ALGEBRA II

Contents
1 Quadratic Functions 1
1.1 Solving Quadratics by Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Solving Quadratics by Using Square Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.5 The Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.6 Analyzing the Graph of a Quadratic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

2 Polynomial Functions 75
2.1 Properties of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.2 Adding, Subtracting and Multiplying Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
2.3 Factoring and Solving Polynomial Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.4 Dividing Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.5 Finding all Solutions of Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.6 Analyzing the Graph of Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3 Roots, Radicals and Function Operations 136
3.1 Using Rational Exponents and nth Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.2 Graphing Square Root and Cubed Root Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.3 Solving Radical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.4 Function Operations and the Inverse of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 186

4.1 Exponential Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.2 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.3 Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.4 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

5 Rational Functions 230

5.1 Direct, Inverse, and Joint Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.2 Graphing Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.3 Simplifying, Multiplying, and Dividing Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.4 Adding & Subtracting Rational Expressions and Complex Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.5 Solving Rational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6 Conic Sections 285
6.1 Parabolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6.2 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
6.3 Ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6.4 Hyperbolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.5 General Conic Equations and Solving Non-Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7 Sequences and Series 348
7.1 General Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
7.2 Arithmetic Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
7.3 Geometric Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
7.4 Infinite Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
8 Introduction to Probability 386
8.1 The Fundamental Counting Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
8.2 Permutations and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
8.3 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
8.4 Introduction to Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
8.5 Venn Diagrams and Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
 CHAPTER
1 Quadratic Functions
Chapter Outline
1.1 SOLVING QUADRATICS BY FACTORING
1.2 SOLVING QUADRATICS BY USING SQUARE ROOTS
1.3 C OMPLEX N UMBERS
1.4 C OMPLETING THE SQUARE
1.5 THE QUADRATIC FORMULA
1.6 ANALYZING THE G RAPH OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

Quadratic Functions
In this chapter we explore functions that are no longer linear. We will introduce a quadratic equation or an equation
where the largest x—value is squared. In addition, we will learn how to solve a quadratic equation: by factoring,
using square roots, completing the square, and the Quadratic Formula. We will also introduce complex, or imaginary,
numbers. Lastly, we will analyze the graph of a quadratic and use it to approximate data.

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 1.1 Solving Quadratics by Factoring

Objective
To factor and solve any quadratic equation that is considered “factorable.”
Review Queue
Solve the following equations.
1. 5x —12 = 2x + 9
2. 13 x + 52 = —13 x —72
3. Solve the system of equations using any method:

2x —y = 12
—3x + 2y = —19

4. Find two numbers whose sum is 10 and product is 16.

Factoring When the First Coefficient Equals 1

Objective
To factor a quadratic equation in the form x2 + bx + c.
Watch This
Watch the first few examples in this video, until about 12:40.

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Khan Academy: Factoring Quadratic Expressions

Guidance
In this chapter we will be discussing quadratic equations. A quadratic equation has the form ax2 + bx + c, where
a/= 0 (If a = 0, then the equation would be linear). For all quadratic equations, the 2 is the largest and only exponent.
A quadratic equation can also be called a trinomial when all three terms are present.
There are four ways to solve a quadratic equation. The easiest is factoring. In this concept, we are going to focus
on factoring when a = 1 or when there is no number in front of x2. First, let’s start with a review of multiplying two
factors together.
Example A

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Multiply (x + 4)(x —5).
Solution: Even though this is not a quadratic, the product of the two factors will be. Remember from previous math
classes that a factor is a number that goes evenly into a larger number. For example, 4 and 5 are factors of 20. So,
to determine the larger number that (x + 4) and (x —5) go into, we need to multiply them together. One method
for multiplying two polynomial factors together is called FOIL. To do this, you need to multiply the FIRST terms,
OUTSIDE terms, INSIDE terms, and the LAST terms together and then combine like terms.

Therefore (x + 4)(x —5) = x2 —x —20. We can also say that (x + 4) and (x —5) are factors of x2 —x —20.
More Guidance
Now, we will “undo” the multiplication of two factors by factoring. In this concept, we will only address quadratic
equations in the form x2 + bx + c, or when a = 1.
Investigation: Factoring x2 + bx + c
1. From the previous example, we know that (x + m)(x + n) = x2 + bx + c. FOIL (x + m)(x + n).

(x + m)(x + n) ⇒ x 2 + nx____+ ____x+ `mn

_¸_mx ˛¸x
` ˛
bx c

2. This shows us that the constant term, or c, is equal to the product of the constant numbers inside each factor. It
also shows us that the coefficient in front of x, or b, is equal to the sum of these numbers.
3. Group together the first two terms and the last two terms. Find the Greatest Common Factor, or GCF, for each
pair.

(x2 + nx) + (mx + mn)

x(x + n) + m(x + n)

4. Notice that what is inside both sets of parenthesis in Step 3 is the same. This number, (x + n), is the GCF of
x(x + n) and m(x + n). You can pull it out in front of the two terms and leave the x + m.

x(x + n) + m(x + n)
(x + n)(x + m)

We have now shown how to go from FOIL-ing to factoring and back. Let’s apply this idea to an example.
Example B
Factor x2 + 6x + 8.
Solution: Let’s use the investigation to help us.

x2 + 6x + 8 = (x + m)(x + n)

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So, from Step 2, b will be equal to the sum of m and n and c will be equal to their product. Applying this to our
problem, 6 = m + n and 8 = mn. To organize this, use an “X ”. Place the sum in the top and the product in the bottom.

The green pair above is the only one that also adds up to 6. Now, move on to Step 3 from our investigation. We need
to rewrite the x—term, or b, as a sum of m and n.

x2 + 6x + 8
( &
x2 + 4x + 2x + 8
(x2 + 4x) + (2x + 8)
x(x + 4) + 2(x + 4)

Moving on to Step 4, we notice that the (x + 4) term is the same. Pull this out and we are done.

Therefore, the factors of x2 + 6x + 8 are (x + 4)(x + 2). You can FOIL this to check your answer.
Example C
Factor x2 + 12x —28.
Solution: We can approach this problem in exactly the same way we did Example B. This time, we will not use the
“X .” What are the factors of -28 that also add up to 12? Let’s list them out to see:

—4 ·7, 4 ·—7, 2 ·—14, —2 ·14, 1 ·—28, —1 ·28

The red pair above is the one that works. Notice that we only listed the factors of negative 28.

x2 + 12x —28
( &
x2—2x + 14x —28
(x2 —2x) + (14x —28)
x(x —2) + 14(x —2)
(x —2)(x + 14)

By now, you might have a couple questions:

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 1. Does it matter which x—term you put first? NO, order does not matter. In the previous example, we could
have put 14x followed by —2x. We would still end up with the same answer.
2. Can I skip the “expanded” part (Steps 3 and 4 in the investigation)? YES and NO. Yes, if a = 1 No, if a /=1
(the next concept). If a = 1, then x2 + bx + c = (x + m)(x + n) such that m + n = b and mn = c. Consider this
a shortcut.

Example D
Factor x2 —4x.
Solution: This is an example of a quadratic that is not a trinomial because it only has two terms, also called a
binomial. There is no c, or constant term. To factor this, we need to look for the GCF. In this case, the largest
number that can be taken out of both terms is an x.

x2 —4x = x(x —4)

Therefore, the factors are x and x —4.

Guided Practice
1. Multiply (x —3)(x + 8).
Factor the following quadratics, if possible.
2. x2 —9x + 20
3. x2 + 7x —30
4. x2 + x + 6
5. x2 + 10x
Answers
1. FOIL-ing our factors together, we get:

(x —3)(x + 8) = x2 + 8x —3x —24 = x2 + 5x —24

2. Using the “X ,” we have:

From the shortcut above, —4 + —5 = —9 and —4 ·—5 = 20.

x2 —9x + 20 = (x —4)(x —5)

3. Let’s list out all the factors of -30 and their sums. The sums are in red.

—10 ·3 (—7), —3 ·10 (7), —2 ·15 (13), —15 ·2 (—13), —1 ·30 (29), —30 ·1 (—29)

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 From this, the factors of -30 that add up to 7 are -3 and 10. x2 + 7x —30 = (x —3)(x + 10)
4. There are no factors of 6 that add up to 1. If we had -6, then the trinomial would be factorable. But, as is, this is
not a factorable trinomial.
5. The only thing we can do here is to take out the GCF. x2 + 10x = x(x + 10)
Vocabulary

Quadratic Equation
An equation where the largest exponent is a 2 and has the form ax2 + bx + c, a /
= 0.

Trinomial
A quadratic equation with three terms.

Binomial
A quadratic equation with two terms.

Factoring
A way to break down a quadratic equation into smaller factors.

Factor
A number that goes evenly into a larger number.

FOIL
A method used to multiply together two factors. You multiply the FIRST terms, OUTSIDE terms, INSIDE
terms, and LAST terms and then combine any like terms.

Coefficient
The number in front of a variable.

Constant
A number that is added or subtracted within an equation.

Problem Set
Multiply the following factors together.

1. (x + 2)(x —8)
2. (x —9)(x —1)
3. (x + 7)(x + 3)

Factor the following quadratic equations. If it cannot be factored, write not factorable. You can use either method
presented in the examples.

4. x2 —x —2
5. x2 + 2x —24
6. x2 —6x
7. x2 + 6x + 9
8. x2 + 8x —10
9. x2 —11x + 30
10. x2 + 13x —30

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 11. x2 + 11x + 28
12. x2 —8x + 12
13. x2 —7x —44
14. x2 —8x —20
15. x2 + 4x + 3
16. x2 —5x + 36
17. x2 —5x —36
18. x2 + x

Challenge Fill in the X ’s below with the correct numbers.

19.

20.

Factoring When the First Coefficient Doesn’t Equal 1

Objective
To multiply factors and factor quadratic equations in the form ax2 + bx + c by expanding the x—term.
Watch This

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James Sousa: Ex: Factor Trinomials When A is NOT Equal to 1 - Grouping Method
Guidance
When we add a number in front of the x2 term, it makes factoring a little trickier. We still follow the investigation
from the previous section, but cannot use the shortcut. First, let’s try FOIL-ing when the coefficients in front of the
x—terms are not 1.
Example A
Multiply (3x —5)(2x + 1)
Solution: We can still use FOIL.
FIRST 3x ·2x = 6x2

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OUTSIDE 3x ·1 = 3x
INSIDE —5 ·2x = —10x
LAST —5 ·1 = —5
Combining all the terms together, we get: 6x2 + 3x —10x —5 = 6x2 —7x —5.
Now, let’s work backwards and factor a trinomial to get two factors. Remember, you can always check your work
by multiplying the final factors together.
Example B
Factor 6x2 —x —2.
Solution: This is a factorable trinomial. When there is a coefficient, or number in front of x2, you must follow all
the steps from the investigation in the previous concept; no shortcuts. Also, m and n no longer have a product of c
and a sum of b. This would not take the coefficient of x2 into account. What we need to do is multiply together a
and c (from ax2 + bx + c) and then find the two numbers whose product is ac and sum is b. Let’s use the X to help
us organize this.
Now, we can see, we need the two factors of -12 that also add up to -1.

