more context- address can vary
dependent term and depending on the
can refer to a particular context. It might refer
type of address within a to a memory address
system or network, within a computer, an
such as an address address within a
within a memory space specific protocol, or any
or a device-specific address uniquely
address in a specialized defining a specific
system. entity within a
particular system.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
• Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols
at some layers, means multiplexing at the source and
demultiplexing at the destination.
• Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a
layer can encapsulate a packet from several next-
higher layer protocols (one at a time)
• Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate
and deliver a packet to several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time).
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 PERFORMANCE

1. Bandwidth 4. Bandwidth-Delay Product

•Bandwidth in Hertz 5. Jitter
•Bandwidth in Bits per
seconds
2. Throughput
3. Latency (delay)
•Propagation time
•Transmission Time
•Queuing Time
 Transmission Media

• Its a physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data

transmission system.
• Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer
and directly controlled by the physical layer.
Transmission media
 Guided (Wires)
Twisted pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber Optic Cable
 unguided (Wireless)
• Guided (Wires)
• Electromagnetic signals (or) data can be transmitted by using a
wired media like copper wires and fiber optics
• Unguided (Wireless)
• Electromagnetic signals (or) data can be transmitted by using a
wireless media.

 Guided (Wires)
Twisted pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber Optic Cable
Twisted pair cable
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper wire),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
• One of the wire is used to carry signals to the receiver.
• the other is used only as a ground reference
• Twisting --No of twists per unit of length determines the quality of the cable
-- more twists better quality
 Twisted pair cable
* Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
* Shielded twisted pair (STP)
• UTP
• Its normal telephone wire.
• Most common twisted pair cable used in communication
• EIA (Electronics Industries Association) classify UTP cable into seven categories
• CAT 1 :
• used in telephone lines
• Low speed data cable
• CAT 2 support upto 2Mbps implementation
• CAT 3 support upto 16Mbps and mostly used in 10Mbps
• CAT 4 used for large distance and high speed - support upto 20Mbps
• CAT 5 this is highest rating for UTP and can support 100Mbps Connectors
• CAT 5e - an extension of category 5 .- support 125Mbps
• CAT 6 - support 200 Mbps
• CAT 7 - support 600 Mbps
• Connectors
• UTP consists of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable
• Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector
• Cable with 4 pair use RJ-45 connector
• RJ 45 connector is keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one
way
• Advantages : Low cost , easy installation and capable of high speed for LAN
• Disadvantages : short distance due to attenuator
• STP
• Std cable produced by IBM
• Its bulkies and more expensive
• Shielded pair to avoid interference
• Characteristics
• Medium cost
• Easy to install
• Higher attenuation same as UTP
• Medium immunity from EMI Same as UTP
• 100 meter limit
• Merits
• Shielded
• Faster than UTP and Coaxial
• Demerits
• More expensive than UTP and coaxial
• Difficult installation
• High attenuation rate
Co-axial Cable
• Its very common and widely used communication media
example is TV wire is usually coaxial
• Coaxial cable gets its name because its contains two conductors
that are parallel to each other.
• The central conductor is usually a copper wire acts as
conductor where the information travels.
• This copper wire in coax is thicker than that is twisted pair
• This copper wire is having high transmission rate than twisted pair due
to less EMI
• This central conductor is covered by insulator (non-conductive
material) its usually white, plastic material used to separate the
inner conductor and outer conductor
• The outer conductor is used to help shield the cable from EMI
• There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge and
impedance, gauge is the measure of the cable thickness
Coaxial Cable
Co-axial Cable
• Characteristics
• Low cost
• Easy to install
• Upto 10Mbps capacity
• Medium attenuation and immunity from EMI
• Advantages
• In expensive
• Easy to wire and easy to expand
• Disadvantages
• Single cable failure can take down an entire network
• Connectors
• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors
• The most common type of connector used today is BNC (Bayone-Neill-concelman)
• Three types
• BNC connector – used to connect end of the cable to a device such as TV set
• BNC T Connector – used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to
a computer or other device
• BNC terminator - used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the
signal.
 Fiber Optic cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light.
• The nature of light
• Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single
uniform substance.
• If a ray of light travelling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.
• The above shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a
more dense to a less dense substance.
• I ( angle of incidence) < Critical angle
• the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface
• I = Critical angle
• the light bends along the interface
• I > Critical angle
• the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the denser
substance.
• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or
plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic
Single Mode
• Single-mode uses step-index Fiber and a highly focused source of light
that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
• The single mode Fiber has much smaller diameter than that of
multimode Fiber and lower density (index of refraction).
• Low density to make propagation of beam almost horizontal. So
propagation of different beams is identical.
• All the beams arrive at the destination “together” and combine the
little distortion signal.
 Multimode Step-Index

• Multimode ,Step-index
– Core density constant
– It increases distortion of signal through cable
• Index : refers to the index of refraction
Multimode Graded-Index