TABLE 5.1:
Factors Sum
—1, 12 11
1, -12 -11
2, -6 -4
-2, 6 4
3, —4 —1
-3, 4 1

The factors that work are 3 and -4. Now, take these factors and rewrite the x—term expanded using 3 and -4 (Step 3
from the investigation in the previous concept).

6x2—x —2
( &
6x2—4x + 3x —2

Next, group the first two terms together and the last two terms together and pull out any common factors.

(6x2 —4x) + (3x —2)

2x(3x —2) + 1(3x —2)

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Just like in the investigation, what is in the parenthesis is the same. We now have two terms that both have (3x —2)
as factor. Pull this factor out.

The factors of 6x2 —x —2 are (3x —2)(2x + 1). You can FOIL these to check your answer.
Example C
Factor 4x2 + 8x —5.
Solution: Let’s make the steps from Example B a little more concise.
1. Find ac and the factors of this number that add up to b.
4 ·—5 = —20 The factors of -20 that add up to 8 are 10 and -2.
2. Rewrite the trinomial with the x—term expanded, using the two factors from Step 1.

4x2 + 8x —5 ( &
4x2 + 10x —2x —5

3. Group the first two and second two terms together, find the GCF and factor again.

(4x2 + 10x) + (—2x —5)

2x(2x + 5)— 1(2x + 5)
(2x + 5)(2x —1)

Alternate Method: What happens if we list —2x before 10x in Step 2?

4x2 —2x + 10x —5

(4x2 —2x)(10x —5)
2x(2x —1) + 5(2x —1)
(2x —1)(2x + 5)

This tells us it does not matter which x—term we list first in Step 2 above.
Example D
Factor 12x2 —22x —20.
Solution: Let’s use the steps from Example C, but we are going to add an additional step at the beginning.
1. Look for any common factors. Pull out the GCF of all three terms, if there is one.

12x2 —22x —20 = 2(6x2 —11x —10)

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This will make it much easier for you to factor what is inside the parenthesis.
2. Using what is inside the parenthesis, find ac and determine the factors that add up to b.

6 ·—10 = —60 → —15 ·4 = —60, —15 + 4 = —11

The factors of -60 that add up to -11 are -15 and 4.

3. Rewrite the trinomial with the x—term expanded, using the two factors from Step 2.

2(6x2—11x —10)
2(6x2—15x + 4x —10)

4. Group the first two and second two terms together, find the GCF and factor again.

2(6x2 —15x + 4x —10)

2 (6x2 —15x) + (4x —10)
2 [3x(2x —5) + 2(2x —5)]
2(2x —5)(3x + 2)

Guided Practice
1. Multiply (4x —3)(3x + 5).
Factor the following quadratics, if possible.
2. 15x2 —4x —3
3. 3x2 + 6x —12
4. 24x2 —30x —9
5. 4x2 + 4x —48
Answers
1. FOIL: (4x —3)(3x + 5) = 12x2 + 20x —9x —15 = 12x2 + 11x —15
2. Use the steps from the examples above. There is no GCF, so we can find the factors of ac that add up to b.
15 ·—3 = —45 The factors of -45 that add up to -4 are -9 and 5.

15x2—4x —3
(15x2—9x) + (5x —3)
3x(5x —3) + 1(5x —3)
(5x —3)(3x + 1)

3. 3x2 + 6x —12 has a GCF of 3. Pulling this out, we have 3(x2 + 2x —6). There is no number in front of x2, so we
see if there are any factors of -6 that add up to 2. There are not, so this trinomial is not factorable.
4. 24x2 —30x —9 also has a GCF of 3. Pulling this out, we have 3(8x2 —10x —3). ac = —24. The factors of -24
than add up to -10 are -12 and 2.

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 3(8x2—10x —3)
3 (8x2 —12x) + (2x —3)
3 [4x(2x —3) + 1(2x —3)]
3(2x —3)(4x + 1)

5. 4x2 + 4x —48 has a GCF of 4. Pulling this out, we have 4(x2 + x —12). This trinomial does not have a number in
front of x2, so we can use the shortcut from the previous concept. What are the factors of -12 that add up to 1?

4(x2 + x —12)
4(x + 4)(x —3)

Problem Set
Multiply the following expressions.

1. (2x —1)(x + 5)
2. (3x + 2)(2x —3)
3. (4x + 1)(4x —1)

Factor the following quadratic equations, if possible. If they cannot be factored, write not factorable. Don’t forget
to look for any GCFs first.

4. 5x2 + 18x + 9
5. 6x2 —21x
6. 10x2 —x —3
7. 3x2 + 2x —8
8. 4x2 + 8x + 3
9. 12x2 —12x —18
10. 16x2 —6x —1
11. 5x2 —35x + 60
12. 2x2 + 7x + 3
13. 3x2 + 3x + 27
14. 8x2 —14x —4
15. 10x2 + 27x —9
16. 4x2 + 12x + 9
17. 15x2 + 35x
18. 6x2 —19x + 15
19. Factor x2 —25. What is b?
20. Factor 9x2 —16. What is b? What types of numbers are a and c?

Factoring Special Quadratics

Objective
To factor perfect square trinomials and the difference of squares.
Watch This

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First, watch this video.

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Khan Academy: U09_L2_TI_we1 Factoring Special Products 1

Then, watch the first part of this video, until about 3:10

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James Sousa: Factoring a Difference of Squares

Guidance
There are a couple of special quadratics that, when factored, have a pattern.
Investigation: Multiplying (a + b)2
1. Rewrite (a + b)2 as the product of two factors. Expand (a + b)2. (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b)
2. FOIL your answer from Step 1. This is a perfect square trinomial. a2 + 2ab + b2
3.(a —b)2 also produces a perfect square trinomial. (a —b)2 = a2 —2ab + b2
4. Apply the formula above to factoring 9x2 —12x + 4. First, find a and b.

a2 = 9x2, b2 = 4
a = 3x, b = 2

5. Now, plug a and b into the appropriate formula.

(3x —2)2 = (3x)2 —2(3x)(2) + 22

= 9x2 —12x + 4

Investigation: Multiplying (a —b)(a + b)

1. FOIL (a —b)(a + b).

(a —b)(a + b) = a2 + ab —ab —b2

= a2 —b2

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2. This is a difference of squares. The difference of squares will always factor to be (a + b)(a —b).
3. Apply the formula above to factoring 25x2 —16. First, find a and b.

a2 = 25x2, b2 = 16
a = 5x, b=4

4. Now, plug a and b into the appropriate formula. (5x —4)(5x + 4) = (5x)2 —42
∗∗It is
important to note that if you forget these formulas or do not want to use them, you can still factor all of these
quadratics the same way you did in the previous two concepts.
Example A
Factor x2 —81.
Solution: Using the formula from the investigation above, we need to first find the values of a and b.

x2 —81 = a2 —b2
a2 = x2, b2 = 81
a = x, b=9

Now, plugging x and 9 into the formula, we have x2 —81 = (x —9)(x + 9). To solve for a and b, we found the square
root of each number. Recall that the square root is a number that, when multiplied by itself, produces another
number. This other number is called a perfect square.
Alternate Method
Rewrite x2 —81 so that the middle term is present. x2 + 0x —81
Using the method from the previous two concepts, what are the two factors of -81 that add up to 0? 9 and -9
Therefore, the factors are (x —9)(x + 9).
Example B
Factor 36x2 + 120x + 100.
Solution: First, check for a GCF.

4(9x2 + 30x + 25)

Now, double-check that the quadratic equation above fits into the perfect square trinomial formula.

a2 = 9x2 b2 = 25
√ √ √ √
a2 = 9x2 b2 = 25 2ab = 30x
a = 3x b=5 2(3x)(5) = 30x

Using a and b above, the equation factors to be 4(3x + 5)2 . If you did not factor out the 4 in the beginning, the
formula will still work. a would equal 6x and b would equal 10, so the factors would be (6x + 10)2. If you expand
and find the GCF, you would have (6x + 10)2 = (6x + 10)(6x + 10) = 2(3x + 5)2(3x + 5) = 4(3x + 5)2.
Alternate Method

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First, find the GCF. 4(9x2 + 30x + 25)
Then, find ac and expand b accordingly. 9 ·25 = 225, the factors of 225 that add up to 30 are 15 and 15.

4(9x2 + 30x + 25)

4(9x2 + 15x + 15x + 25)
4 (9x2 + 15x) + (15x + 25)
4 [3x(3x + 5) + 5(3x + 5)]
4(3x + 5)(3x + 5) or 4(3x2 + 5)

Again, notice that if you do not use the formula discovered in this concept, you can still factor and get the correct
answer.
Example C
Factor 48x2 —147.
Solution: At first glance, this does not look like a difference of squares. 48 nor 147 are square numbers. But, if we
take a 3 out of both, we have 3(16x2 —49). 16 and 49 are both square numbers, so now we can use the formula.

16x2 = a2 49 = b2
4x = a 7=b

The factors are (4x —7)(4x + 7).

Guided Practice
Factor the following quadratic equations.
1. x2 —4
2. 2x2 —20x + 50
3. 81x2 + 144 + 64
Answers
1. a = x and b = 2. Therefore, x2 —4 = (x —2)(x + 2).
2. Factor out the GCF, 2. 2(x2 —10x + 25). This is now a perfect square trinomial with a = x and b = 5.

2(x2 —10x + 25) = 2(x —5)2.

3. This is a perfect square trinomial and no common factors. Solve for a and b.

81x2 = a2 64 = b2
9x = a 8=b

The factors are (9x + 8)2.

Vocabulary

14
Perfect Square Trinomial
A quadratic equation in the form a2 + 2ab + b2 or a2 —2ab + b2.

Difference of Squares
A quadratic equation in the form a2 —b2.

Square Root
A number, that when multiplied by itself produces another number. 3 is the square root of 9.

Perfect Square
A number that has a square root that is an integer. 25 is a perfect square.

Problem Set

1. List the perfect squares that are less than 200.

2. Why do you think there is no sum of squares formula?

Factor the following quadratics, if possible.

3. x2 —1
4. x2 + 4x + 4
5. 16x2 —24x + 9
6. —3x2 + 36x —108
7. 144x2 —49
8. 196x2 + 140x + 25
9. 100x2 + 1
10. 162x2 + 72x + 8
11. 225 —x2
12. 121 —132x + 36x2
13. 5x2 + 100x —500
14. 256x2 —676
15. Error Analysis Spencer is given the following problem: Multiply (2x —5)2. Here is his work:

(2x —5)2 = (2x)2 —52 = 4x2 —25

His teacher tells him the answer is 4x2 —20x + 25. What did Spencer do wrong? Describe his error and correct the
problem.

Solving Quadratics by Factoring

Objective
To solve factorable quadratic equations for x.
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15
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Khan Academy: Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring.avi

Guidance
In this lesson we have not actually solved for x. Now, we will apply factoring to solving a quadratic equation. It
adds one additional step to the end of what you have already been doing. Let’s go through an example.
Example A
Solve x2 —9x + 18 = 0 by factoring.
Solution: The only difference between this problem and previous ones from the concepts before is the addition of
the = sign. Now that this is present, we need to solve for x. We can still factor the way we always have. Because
a = 1, determine the two factors of 18 that add up to -9.

x2 —9x + 18 = 0
(x —6)(x —3) = 0

Now, we have two factors that, when multiplied, equal zero. Recall that when two numbers are multiplied together
and one of them is zero, the product is always zero.
Zero-Product Property: If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.
This means that x —6 = 0 OR x —3 = 0. Therefore, x = 6 or x = 3. There will always be the same number of
solutions as factors.
Check your answer:

62 —9(6) + 18 = 0 or 32 —9(3) + 18 = 0
36 —54 + 18 = 0 9 —27 + 18 = 0 G

Example B
Solve 6x2 + x —4 = 11 by factoring.
Solution: At first glance, this might not look factorable to you. However, before we factor, we must combine like
terms. Also, the Zero-Product Property tells us that in order to solve for the factors, one side of the equation must be
zero.

6x2 + x —4 = Z
1Z
1
—11 = —Z
1Z
1
6x2 + x —15 = 0

Now, factor. The product of ac is -90. What are the two factors of -90 that add up to 1? 10 and -9. Expand the
x—term and factor.

16
 6x2 + x —15 = 0
6x2 —9x + 10x —15 = 0
3x(2x —3) + 5(2x —3) = 0
(2x —3)(3x + 5) = 0

Lastly, set each factor equal to zero and solve.

2x —3 = 0 3x + 5 = 0
2x = 3 or 3x = —5
5
x= 3 x=—
2 3
Check your work:

2 2
3 3 5 5
6 + 2 —4 = 11 6 —3 —3 —4 = 11
2
9 3 6·
25 5
6 · + —4 = 11 or 9
—3 —4 = 11 G
4 2
27 3 50 5
2
+ 2 —4 = 11 3
—3 —4 = 11
15 —4 = 11 15 —4 = 11

Example C
Solve 10x2 —25x = 0 by factoring.
Solution: Here is an example of a quadratic equation without a constant term. The only thing we can do is take out
the GCF.

10x2 —25x = 0
5x(2x —5) = 0

Set the two factors equal to zero and solve.

5x = 0 2x —5 = 0
x = 0 or 2x = 5

x= 5
2
Check:

2
5 5
10(0) 2 —25(0) = 0 10 —25 =0
2 2
10 ·
25 125 = 0 G
0=0 or 4
—
2
125 125
— =0
2 2

17
Guided Practice
Solve the following equations by factoring.
1. 4x2 —12x + 9 = 0
2. x2 —5x = 6
3. 8x —20x2 = 0
4. 12x2 + 13x + 7 = 12 —4x
Answers
1. ac = 36. The factors of 36 that also add up to -12 are -6 and -6. Expand the x—term and factor.

4x2 —12x + 9 = 0
4x2 —6x —6x + 9 = 0
2x(2x —3)— 3(2x —3) = 0
(2x —3)(2x —3) = 0

The factors are the same. When factoring a perfect square trinomial, the factors will always be the same. In this
instance, the solutions for x will also be the same. Solve for x.

2x —3 = 0
2x = 3
x= 3
2

When the two factors are the same, we call the solution for x a double root because it is the solution twice.
2. Here, we need to get everything on the same side of the equals sign in order to factor.

x2 —5x = 6
x2 —5x —6 = 0

Because there is no number in front of x2, we need to find the factors of -6 that add up to -5.

(x —6)(x + 1) = 0

Solving each factor for x, we get that x = 6 or x = —1.

3. Here there is no constant term. Find the GCF to factor.

8x —20x2 = 0
4x(2 —5x) = 0

Solve each factor for x.

18
 4x = 0 2 —5x = 0
x = 0 or 2 = 5x
2
5
=x

4. This problem is slightly more complicated than #2. Combine all like terms onto the same side of the equals sign
so that one side is zero.

12x2 + 13x + 7 = 12 —4x

12x2 + 17x —5 = 0

ac = —60. The factors of -60 that add up to 17 are 20 and -3. Expand the x—term and factor.

12x2 + 17x —5 = 0
12x2 + 20x —3x —5 = 0
4x(3x + 5)— 1(3x + 5) = 0
(3x + 5)(4x —1) = 0

Solve each factor for x.

3x + 5 = 0 4x —1 = 0
3x = —5 or 4x = 1
5
x=— x= 1
3 4

Vocabulary

Solution
The answer to an equation. With quadratic equations, solutions can also be called zeros or roots.

Double Root
A solution that is repeated twice.

Problem Set
Solve the following quadratic equations by factoring, if possible.

1. x2 + 8x —9 = 0
2. x2 + 6x = 0
3. 2x2 —5x = 12
4. 12x2 + 7x —10 = 0
5. x2 = 9
6. 30x + 25 = —9x2
7. 2x2 + x —5 = 0

19
 8. 16x = 32x2
9. 3x2 + 28x = —32
10. 36x2 —48 = 1
11. 6x2 + x = 4
12. 5x2 + 12x + 4 = 0

Challenge Solve these quadratic equations by factoring. They are all factorable.

13. 8x2 + 8x —5 = 10 —6x

14. —18x2 = 48x + 14
15. 36x2 —24 = 96x —39
16. Real Life Application George is helping his dad build a fence for the backyard. The total area of their
backyard is 1600 square feet. The width of the house is half the length of the yard, plus 7 feet. How much
fencing does George’s dad need to buy?

20
 1.2 Solving Quadratics by Using Square Roots

Objective
Reviewing simplifying square roots and to solve a quadratic equation by using square roots.
Review Queue
√
1. What is 64? Can there be more than one answer?
√
2. What two numbers should 18 be between? How do you know?
√
3. Find 18 on your calculator.
4. Solve x2 —25 = 0 by factoring.

Simplifying Square Roots

Objective
Simplifying, adding, subtracting and multiplying square roots.
Guidance
Before we can solve a quadratic equation using square roots, we need to review how to simplify, add, subtract, and
multiply them. Recall that the square root is a number that, when multiplied by itself, produces another number. 4
is the square root of 16, for example. -4 is also the square root of 16 because (—4)2 = 16. The symbol for square
root is the radical sign, or √. The number under the radical is called the radicand.
If the square root of an integer is not another integer, it is an irrational number.
Example A
√
Find 50 using:
a) A calculator.
b) By simplifying the square root.
Solution:
a) To plug the square root into your graphing calculator, typically there is a √ or SQRT button. Depending on
yo
√ ur model, you may have to enter 50 before or after the square root button. Either way, your answer should be
50 = 7.071067811865 ... In general, we will round to the hundredths place, so 7.07 is sufficient.
b) To simplify the square root, the square numbers must be “pulled out.” Look for factors of 50 that are square
numbers: 4, 9, 16, 25... 25 is a factor of 50, so break the factors apart.
√ √ √ √ √
50 = 25 ·2 = 25 · 2 = 5 2. This is the most accurate answer.
Radical Rules
1.√ab = √a ·b = √a ·√b Any two radicals can be multiplied together.
√ √ √
2. x a ± y a = x ± y a The radicands must be the same in order to add or subtract.
√ 2 √ 2
3. a = a = a The square and square root cancel each other out.
Example B

21
 √ √ √
Simplify 45 + 80 —2 5.
Solution: At first glance, it does not look like we can simplify this. But, we can simplify each radical by pulling out
the perfect squares.

√ √ √
45 =9 ·5 = 3 5
√ √ √
80 = 16 ·5 = 4 5
Rewriting our expression, we
√ have: 3 5+4 √
5 —2 √ √ the radicands are the same. Using the Order of
5 and all
Operations, our answer is 5 5.
Example C
√ √
Simplify 2 35 ·4 7.
Solution: Multiply across.

√ √ √ √
2 35 ·4 7 = 2 ·4 35 ·7 = 8 245

√ √ √ √
Now, simplify the radical. 8 245 = 8 49 ·5 = 8 ·7 5 = 56 5
Guided Practice
Simplify the following radicals.
1.√150
√ √ √
2. 2 3 — 6 + 96
3.√8 ·√20
Answers
1. Pull out all the square numbers.

√ √ √
150 = 25 ·6 = 5 6

Alternate Method: Write out the prime factorization of 150.

√ √
150 = 2 ·3 ·5 ·5

Now, pull out any number that has a pair. Write it once in front of the radical and multiply together what is left over
under the radical.

√ √ √
150 = 2 ·3 ·5 ·5 = 5 6

√
2. Simplify 96 to see if anything can be combined. We will use the alternate method above.

√ √ √ √
96 = 2 ·2 ·2 ·2 ·2 ·3 = 2 ·2 6 = 4 6

22
 √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Rewrite the expression: 2 3 — 6 + 4 6 = 2 3 + 3 6. This is fully simplified. 3 and 6 cannot be combined
because they do not have the same value under the radical.
3. This problem can be done two different ways.
1stMethod: Multiply radicals, then simplify the answer.

√ √ √ √ √
8 · 20 = 160 = 16 ·10 = 4 10

2ndMethod: Simplify radicals, then multiply.

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
8 · 20 = 4 ·2 · 4 ·5 = 2 2 ·2 5 = 2 ·2 2 ·5 = 4 10

Depending on the complexity of the problem, either method will work. Pick whichever method you prefer.
Vocabulary

Square Root
A number, that when multiplied by itself, produces another number.

Perfect Square
A number that has an integer for a square root.

Radical
The √, or square root, sign.

Radicand
The number under the radical.

Problem Set
Find the square root of each number by using the calculator. Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.

1. 56
2. 12
3. 92

Simplify the following radicals. If it cannot be simplified further, write cannot be simplified.

4.√ 18
5.√
√
75
6.√605
7.√48 √
8. √50 ·√2
9. 4 3 · 21
10.√6 ·√20
√ 2
11.4 5
12.√ √
24 · 27
13. 16 + 2 √8
√

23
 14.√28
√
√
+ 7
√
15. —8 3 — 12
16.√ √
√
72 — 50
√ √
17.√6 + 7 √ 6 — 54√
18. 8 10 — 90 + 7 5

Dividing Square Roots

Objective
To divide radicals and rationalize the denominator.
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Khan Academy: How to Rationalize a Denominator

Guidance
Dividing radicals can be a bit more difficult that the other operations. The main complication is that you cannot
leave any radicals in the denominator of a fraction. For this reason we have to do something called rationalizing the
denominator, where you multiply the top and bottom of a fraction by the same radical that is in the denominator.
This will cancel out the radicals and leave a whole number.
Radical Rules
r √
a a
4. = √
b b
√ √ √
a b
5. √ ·√ = bab
b b
Example A
r
1.
Simplify
4
Solution: Break apart the radical by using Rule #4.

r √
1 1 1
4
= √ =
4 2

Example B
Simplify √2 .
3

24
Solution: This might look simplified, but radicals cannot be in the denominator of a fraction. This means we need
to apply Rule #5 to get rid√of the radical in the denominator, or rationalize the denominator. Multiply the top and
bottom of the fraction by 3.

√ √
2 3 2 3
√ ·√ =
3 3 3

Example C
r
32 .
Simplify
40
Solution: Reduce the fraction, and then apply the rules above.

r r √ √ √
32 4 4 2 5 2 5
= √ = √ · √ =
40 = 5 5 5 5 5

Guided Practice
Simplify the following expressions using the Radical Rules learned in this concept and the previous concept.
r
1
1.
2
r
64
2.
50
√
3. 4√63

Answers
r √ √ √
1
1. = √21 = √12 · √22 = 2 2
2
r r √ √
64 32 16 ·2 4 2
2. = = 5
= 5
50 25
√
3. The only thing we can do is rationalize the denominator by multiplying the numerator and denominator by 6
and then simplify the fraction.