• Multimode , Graded index

– Core density - higher at centre of core and decreases
at the lowest at the edge
– Decreases the distortion of signal 1 through cable
• The composition of a typical fiber-optic cable
• The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon
• Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable and Kevlar is a
strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests.
• Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber.
• The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
• Core : Inner most section and its glass or plastic
• Cladding : Core is surrounded by its cladding .its less dense glass or plastic.
• Outermost jacket : its outer most layer
Fiber Construction
• Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors
• Three types of connectors
• SC ( Subscriber channel ) connector – it used for cable TV.
• Straight-tip (ST) connector – It is used for connecting cable to
networking devices
-- Its more reliable than SC
• MT-RJ Connector – same as RJ - 45
 BC Connector BT Connector MT-RJ connector
• Advantages
• High Bandwidth
• Less attenuation – a signal can run for 50km without repeaters
• Light- weight
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Disadvantages
• High cost
• Difficult to install and maintenance
• Unidirectional
• Propagation of light is unidirectional
• Two fibers are needed if we need bidirectional communication
Taxonomy of switched networks
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
• A circuit-switched network consists of a set of
switches connected by physical links.
• A connection between two stations is a dedicated
path made of one or more links.
• Each connection uses only one dedicated channel
on each link. Each link is normally divided into n
channels by using FDM or TDM.
Note
A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links,
in which each link is
divided into n channels.
A trivial circuit-switched network
Note

In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase;
the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until the
teardown phase.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS :Three Phases
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS :Three Phases
Setup Phase
• Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call)
can communicate, a dedicated circuit (combination of channels
in links) needs to be established. The end systems are normally
connected through dedicated lines to the switches, so
connection setup means creating dedicated channels between
the switches.
Data-Transfer Phase
• After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the
two parties can transfer data.
Teardown Phase
• When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to
each switch to release the resources.
64
Efficiency and Delay in a circuit-switched network

Efficiency
• It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as
the other two types of networks because resources are allocated
during the entire duration of the connection.
Delay
• Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the
delay in this type of network is minimal. During data transfer the
data are not delayed at each switch; the resources are allocated for
the duration of the connection.
 Packet Switching
• In data communications, we need to send messages
from one end system to another.
• If the message is going to pass through a packet-
switched network, it needs to be divided into packets
of fixed or variable size.
• The size of the packet is determined by the network
and the governing protocol.
• In a packet-switched network, there is no resource
reservation; resources are allocated on demand.
• Two categories
• Datagram approach
• Virtual Circuit Approach
 Datagram Approach
• In a datagram network, each packet is treated
independently of all others.
• Even if a packet is part of a multipacket transmission,
the network treats it as though it existed alone.
Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams.
• Datagram switching is normally done at the network
layer.
Datagram Approach:
Connectionless Service

64
Note
A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination
address.
Note
The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network
remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.
Efficiency and Delay in Datagram approach

Efficiency
• The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-
switched network; resources are allocated only when there are
packets to be transferred.
• If a source sends a packet and there is a delay of a few minutes
before another packet can be sent, the resources can be reallocated
during these minutes for other packets from other sources.
Delay
• There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-
circuit network.
• Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet may
experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded.
 Virtual-Circuit Approach
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-
switched network and a datagram network.

64
 Addressing
• In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are
involved: global and local (virtual-circuit identifier)
Global Addressing
• A source or a destination needs to have a global address—an
address that can be unique in the scope of the network or
internationally if the network is part of an international
network
Virtual-Circuit Identifier
• The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the
virtual-circuit identifier (VCI) or the label.
• A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only
switch scope; it is used by a frame between two switches.
• When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it
has a different VCI.
64
 Virtual-circuit identifier

8.120
 Virtual-Circuit Approach – Three Phases
• In the setup phase, the source and destination use
their global addresses to help switches make table
entries for the connection.
• In the teardown phase, the source and destination
inform the switches to delete the corresponding
entry.
• Data transfer occurs between these two phases. We
first discuss the data-transfer phase, which is more
straightforward; we then talk about the setup and
teardown phases.
Note
In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path;
but the packets may arrive at the destination with different delays
if resource allocation is on demand.
Figure 8.16 Delay in a virtual-circuit network
 MODEMS
• The term modem is a composite word that refers to
the two functional entities that make up the device: a
signal modulator and a signal demodulator.
• A modulator creates a bandpass analog signal from
binary data. A demodulator recovers the binary data
from the modulated signal.
MODEMS

Modem
 MODEMS Standard
• Many of the most popular modems available are based on the V-series
standards published by the ITU-T.
V Standard
V32
• The V.32 modem uses a combined modulation and encoding technique called
trellis coded modulation.
• Trellis is essentially QAM plus a redundant bit. The data stream is divided into
4-bit sections. Instead of a quadbit (4-bit pattern), however, a pentabit (5-bit
pattern) is transmitted.
• The value of the extra bit is calculated from the values of the data bits. The
extra bit is used for error detection. Date rate is 9600bps.
V32bis
• The V.32bis modem was the first of the ITU-T standards to support 14,400-bps
transmission.
• The V.32bis uses 128-QAM transmission (7 bits/baud with I bit for error
control) at a rate of 2400 baud (2400 x 6 = 14,400 bps).
 MODEMS Standard
V34bis
• The V.34bis modem provides a bit rate of 28,800 with a 960-point constellation
and a bit rate of 33,600 bps with a 1664-point constellation.
V90
• Traditional modems have a data rate limitation of 33.6 kbps, as determined by
the Shannon capacity .
• However, V.90 modems with a bit rate of 56,000 bps are available; these are
called 56K modems.
• These modems may be used only if one party is using digital signaling (such as
through an Internet provider).
• They are asymmetric in that the downloading rate (flow of data from the
Internet service provider to the PC) is a maximum of 56 kbps, while the
uploading rate (flow of data from the PC to the Internet provider) can be a
maximum of 33.6 kbps.
 MODEMS Standard

V.92
• The standard above V90 is called V.92. These modems can adjust their
speed, and if the noise allows, they can upload data at the rate of 48
kbps. The downloading rate is still 56 kbps.
• The modem has additional features. For example, the modem can
interrupt the Internet connection when there is an incoming call if the
line has call-waiting service.