√ √ √ √ √
4 3 6 4 18 4 9 ·2 12 2 √
√ ·√ = = = =2 2
6 6 6 6 6

Vocabulary

Rationalize the denominator

The process used to get a radical out of the denominator of a fraction.

Problem Set
Simplify the following fractions.
r
4
1.
25

25
 r
96
2.
√121
5√ 2
3.
10
4. √6
r 15
60
5.
√35
6. 8 √18
30
7. √
12
r 6
208
8.
1 43
√
21√ 3
9.
2 14

Challenge Use all the Radical Rules you have learned in the last two concepts to simplify the expressions.
r
8 √
10. · 15
r 12 √
32 6 20
11. · √
√45 5
√
12. √24 8 √26
+ 8
2

Solving Quadratics Using Square Roots

Objective
To use the properties of square roots to solve certain types of quadratic equations.
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Khan Academy: Solving Quadratics by Square Roots

Guidance
Now that you are familiar with square roots, we will use them to solve quadratic equations. Keep in mind, that
square roots cannot be used to solve every type of quadratic. In order to solve a quadratic equation by using square
roots, an x—term cannot be present. Solving a quadratic equation by using square roots is very similar to solving a
linear equation. In the end, you must isolate the x2 or whatever is being squared.
Example A
Solve 2x2 —3 = 15.
Solution: Start by isolating the x2.

26
 2x2 —3 = 15
2x2 = 18
x2 = 9

At this point, you can take the square root of both sides.

√ √
x2 = ± 9
x = ±3

Notice that x has two solutions; 3 or -3. When taking the square root, always put the ± (plus or minus sign) in front
of the square root. This indicates that the positive or negative answer will be the solution.
Check:

2(3)2 —3 = 15 2(—3)2 —3 = 15
2 ·9 —3 = 15 or 2 ·9 —3 = 15 G
18 —3 = 15 18 —3 = 15

Example B
Solve x2
16
+ 3 = 27.
Solution: Isolate x2 and then take the square root.

x2
16
+ 3 = 27
x2
16
= 24
x2 = 384
√ √
x = ± 384 = ±8 6

Example C
Solve 3(x —5)2 + 7 = 43.
Solution: In this example, x is not the only thing that is squared. Isolate the (x —5)2 and then take the square root.

3(x —5)2 + 7 = 43
3(x —5)2 = 36
(x —5)2 = 12
√ √
x —5 = ± 12 or ± 2 3

Now that the square root is gone, add 5 to both sides.

27
 √
x —5 = ±2 3
√
x = 5±2 3

√ √
x = 5 + 2 3 or 5 —2 3. We can estimate these solutions as decimals; 8.46 or 1.54. Remember, that the most
accurate answer includes the radical numbers.
Guided Practice
Solve the following quadratic equations.
1. 23 x —14 = 38
2
2. 11 + x2 = 4x2 + 5
3. (2x + 1)2 —6 = 19
Answers
1. Isolate x2 and take the square root.

2 2
x —14 = 38
3
2 2
x = 52
3
x2 = 78
√
x = ± 78

2. Combine all like terms, then isolate x2.

11 + x2 = 4x2 + 5
2
—3x = —6
x2 =2
√
x=± 2

3. Isolate what is being squared, take the square root, and then isolate x.

(2x + 1)2 —6 = 19
(2x + 1)2 = 25
2x + 1 = ±5
2x = —1 ± 5
—1 ± 5 —1 + 5 —1 —5
x= →x= = 2 or x = = —3
2 2 2

Problem Set
Solve the following quadratic equations. Reduce answers as much as possible. No decimals.

1. x2 = 144

28
 2. 5x2 —4 = 16
3. 8 —10x2 = —22
4. (x + 2)2 = 49
5. 6(x —5)2 + 1 = 19
6. 34 x —19 = 26
2
7. x2 —12 2
= 36 —2x2
8. 9 —x3 = —33
9. —4(x + 7) 2 = —52
10. 2(3x + 4)2 —5 = 45
11. 13 (x —10) 2 —8 = 16
(x—1) 2
12. 6
—38 = 72

Use either factoring or solving by square roots to solve the following quadratic equations.

13. x2 —16x + 55 = 0
14. 2x2 —9 = 27
15. 6x2 + 23x = —20
16. Writing Write a set of hints that will help you remember when you should solve an equation by factoring and
by square roots. Are there any quadratics that can be solved using either method?
17. Solve x2 —9 = 0 by factoring and by using square roots. Which do you think is easier? Why?
18. Solve (3x —2)2 + 1 = 17 by using square roots. Then, solve 3x2 —4x —4 = 0 by factoring. What do you
notice? What can you conclude?
19. Real Life Application The aspect ratio of a TV screen is the ratio of the screen’s width to its height. For
HDTVs, the aspect ratio is 16:9. What is the width and height of a 42 inch screen TV? (42 inches refers to
the length of the screen’s diagonal.) HINT: Use the Pythagorean Theorem. Round your answers to the nearest
hundredth.
20. Real Life Application When an object is dropped, its speed continually increases until it reaches the ground.
This scenario can be modeled by the equation h = —16t2 + h0, where h is the height, t is the time (in seconds),
and h0is the initial height of the object. Round your answers to the nearest hundredth.
a. If you drop a ball from 200 feet, what is the height after 2 seconds?
b. After how many seconds will the ball hit the ground?

29
 1.3 Complex Numbers

Objective
To define and use complex and imaginary numbers. Then, solve quadratic equations with imaginary solutions.
Review Queue
√
1. Can you find —25? Why or why not?
√ √
2. Simplify 192 · 27
r
12
3. Simplify
15
4. Solve 4(x —6)2 —7 = 61

Defining Complex Numbers

Objective
To define, discover the “powers of i,” and add and subtract complex and imaginary numbers.
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Khan Academy: Introduction to i and Imaginary Numbers

Then, watch this video.

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Khan Academy: Complex Numbers

Guidance
√
Before this concept, all numbers have been real numbers. 2, -5, 11 , and 13 are all examples of real numbers. Look
√
at #1 from the Review Queue. With what we have previously learned, we cannot find —25 because you cannot

30
take the squ
√ are root of a negative number. There is no real number that, when multiplied by itself, equals -25. Let’s
simplify —25.

√ √ √
—25 = 25 ·—1 = 5 —1

√
In order to take the square root of a negative number we are going to assign —1 a variable, i. i represents an
imaginary number. Now, we can use i to take the square root of a negative number.

√ √ √
—25 = 25 ·—1 = 5 —1 = 5i

All complex numbers have the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers. a is the real part of the complex
number and b is the imaginary part. If b = 0, then a is left and the number is a real number. If a = 0, then the
number is only bi and called a pure imaginary number. If b / = 0 and a /
= 0, the number will be an imaginary
number.

Example A
√
Find —162 .
√
Solution: First pull out the i. Then, simplify 162.

√ √ √ √ √ √
—162 = —1 · 162 = i 162 = i 81 ·2 = 9i 2

Investigation: Powers of i
In addition to now being able to take the square root of a negative number, i also has some interesting properties.
Try to find i2, i3, and i4.
√ √ √
1. Write out i2 and simplify. i2 = i ·i = —1 · —1 = —12 = —1
2. Write out i3 and simplify. i3 = i2 ·i = —1 ·i = —i
3. Write out i4 and simplify. i4 = i2 ·i2 = —1 ·—1 = 1
4. Write out i5 and simplify. i5 = i4 ·i = 1 ·i = i
5. Write out i6 and simplify. i6 = i4 ·i2 = 1 ·—1 = —1
6. Do you see a pattern? Describe it and try to find i19.
31
You should see that the powers of i repeat every 4 powers. So, all the powers that are divisible by 4 will be equal to
1. To find i19, divide 19 by 4 and determine the remainder. That will tell you what power it is the same as.

i19 = i16 ·i3 = 1 ·i3 = —i

Example B
Find:
a) i32
b) i50
c) i7
Solution:
a) 32 is divisible by 4, so i32 = 1.
b) 50 ÷ 4 = 12, with a remainder of 2. Therefore, i50 = i2 = —1.
c) 7 ÷ 4 = 1, with a remainder of 3. Therefore, i7 = i3 = —i
Example C
Simplify the complex expressions.
a) (6 —4i) + (5 + 8i)
b) 9 —(4 + i) + (2 —7i)
Solution: To add or subtract complex numbers, you need to combine like terms. Be careful with negatives and
properly distributing them. Your answer should always be in standard form, which is a + bi.
a) (6 —4i) + (5 + 8i) = 6—4i + 5 + 8i = 11 + 4i
b) 9 —(4 + i) + (2 —7i) = 9 —4—i + 2—7i = 7—8i
Guided Practice
Simplify.
1.√—49
2.√—125
3.i210
4.(8 —3i)— (12 —i)
Answers
√
1. Rewrite —49 in terms of i and simplify the radical.

√ √
—49 = i 49 = 7i

√
2. Rewrite —125 in terms of i and simplify the radical.

√ √ √ √
—125 = i 125 = i 25 ·5 = 5i 5

3. 210 ÷ 4 = 52, with a remainder of 2. Therefore, i210 = i2 = —1.

32
4. Distribute the negative and combine like terms.

(8 —3i)— (12 —i) = 8 —3i —12 + i = —4 —2i

Vocabulary

Imaginary Numbers
Any number with an i associated with it. Imaginary numbers have the form a + bi or bi.

Complex Numbers
All real and imaginary numbers. Complex numbers have the standard form a + bi, where a or b can be zero.
a is the real part and bi is the imaginary part.

Pure Imaginary Numbers

An imaginary number without a real part, only bi.

Problem Set
Simplify each expression and write in standard form.
√
1. —9
√
2. √—242
3. 6 —45 √
4. —√12i 98 √
. —32
5 √ · —27
6. 7i —126
7. i8
8. 16i22
9. —9i65
10. i365
11. 2i
r 91
16
12. —
80
13. (11 —5i) + (6 —7i)
14. (14 + 2i)— (20 + 9i)
15. (8 —i)— (3 + 4i) + 15i
16. —10i —(1 —4i)
17. (0.2 + 1.5i)— (—0.6 + i)
18. 6 + (18 —i)— (2 + 12i)
19. —i + (19 + 22i)— (8 —14i)
20. 18 —(4 + 6i) + (17 —9i) + 24i

Multiplying and Dividing Complex Numbers

Objective
To multiply and divide complex numbers.
Watch This
First watch this video.

33
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Khan Academy: Multiplying Complex Numbers

Then watch this video.

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Khan Academy: Dividing Complex Numbers

Guidance
When multiplying complex numbers, FOIL the two numbers together (see Factoring when a = 1 concept) and then
combine like terms. At the end, there will be an i2 term. Recall that i2 = —1 and continue to simplify.
Example A
Simplify:
a) 6i(1 —4i)
b) (5 —2i)(3 + 8i)
Solution:
a) Distribute the 6i to both parts inside the parenthesis.

6i(1 —4i) = 6i —24i2

Substitute i2 = —1 and simplify further.

= 6i —24(—1)
= 24 + 6i

Remember to always put the real part first.

b) FOIL the two terms together.

(5 —2i)(3 + 8i) = 15 + 40i —6i —16i2

= 15 + 34i —16i2

Substitute i2 = —1 and simplify further.

34
 = 15 + 34i —16(—1)
= 15 + 34i + 16
= 31 + 34i

More Guidance
Dividing complex numbers is a bit more complicated. Similar to irrational numbers, complex numbers cannot be
in the denominator of a fraction. To get rid of the complex number in the denominator, we need to multiply by the
complex conjugate. If a complex number has the form a + bi, then its complex conjugate is a —bi. For example,
the complex conjugate of —6 + 5i would be —6 —5i. Therefore, rather than dividing complex numbers, we multiply
by the complex conjugate.
Example B
Simplify 8—3i .
6i

Solution: In the case of dividing by a pure imaginary number, you only need to multiply the top and bottom by that
number. Then, use multiplication to simplify.

8 —3i 6i 48i —18i2

·6i =
6i 36i2
18 + 48i
=
—36
18 48
= + i
—36 —36
1 4
= —2 —3i

When the complex number contains fractions, write the number in standard form, keeping the real and imaginary
parts separate. Reduce both fractions separately.
Example C
Simplify 3—5i .
2+9i
Solution: Now we are dividing by 2 + 9i, so we will need to multiply the top and bottom by the complex conjugate,
2 —9i.

3 —5i 2 —9i 6 —27i —10i + 45i2

2 + 9i ·2 —9i = 4 —18i + 18i —81i2
6 —37i —45
=
4 + 81
=
— 39 —37i
85
39 37
= —85 —85i

Notice, by multiplying by the complex conjugate, the denominator becomes a real number and you can split the
fraction into its real and imaginary parts.
In both Examples B and C, substitute i2 = —1 to simplify the fraction further. Your final answer should never have
any power of i greater than 1.

35
Guided Practice
1. What is the complex conjugate of 7 —5i?
Simplify the following complex expressions.
2.(7 —4i)(6 + 2i)
3. 10—i
5i
4. 8+i
6—4i
Answers
1. 7 + 5i
2. FOIL the two expressions.

(7 —4i)(6 + 2i) = 42 + 14i —24i —8i2

= 42 —10i + 8
= 50 —10i

3. Multiply the numerator and denominator by 5i.

10 —i 5i 50i —5i2
·5i =
5i 25i2
5 + 50i
=
—25
5 50
= + i
—25 —25
1
= —5 —2i

4. Multiply the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate, 6 + 4i.

8 + i 6 + 4i 48 + 32i + 6i + 4i2
· =
6 —4i 6 + 4i 36 + 24i —24i —16i2
48 + 38i —4
=
36 + 16
44 + 38i
=
52
44 38
=
52 + 52 i
11 19
=
13 + 26 i

Vocabulary

Complex Conjugate

The “opposite” of a complex number. If a complex number has the form a + bi, its complex conjugate is a —bi.
When multiplied, these two complex numbers will produce a real number.

36
Problem Set
Simplify the following expressions. Write your answers in standard form.

1. i(2 —7i)
2. 8i(6 + 3i)
3. —2i(11 —4i)
4. (9 + i)(8 —12i)
5. (4 + 5i)(3 + 16i)
6. (1 —i)(2 —4i)
7. 4i(2 —3i)(7 + 3i)
8. (8 —5i)(8 + 5i)
9. 4+9i
3i
10. 6—i
12i
11. 7+12i
—5i
4—2i
12. 6—6i
2—i
13. 2+i
14. 10+8i
2+4i
15. 14+9i
7—20i

Solving Quadratic Equations with Complex Number Solutions

Objective
To apply what we have learned about complex numbers and solve quadratic equations with complex number
solutions.
Guidance
When you solve a quadratic equation, there will always be two answers. Until now, we thought the answers were
always real numbers. In actuality, there are quadratic equations that have imaginary solutions as well. The possible
solutions for a quadratic are:
2 real solutions

x2 —4 = 0
x = —2, 2

Double root

x2 + 4x + 4 = 0
x = —2, —2

2 imaginary solutions

x2 + 4 = 0
x = —2i, 2i

37
Example A
Solve 3x2 + 27 = 0.
Solution: First, factor out the GCF.

3(x2 + 9) = 0

Now, try to factor x2 + 9. Rewrite the quadratic as x2 + 0x + 9 to help. There are no factors of 9 that add up to 0.
Therefore, this is not a factorable quadratic. Let’s solve it using square roots.

3x2 + 27 = 0
3x2 = —27
x2 = —9
√
x = ± —9 = ±3i

Quadratic equations with imaginary solutions are never factorable.

Example B
Solve (x —8)2 = —25
Solution: Solve using square roots.

(x —8)2 = —25
x —8 = ±5i
x = 8 ± 5i

Example C
Solve 2(3x —5) + 10 = —30.
Solution: Solve using square roots.

2(3x —5)2 + 10 = —30

2(3x —5)2 = —40
(3x —5)2 = —20
√
3x —5 = ±2i 5
√
3x = 5 ± 2i 5
√
5 2 5
x= 3± i
3

Guided Practice
1. Solve 4(x —5)2 + 49 = 0.
2. Solve —12 (3x + 8) 2 —16 = 2.
Answers

38
Both of these quadratic equations can be solved by using square roots.
1.

4(x —5)2 + 49 = 0
4(x —5)2 = —49
49
(x —5) 2 = —
4
7
x —5 = ± i
2
7
x = 5± i
2

2.
1
—2(3x + 8) 2—16 = 2
1
—2(3x + 8) 2 = 18
(3x + 8)2 = —36
3x + 8 = ±6i
3x = —8 ± 6i
8
x = —3 ± 2i

Problem Set
Solve the following quadratic equations.

1. (x + 1)2 = —121
2. 5x2 + 16 = —29
3. 14 —4x2 = 38
4. (x —9)2 —2 = —82
5. —3(x + 6)2 + 1 = 37
6. 4(x —5)2 —3 = —59
7. (2x —1)2 + 5 = —23
8. —(6x + 5)2 = 72
9. 7(4x —3)2 —15 = —68
10. If a quadratic equation has 4 —i as a solution, what must the other solution be?
11. If a quadratic equation has 6 + 2i as a solution, what must the other solution be?
12. Challenge Recall that the factor of a quadratic equation has the form (x ± m) where m is any number. Find
the quadratic equation that has the solution 3 + 2i.

39
 1.4 Completing the Square

Objective
We will introduce another technique to solve quadratic equations, called completing the square.
Review Queue
Solve the following equations. Use the appropriate method.
1. x2 —18x + 32 = 0
2. 2(x —4)2 = —54
3. 4x2 —5x —6 = 0
4. x2 —162 = 0

Completing the Square When the First Coefficient Equals 1

Objective
Learning how to complete the square for quadratic equations in the form x2 + bx + c = 0.
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Khan Academy: Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square

Guidance
Completing the square is another technique used to solve quadratic equations. When completing the square, the goal
is to make a perfect square trinomial and factor it.
Example A
Solve x2 —8x —1 = 10.
Solution:
1. Write the polynomial so that x2 and x are on the left side of the equation and the constants on the right. This is
only for organizational purposes, but it really helps. Leave a little space after the x—term.

x2 —8x = 11

40
2. Now, “complete the square.” Determine what number would make a perfect square trinomial with x2 —8x + c. To
2
do this, divide the x—term by 2 and square that number, or b2 .

2 2
b 8
= = 42 = 16
2 2

3. Add this number to both sides in order to keep the equation balanced.

x2 —8x+16 = 11+16

4. Factor the left side to the square of a binomial and simplify the right.

(x —4)2 = 27

5. Solve by using square roots.

√
x —4 = ±3 3
√
x = 4±3 3

Completing the square enables you to solve any quadratic equation using square roots. Through this process, we can
make an unfactorable quadratic equation solvable, like the one above. It can also be used with quadratic equations
that have imaginary solutions.
Example B
Solve x2 + 12x + 37 = 0
Solution: First, this is not a factorable quadratic equation. Therefore, the only way we know to solve this equation
is to complete the square. Follow the steps from Example A.
1. Organize the polynomial, x’s on the left, constant on the right.

x2 + 12x = —37

b 2
2. Find 2 and add it to both sides.

2 2
b 12
= = 62 = 36
2 2
x2 + 12x + 36 = —37 + 36

3. Factor the left side and solve.

(x + 6)2 = —1
x + 6 = ±i
x = —6 ± i

41
Example C
Solve x2 —11x —15 = 0.
Solution: This is not a factorable equation. Use completing the square.
1. Organize the polynomial, x’s on the left, constant on the right.

x2 —11x = 15

b 2
2. Find 2 and add it to both sides.

b 2 11 2 121
= =
2 2 4
121 121
x2 —11x + = 15 +
4 4

3. Factor the left side and solve.

2
11 60 121
x— 2 = 4 +
4
2
11 181
x— 2 =
4
√
11 181
x— 2 = ±
2
√
11 181
x= 2 ±
2

Guided Practice
1. Find the value of c that would make (x2 —2x + c) a perfect square trinomial. Then, factor the trinomial.
Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square.
2. x2 + 10x + 21 = 0
3. x —5x = 12
Answers
1. c = b 2 = 2 2 = 12 = 1. The factors of x2 —2x + 1 are (x —1)(x —1 ) or (x —1) 2.
2 2
2. Use the steps from the examples above.

42
 x2 + 10x + 21 = 0
x2 + 10x = —21
2 2
10 10
x2 + 10x + = —21 +
2 2
x2 + 10x + 25 = —21 + 25
(x + 5)2 = 4
x + 5 = ±2
x = —5 ± 2
x = —7, —3

3. Use the steps from the examples above.

x2 —5x = 12
2 2
5 5
x —5x +
2
= 12 +
2 2
25 48 25
x2 —5x + = +
4 4 4
5 2 73
x —2 = 4
√
5 73
x —2 = ±
2
√
5 73
x= 2±
2

Vocabulary

Binomial
A mathematical expression with two terms.

Square of a Binomial
A binomial that is squared.

Complete the Square

The process used to solve unfactorable quadratic equations.

Problem Set
Determine the value of c that would complete the perfect square trinomial.

1. x2 + 4x + c
2. x2 —2x + c
3. x2 + 16x + c

Rewrite the perfect square trinomial as a square of a binomial.

43
 4. x2 + 6x + 9
5. x2 —7x + 494
6. x2 —12 x + 16
1

Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square.

7. x2 + 6x —15 = 0
8. x2 + 10x + 29 = 0
9. x2 —14x + 9 = —60
10. x2 + 3x + 18 = —2
11. x2 —9x —5 = 23
12. x2 —20x = 60

Solve the following quadratic equations by factoring, square roots, or completing the square.

13. x2 + x —30 = 0
14. x2 —18x + 90 = 0
15. x2 + 15x + 56 = 0
16. x2 + 3x —24 = 12
17. (x —2)2 —20 = —45
18. x2 + 24x + 44 = —19
19. Solve x2 + 7x —44 = 0 by factoring and completing the square. Which method do you prefer?
20. Challenge Solve x2 + 178 x —2 = —9.

Completing the Square When the First Coefficient Doesn’t Equal 1

Objective
Learning how to complete the square for quadratic equations in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Guidance
When there is a number in front of x2, it will make completing the square a little more complicated. See how the
steps change in Example A.
Example A
Solve 3x2 —9x + 11 = 0
Solution:
1. Write the polynomial so that x2 and x are on the left side of the equation and the constants on the right.

3x2 —9x = —11

2. Pull out a from everything on the left side. Even if b is not divisible by a, the coefficient of x2 needs to be 1 in
order to complete the square.

3(x2 —3x + ) = —11

3. Now, complete the square. Determine what number would make a perfect square trinomial.

44
To do this, divide the x—term by 2 and square that number, or b 2
2 .

b 2
3 2 9
= =4
2 2

4. Add this number to the interior of the parenthesis on the left side. On the right side, you will need to add a · b 2
2
to keep the equation balanced.

9 27
3 x2 —3x+ = —11+
4 4

5. Factor the left side and simplify the right.

2
3 17
3 x —2 = —4

6. Solve by using square roots.

2
3 17
x —2 = —12
√ √
3 i 17 3
x —2 = ± √ · √
2 3 3
√
3 51
x= 2± i
6

b 2
Be careful with the addition of step 2 and the changes made to step 4. A very common mistake is to add 2 to
both sides, without multiplying by a for the right side.
Example B
Solve 4x2 + 7x —18 = 0.
Solution: Let’s follow the steps from Example A.
1. Write the polynomial so that x2 and x are on the left side of the equation and the constants on the right.

4x2 —7x = 18

2. Pull out a from everything on the left side.

7
4 x2 + x + = 18
4

b 2
3. Now, complete the square. Find 2 .

45
 2 2
b 7 49
= =
2 8 64

4. Add this number to the interior of the parenthesis on the left side. On the right side, you will need to add a · b 2
2
to keep the equation balanced.

7 49 49
4 x2 + x+ = 18+
4 64 16

5. Factor the left side and simplify the right.

2
7 337
4 x+ 8 =
16

6. Solve by using square roots.

2
7 337
x+ 8 =
64
√
7 337
x+ 8 = ±
8
√
7 337
x = —8 ±
8

Guided Practice
Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square.
1. 5x2 + 29x —6 = 0
2. 8x2 —32x + 4 = 0
Answers
Use the steps from the examples above to solve for x.
1.

46
 5x2 + 29x —6 = 0
29
5 x2 + x =6
5
29 841 841
5 x2 + x + = 6+
5 100 20
2
29 961
5 x + 10 =
20
2
29 961
x + 10 =
100
29 31
x+ =±
10 10
29 31
x=— ±
10 10
1
x = —6,
5

2.

8x2 —32x + 4 = 0
8(x2 —4x) = —4
8(x2 —4x + 4) = —4 + 32
8(x —2)2 = 28

(x —2)2 = 7
2 √ √
7 2
x —2 = ± √ · √
2 2
√
14
x = 2±
2

Problem Set
Solve the quadratic equations by completing the square.

1. 6x2 —12x —7 = 0
2. —4x2 + 24x —100 = 0
3. 5x2 —30x + 55 = 0
4. 2x2 —x —6 = 0
5. 1 x2 + 7x + 8 = 0
2
6. —3x2 + 4x + 15 = 0

Solve the following equations by factoring, using square roots, or completing the square.

7. 4x2 —4x —8 = 0
8. 2x2 + 9x + 7 = 0
9. —5(x + 4)2 —19 = 26
10. 3x2 + 30x —5 = 0

47
 11. 9x2 —15x —6 = 0
12. 10x2 + 40x + 88 = 0

Problems 13-15 build off of each other.

13. Challenge Complete the square for ax2 + bx + c = 0. Follow the steps from Examples A and B. Your final
answer should be in terms of a, b, and c.
14. For the equation 8x2 + 6x —5 = 0, use the formula you found in #13 to solve for x.
15. Is the equation in #14 factorable? If so, factor and solve it.
16. Error Analysis Examine the worked out problem below.

4x2 —48x + 11 = 0
4(x2 —12x + ) = —11
4(x2 —12x + 36) = —11 + 36
4(x —6)2 = 25
25
(x —6) 2 =
4
5
x —6 = ±
2
5 17 7
x = 6± 2 → ,
2 2

Plug the answers into the original equation to see if they work. If not, find the error and correct it.

48
 1.5 The Quadratic Formula

Objective
To derive and use the Quadratic Formula to solve quadratic equations and determine how many solutions an equation
has.
Review Queue
Solve each equation by completing the square.
1. x2 —4x + 20 = 0
2. 4x2 —12x —33 = 0
Solve each equation by factoring.
3. 12x2 + 31x + 20 = 0
4. 5x2 —30x —23 = x2 —77

Deriving and Using the Quadratic Formula

Objective
Deriving the Quadratic Formula and using it to solve any quadratic equation.
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Khan Academy: Quadratic Formula 1

Guidance
The last way to solve a quadratic equation is the Quadratic Formula. This formula is derived from completing the
square for the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (see #13 from the Problem Set in the previous concept). We will derive the
formula here.
Investigation: Deriving the Quadratic Formula
Walk through each step of completing the square of ax2 + bx + c = 0.
1. Move the constant to the right side of the equation. ax2 + bx = —c
2. “Take out” a from everything on the left side of the equation. a x 2 + ba x = —c
b 2 = b 2 = 4a
2
3. Complete the square using ba . 2 2a
b
2

4. Add this number to both sides. Don’t forget on the right side, you need to multiply it by a (to account for the a

49
 2 2
outside the parenthesis). a x2 + ba x + 4a
b
2
= —c + 4a
b

5. Factor the quadratic equation inside the parenthesis and give the right hand side a common denominator.
b 2 = b2 —4ac
a x + 2a 4a
2 b2 —4ac
6. Divide both sides by a. x + 2ab = 4a2
√
7. Take the square root of both sides. x + 2a
b =± b2 —4ac
2a
√
8. Subtract b
from both sides to get x by itself. x = —b ± b2 —4ac
2a 2a
This formula will enable you to solve any quadratic equation as long as you know a, b, and c (from ax2 + bx + c = 0).
Example A
Solve 9x2 —30x + 26 = 0 using the Quadratic Formula.
Solution: First, make sure one side of the equation is zero. Then, find a, b, and c. a = 9, b = —30, c = 26. Now,
plug in the values into the formula and solve for x.

√
—(—30) ±
(—30 ) 2 —4(9)(26)
x=
2(9)
√
30 ± 900 —936
=
√18
30 ± —36
=
18
30 ± 6i
=
18
5 1
= 3 ± 3i

Example B
Solve 2x2 + 5x —15 = —x2 + 7x + 2 using the Quadratic Formula.
Solution: Let’s get everything onto the left side of the equation.

2x2 + 5x —15 = —x2 + 7x + 2

3x2 —2x —13 = 0

Now, use a = 3, b = —2, and c = —13 and plug them into the Quadratic Formula.

√
—(—2) ± (—2) 2 —4(3)(—13)
x=
2(3)
√
2 ± 4 + 156
=
√6
2± 160
=
6√
2 ± 4 10
=
3

Example C

50
Solve x2 + 20x + 51 = 0 by factoring, completing the square, and the Quadratic Formula.
Solution: While it might not look like it, 51 is not a prime number. Its factors are 17 and 3, which add up to 20.

x2 + 20x + 51 = 0
(x + 17)(x + 13) = 0
x = —17, —3

Now, solve by completing the square.

x2 + 20x + 51 = 0
x2 + 20x = —51
x2 + 20x + 100 = —51 + 100
(x + 10)2 = 49
x + 10 = ±7
x = —10 ± 7 → —17, —3

Lastly, let’s use the Quadratic Formula. a = 1, b = 20, c = 51.

—20 ± √202 —4(1)(51)

x=
2(1)
√
=
—20 ± 400 —204
2
√
=
—20 ± 196
2
=
—20 ± 14
2
= —17, —3

Notice that no matter how you solve this, or any, quadratic equation, the answer will always be the same.
Guided Practice
1. Solve —6x2 + 15x —22 = 0 using the Quadratic Formula.
2. Solve 2x2 —x —15 = 0 using all three methods.
Answers
1. a = —6, b = 15, and c = —22

√
—15 ± 152 —4(—6)(—22)
x=
2(—6)
√
=
—15 ± 225 —528
—12
√
=
—15 ± i 303
—12
√
5 303
= 4± i
12

51
2. Factoring: ac = —30. The factors of -30 that add up to -1 are -6 and 5. Expand the x—term.

2x2 —6x + 5x —15 = 0

2x(x —3) + 5(x —3) = 0
(x —3)(2x + 5) = 0
5
x = 3, —
2

Complete the square

2x2 —x —15 = 0
2x2 —x = 15
1
2 x2 — x = 15
2
1 1 1
2 x2 — x + = 15 +
2 16 8
2
1 121
2 x —4 =
8
2
1 121
x —4 =
16
1 11
x— = ±
4 4
1 11
x= ± → 3, —5
4 4 2

Quadratic Formula

√
1± 12 —4(2)(—15)
x=
2(2)
√
1 ± 1 + 120
=
√4
1± 121
=
4
1 ± 11
=
4
12 10 5
= 4 ,— 4 → 3, —2

Vocabulary
√
Quadratic Formula: For any quadratic equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, x = —b± b2 —4ac .
2a
Problem Set
Solve the following equations using the Quadratic Formula.

1. x2 + 8x + 9 = 0

52
 2. 4x2 —13x —12 = 0
3. —2x2 + x + 5 = 0
4. 7x2 —11x + 12 = 0
5. 3x2 + 4x + 5 = 0
6. x2 —14x + 49 = 0

Choose any method to solve the equations below.

7. x2 + 5x —150 = 0
8. 8x2 —2x —3 = 0
9. —5x2 + 18x —24 = 0
10. 10x2 + x —2 = 0
11. x2 —16x + 4 = 0
12. 9x2 —196 = 0

Solve the following equations using all three methods.

13. 4x2 + 20x + 25 = 0

14. x2 —18x —63 = 0
15. Writing Explain when you would use the different methods to solve different types of equations. Would the
type of answer (real or imaginary) help you decide which method to use? Which method do you think is the
easiest?

Using the Discriminant

Objective
Using the discriminant of the Quadratic Formula to determine how many real solutions an equation has.
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Khan Academy: Discriminant for Types of Solutions for a Quadratic

Guidance
√
From the previous concept, the Quadratic Formula is x = —b± b2 —4ac . The expression under the radical, b 2 —4ac,
2a
is called the discriminant. You can use the discriminant to determine the number and type of solutions an equation
has.
Investigation: Solving Equations with Different Types of Solutions
1. Solve x2 —8x —20 = 0 using the Quadratic Formula. What is the value of the discriminant?

53
 √
x=
8± 144
2
8 ± 12
= → 10, —2
2

2. Solve x2 —8x + 6 = 0 using the Quadratic Formula. What is the value of the discriminant?

√
x=
8± 0
2
8±0
= →4
2

3. Solve x2 —8x + 20 = 0 using the Quadratic Formula. What is the value of the discriminant?

√
x=
8 ± —16
2
8 ± 4i
= → 4 ± 2i
2

4. Look at the values of the discriminants from Steps 1-3. How do they differ? How does that affect the final answer?
From this investigation, we can conclude:

• If b2 —4ac > 0, then the equation has two real solutions.

• If b2 —4ac = 0, then the equation has one real solution; a double root.
• If b2 —4ac < 0, then the equation has two imaginary solutions.

Example A
Determine the type of solutions 4x2 —5x + 17 = 0 has.
Solution: Find the discriminant.

b2 —4ac = (—5)2 —4(4)(17)

= 25 —272

At this point, we know the answer is going to be negative, so there is no need to continue (unless we were solving
the problem). This equation has two imaginary solutions.
Example B
Solve the equation from Example A to prove that it does have two imaginary solutions.
Solution: Use the Quadratic Formula.

√ √ √
5± 25 —272 5 ± —247 5 247
x= = = ± i
8 8 8 8

Guided Practice

54
1. Use the discriminant to determine the type of solutions —3x2 —8x + 16 = 0 has.
2. Use the discriminant to determine the type of solutions 25x2 —80x + 64 = 0 has.
3. Solve the equation from #1.
Answers
1.
b2 —4ac = (—8)2 —4(—3)(16)
= 64 + 192
= 256

This equation has two real solutions.

2.
b2 —4ac = (—80)2 —4(25)(64)
= 6400 —6400
=0

This equation has one real solution.

√
3. x = 8± —6256 = 8±16
—6
= —4, 43
Vocabulary

Discriminant
The value under the radical in the Quadratic Formula, b2 —4ac. The discriminant tells us number and type of
solution(s) a quadratic equation has.

Problem Set
Determine the number and type of solutions each equation has.

1. x2 —12x + 36 = 0
2. 5x2 —9 = 0
3. 2x2 + 6x + 15 = 0
4. —6x2 + 8x + 21 = 0
5. x2 + 15x + 26 = 0
6. 4x2 + x + 1 = 0

Solve the following equations using the Quadratic Formula.

7. x2 —17x —60 = 0
8. 6x2 —20 = 0
9. 2x2 + 5x + 11 = 0

Challenge Determine the values for c that make the equation have a) two real solutions, b) one real solution, and c)
two imaginary solutions.

10. x2 + 2x + c = 0
11. x2 —6x + c = 0
12. x2 + 12x + c = 0
13. What is the discriminant of x2 + 2kx + 4 = 0? Write your answer in terms of k.
14. For what values of k will the equation have a) two real solutions, b) one real solution, and c) two imaginary
solutions?

55
 1.6 Analyzing the Graph of a Quadratic Func-
tion
Objective
Graphing, finding the vertex and x—intercepts, and using all the forms of a quadratic equation.
Review Queue
Solve the following equations using the method of your choice.
1. x2 + 6x —27 = 0
2. x2 —10x + 29 = 0
3. x2 —8x + 16 = 0
4. In this lesson, we are going to be analyzing the graph of a quadratic function. Using what you know about the
solutions of a quadratic equation, what do you think the shape of the function will look like? Draw it on your paper.

Finding the Parts of a Parabola

Objective
Finding the x—intercepts, vertex, axis of symmetry, and y—intercept of a parabola.
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Guidance
Now that we have found the solutions of a quadratic equation we will graph the function. First, we need to introduce
y or f (x). A quadratic function is written y = ax2 + bx + c or f (x) = ax2 + bx + c (see Finding the Domain and
Range of Functions concept). All quadratic equations are also functions.
Recall that the solutions of a quadratic equation are found when the equation is set equal to zero. This is also the
same as when y = 0. Therefore, the solutions of a quadratic equation are also the x —intercepts of that function,
when graphed.

56
The graph of a quadratic equation is called a parabola and looks like the figure to the left. A parabola always has
“U” shape and depending on certain values, can be wider or narrower. The lowest part of a parabola, or minimum,
is called the vertex. Parabolas can also be flipped upside-down, and in this case, the vertex would be the maximum
value. Notice that this parabola is symmetrical about vertical line that passes through the vertex. This line is called
the axis of symmetry. Lastly, where the parabola passes through the y—axis (when x = 0), is the y —intercept.
If you are given (or can find) the x—intercepts and the vertex, you can always graph a parabola.
Investigation: Finding the Vertex of a Parabola
1. The equation of the parabola above is y = x2 —2x —3. Find a, b, and c. a = 1, b = —2, c = —3
2. What are the coordinates of the vertex? (1, -4)
—b
3. Create an expression using a and b (from Step 1) that would be equal to the x—coordinate of the vertex. 1 = 2a

4. Plug in x = 1 to the equation of the parabola. What do you get for y? y = —4

From this investigation, we have introduced how to find the vertex of a parabola. The x—coordinate of the vertex is
x= — b
2a
. To find y, plug in this value to the equation, also written f —b
2a
. x= —b
2a
is also the equation of the axis of
symmetry.
Example A
Find the vertex, axis of symmetry, x—intercepts, and y—intercept of y = —12 x —2x + 6.
2
Solution: First, let’s find the x—intercepts. This equation is factorable and ac = —3. The factors of -3 that add up to
-2 are -3 and 1. Expand the x—term and factor.

1
—2x 2 —2x + 6 = 0
1
—2x 2 —3x + x + 6 = 0
1 1
—x x+3 +2 x+3 = 0
2 2
1
x + 3 (—x + 2) = 0
2

Solving for x, the intercepts are (-6, 0) and (2, 0).

To find the vertex, use x = —b .
2a

57
 —(—2)
x= 2·—12
= 2
—1 = —2 Plug this into the equation: y = —21 (—2) 2 —2(—2) + 6 = —2 + 4 + 6 = 8.
Therefore, the vertex is (-2, 8) and the axis of symmetry is x = —2.
To find the y—intercept, x = 0. y = —12 ( 0) 2 —2(0) + 6 = 6. Therefore, the y—intercept is (0, 6).
Example B
Sketch a graph of the parabola from Example A.
Solution: Plot the vertex and two x—intercepts (red points). Plot the y—intercept. Because all parabolas are
symmetric, the corresponding point on the other side would be (-4, 6). Connect the five points to form the parabola.

For this parabola, the vertex is the maximum value. If you look at the equation, y = —12 x —2x + 6, we see that the
2
a value is negative. When a is negative, the sides of the parabola, will point down.
Example C
Find the vertex and x—intercepts of y = 2x2 —5x —25. Then, sketch a graph.
Solution: First, this is a factorable function. ac = —50. The factors of -50 that add up to -5 are -10 and 5.

2x2 —5x —25 = 0

2x2 —10x + 5x —25 = 0
2x(x —5) + 5(x —5) = 0
(2x + 5)(x —5) = 0

Setting each factor equal to zero, we get x = 5 and —52 .

—b
From this, we get that the x—intercepts are (5, 0) and —52 ,0 . To find the vertex, use x = 2a
.

x= 5 2 —5 5 = —28 18
2·2 = 4 Now, find y. y = 2 —25 = —25 —25 = —225
5 5 25
4 4 8 4 8
The vertex is 54 ,—28 81 . To graph this, we will need to estimate the vertex and draw an appropriate scale for the
grid. As a decimal, the vertex is (1.25, -28.125).

58
Guided Practice
1. Find the x—intercepts, y—intercept, vertex, and axis of symmetry of y = —x2 + 7x —12.
2. Sketch a graph of the parabola from #1.
3. Find the vertex of y = —4x2 + 16x —17. Does the parabola open up or down?
Answers
1. This is a factorable quadratic equation.

—(x 2 —7x + 12) = 0

—(x 2 —3x —4x + 12) = 0
—[x(x —3)— 4(x —3)] = 0
—(x —3)(x —4) = 0

The x—intercepts are (3, 0) and (4, 0).

y = —02 + 7(0)— 12
y = —12

The y—intercept is (0, -12).

The x—coordinate of the vertex is x = —7
= 72 . The y—coordinate is y = — 7 2 +7 7 —12 = 41 .
2(—1) 2 2

Therefore, the vertex is 7,1

2 4
and the parabola opens down because a < 0. The axis of symmetry is x = 72.
2. Plot all the points you found in #1. Then, connect the points to create the parabola.

59
 —16
3. First, the parabola opens down because a is negative. The x—coordinate of the vertex is x = 2(—4) =—
—8 = 2. The
16

y—coordinate is y = —4(2) 2 + 16(2)— 17 = —16 + 32 —17 = —1. This makes the vertex (2, -1).
Even though the problem does not ask, we can infer that this parabola does not cross the x—axis because it points
down and the vertex is below the x—axis. This means that the solutions would be imaginary.
Vocabulary

Parabola
The “U” shaped graph of a quadratic equation.

Vertex
The highest or lowest point of a parabola. The x—coordinate of the vertex is —b .
2a

Maximum/Minimum
The highest/lowest point of a function.

x—intercept(s)
The point(s) where a function crosses the x—axis. x—intercepts are also called solutions, roots or zeros.

y—intercept
The point where a function crosses the y—axis. A function will only cross the y—axis once.

Axis of Symmetry
The line that a parabola is symmetric about. The vertex always lies on this line.

Problem Set
Find the vertex of each parabola and determine if it is a maximum or minimum.

1. y = x2 —12x + 11

60
 2. y = x2 + 10x —18
3. y = —3x2 + 4x + 17
4. y = 2x2 —9x —11
5. y = —x2 + 6x —9
6. y = —14 x + 8x —33
2

Find the vertex, x—intercepts, y—intercept, and axis of symmetry of each factorable quadratic equation below. Then,
sketch a graph of each one.

7. y = x2 —12x + 11
8. y = —2x2 —5x + 12
9. y = 13 x2 + 4x —15
10. y = 3x2 + 26x —9
11. y = —x2 + 10x —25
12. y = —12 x + 5x + 28
2
13. If a function is not factorable, how would you find the x—intercepts?

Find the vertex and x—intercepts of the following quadratic equations. Then, sketch the graph. These equations are
not factorable.

14. y = —x2 + 8x —9
15. y = 2x2 —x —8

Complete the table of values for the quadratic equations below. Then, plot the points and graph.

16. y = x2 —2x + 2

TABLE 5.2:
x y
5
3
1
-1
-3

17. y = x2 + 4x + 13

TABLE 5.3:
x y
4
0
-2
-4
-8

18. Writing What do you notice about the two parabolas from 16 and 17? What type of solutions do these
functions have? Solve #16.
19. Writing How many different ways can a parabola intersect the x—axis? Draw parabolas on an x —y plane to

61
 represent the different solution possibilities.
20. Challenge If the x—coordinate of the vertex is —b
2a
for y = ax2 + bx + c, find the y—coordinate in terms of a, b,
and c.

Vertex, Intercept, and Standard Form

Objective
To explore the different forms of the quadratic equation.
Guidance
So far, we have only used the standard form of a quadratic equation, y = ax2 + bx + c to graph a parabola. From
standard form, we can find the vertex and either factor or use the Quadratic Formula to find the x—intercepts. The
intercept form of a quadratic equation is y = a(x —p)(x —q), where a is the same value as in standard form, and p
and q are the x—intercepts. This form looks very similar to a factored quadratic equation.
Example A
Change y = 2x2 + 9x + 10 to intercept form and find the vertex. Graph the parabola.
Solution: First, let’s change this equation into intercept form by factoring. ac = 20 and the factors of 20 that add up
to 9 are 4 and 5. Expand the x—term.

y = 2x2 + 9x + 10
y = 2x2 + 4x + 5x + 10
y = 2x(x + 2) + 5(x + 2)
y = (2x + 5)(x + 2)

Notice, this does not exactly look like the definition. The factors cannot have a number in front of x. Pull out the 2
from the first factor to get y = 2 x + 52 (x + 2). Now, find the vertex. Recall that all parabolas are symmetrical. This
means that the axis of symmetry is halfway between the x—intercepts or their average.

p + q —52 —2 9 9 1 9
axis of symmetry = = = — ÷2 = — · = —
2 2 2 2 2 4

This is also the x—coordinate of the vertex. To find the y—coordinate, plug the x—value into either form of the
quadratic equation. We will use Intercept form.

9 5 9
y=2 — + — +2
4 2 4
1
y = 2 · ·—1
4 4
1
y=—
8

The vertex is —2 14 ,—18 . Plot the x—intercepts and the vertex to graph.

62
The last form is vertex form. Vertex form is written y = a(x —h)2 + k, where (h, k) is the vertex and a is the same
is in the other two forms. Notice that h is negative in the equation, but positive when written in coordinates of the
vertex.
Example B
Find the vertex of y = 12 ( x —1) 2 + 3 and graph the parabola.
Solution: The vertex is going to be (1, 3). To graph this parabola, use the symmetric properties of the function.
Pick a value on the left side of the vertex. If x = —3, then y = 12 (—3 —1) 2 + 3 = 11. -3 is 4 units away from 1 (the
x—coordinate of the vertex). 4 units on the other side of 1 is 5. Therefore, the y—coordinate will be 11. Plot (1, 3),
(-3, 11), and (5, 11) to graph the parabola.

Example C
Change y = x2 —10x + 16 into vertex form.
Solution: To change an equation from standard form into vertex form, you must complete the square. Review the
Completing the Square Lesson if needed. The major difference is that you will not need to solve this equation.

63
 y = x2 —10x + 16
2 b 2
y —16 + 25 = x —10x + 25 Move 16 to the other side and add to both sides.
2
y + 9 = (x —5)2 Simplify left side and factor the right side
y = (x —5)2 —9 Subtract 9 from both sides to get y by itself.

To solve an equation in vertex form, set y = 0 and solve for x.

(x —5)2 —9 = 0
(x —5)2 = 9
x —5 = ±3
x = 5 ± 3 or 8 and 2

Guided Practice
1. Find the intercepts of y = 2(x —7)(x + 2) and change it to standard form.
2. Find the vertex of y = —12 ( x + 4) 2 —5 and change it to standard form.
3. Change y = x2 + 18x + 45 to intercept form and graph.
4. Change y = x2 —6x —7 to vertex form and graph.
Answers
1. The intercepts are the opposite sign from the factors; (7, 0) and (-2, 0). To change the equation into standard form,
FOIL the factors and distribute a.

y = 2(x —7)(x + 2)
y = 2(x2 —5x —14)
y = 2x2 —10x —28

2. The vertex is (-4, -5). To change the equation into standard form, FOIL (x + 4)2, distribute a, and then subtract 5.

1
y = — (x + 4)(x + 4)— 5
2
1
y = — ( x2 + 8x + 16)— 5
2
1
y = — x2 —4x —21
2

3. To change y = x2 + 18x + 45 into intercept form, factor the equation. The factors of 45 that add up to 18 are 15
and 3. Intercept form would be y = (x + 15)(x + 3). The intercepts are (-15, 0) and (-3, 0). The x—coordinate of
the vertex is halfway between -15 and -3, or -9. The y—coordinate of the vertex is y = (—9)2 + 18(—9) + 45 = —36.
Here is the graph:

64
4. To change y = x2 —6x —7 into vertex form, complete the square.

y + 7 + 9 = x2 —6x + 9
y + 16 = (x —3)2
y = (x —3)2 —16

The vertex is (3, -16).

For vertex form, we could solve the equation by using square roots or we could factor the standard form. Either way,
we will get that the x—intercepts are (7, 0) and (-1, 0).

65
Vocabulary

Standard form
y = ax2 + bx + c

Intercept form
y = a(x —p)(x —q), where p and q are the x—intercepts.

Vertex form
y = a(x —h)2 + k, where (h, k) is the vertex.

Problem Set

1. Fill in the table below.

TABLE 5.4:
Equation Vertex Intercepts (or how to find
the intercepts)
Standard form
Intercept form
Vertex form

Find the vertex and x—intercepts of each function below. Then, graph the function. If a function does not have any
x—intercepts, use the symmetry property of parabolas to find points on the graph.

2. y = (x —4)2 —9
3. y = (x + 6)(x —8)
4. y = x2 + 2x —8

66
 5. y = —(x —5)(x + 7)
6. y = 2(x + 1)2 —3
7. y = 3(x —2)2 + 4
8. y = 1 (x3 —9)(x + 3)
9. y = —(x + 2)2 + 7
10. y = 4x2 —13x —12

Change the following equations to intercept form.

11. y = x2 —3x + 2
12. y = —x2 —10x + 24
13. y = 4x2 + 18x + 8

Change the following equations to vertex form.

14. y = x2 + 12x —28

15. y = —x2 —10x + 24
16. y = 2x2 —8x + 15

Change the following equations to standard form.

17. y = (x —3)2 + 8
18. y = 2 x — 32 (x —4)
19. y = —12 (x + 6) 2 —11

Using the Graphing Calculator to Graph Quadratic Equations

Objective
To use the graphing calculator to graph parabolas, find their intercepts, and the vertex.
Guidance
A graphing calculator can be a very helpful tool when graphing parabolas. This concept outlines how to use the
TI-83/84 to graph and find certain points on a parabola.
Example A
Graph y = —3x2 + 14x —8 using a graphing calculator.
Solution: Using a TI-83/84, press the Y = button. Enter in the equation. Be careful not to confuse the negative sign
and the subtraction sign. The equation should look like y = —3x2 + 14x —8 or y = —3x2 + 14x —8. Press GRAPH.

67
If your graph does not look like this one, there may be an issue with your window. Press ZOOM and then
6:ZStandard, ENTER. This should give you the standard window.
Example B
Using your graphing calculator, find the vertex of the parabola from Example A.
Solution: To find the vertex, press 2nd TRACE (CALC). The Calculate menu will appear. In this case, the vertex
is a maximum, so select 4:maximum, ENTER. The screen will return to your graph. Now, you need to tell the
calculator the Left Bound. Using the arrows, arrow over to the left side of the vertex, press ENTER. Repeat this for
the Right Bound. The calculator then takes a guess, press ENTER again. It should give you that the maximum is
X = 2.3333333 and Y = 8.3333333. As fractions, the coordinates of the vertex are 2 13,8 13 . Make sure to write the
coordinates of the vertex as a point.
Example C
Using your graphing calculator, find the x—intercepts of the parabola from Example A.
Solution: To find the x—intercepts, press 2nd TRACE (CALC). The Calculate menu will appear. Select 2:Zero,
ENTER. The screen will return to your graph. Let’s focus on the left-most intercept. Now, you need to tell the
calculator the Left Bound. Using the arrows, arrow over to the left side of the vertex, press ENTER. Repeat this for
the Right Bound (keep the bounds close to the intercept). The calculator then takes a guess, press ENTER again.
This intercept is X = .666667, or 23 ,0 . Repeat this process for the second intercept. You should get (4, 0).
NOTE: When graphing parabolas and the vertex does not show up on the screen, you will need to zoom out. The
calculator will not find the value(s) of any x—intercepts or the vertex that do not appear on screen. To zoom out,
press ZOOM, 3:Zoom Out, ENTER, ENTER.
Guided Practice
1. Graph y = 6x2 + 11x —35 using a graphing calculator. Find the vertex and x—intercepts. Round your answers to
the nearest hundredth.
Answers
1. Using the steps above, the vertex is (-0.917, -40.04) and is a minimum. The x—intercepts are (1.67, 0) and (-3.5,
0).

68
Problem Set
Graph the quadratic equations using a graphing calculator. Find the vertex and x—intercepts, if there are any. If there
are no x—intercepts, use algebra to find the imaginary solutions. Round all real answers to the nearest hundredth.

1. y = x2 —x —6
2. y = —x2 + 3x + 28
3. y = 2x2 + 11x —40
4. y = x2 —6x + 7
5. y = x2 + 8x + 13
6. y = x2 + 6x + 34
7. y = 10x2 —13x —3
8. y = —4x2 + 12x —3
9. y = 31 (x —4) 2 + 12
10. Calculator Investigation The parent graph of a quadratic equation is y = x2.

a. Graph y = x2, y = 3x2, and y = 12x2 on the same set of axes in the calculator. Describe how a effects the
shape of the parabola.
b. Graph y = x2, y = —x2, and y = —2x2 on the same set of axes in the calculator. Describe how a effects
the shape of the parabola.
c. Graph y = x2, y = (x —1)2, and y = (x + 4)2 on the same set of axes in the calculator. Describe how h
effects the location of the parabola.
d. Graph y = x2, y = x2 + 2, and y = x2 —5 on the same set of axes in the calculator. Describe how k effects
the location of the parabola.

11. The path of a baseball hit by a bat follows a parabola. A batter hits a home run into the stands that can be
modeled by the equation y = —0.003x2 + 1.3x + 4, where x is the horizontal distance and y is the height (in
feet) of the ball. Find the maximum height of the ball and its total distance travelled.

69
Modeling with Quadratic Functions

Objective
To find the quadratic equation that fits to a data set.
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Guidance
When finding the equation of a parabola, you can use any of the three forms. If you are given the vertex and any
other point, you only need two points to find the equation. However, if you are not given the vertex you must have
at least three points to find the equation of a parabola.
Example A
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (-1, -4) and passes through (2, 8).
Solution: Use vertex form and substitute -1 for h and -4 for k.

y = a(x —(—1))2 —4
y = a(x + 1)2 —4

Now, take the second point and plug it for x and y and solve for a.

8 = a(2 + 4)2 —4
12 = 36a
1
3
=a

The equation is y = 13 (x + 1) 2 —4.

Like in the Analyzing Scatterplots lesson, we can also fit a set of data to a quadratic equation. In this concept, we
will be using quadratic regression and a TI-83/84.
Example B
Determine the quadratic equation of best fit for the data set below.

TABLE 5.5:
x 0 4 7 12 17
y 7 9 10 8 3

70
Solution: We need to enter the x—coordinates as a list of data and the y—coordinates as another list.
1. Press STAT.
2. In EDIT, select 1:Edit. . . . Press ENTER.
3. The List table appears. If there are any current lists, you will need to clear them. To do this, arrow up to L1 so
that it is highlighted (black). Press CLEAR, then ENTER. Repeat with L2, if necessary.
4. Now, enter the data into the lists. Enter all the entries into L1 (x) first and press enter between each entry. Then,
repeat with L2 and y.
5. Press 2nd MODE (QUIT).
Now that we have everything in the lists, we can use quadratic regression to determine the equation of best fit.
6. press STAT and then arrow over to the CALC menu.
7. Select 5:QuadReg. Press ENTER.

8. You will be taken back to the main screen. Type (L1,L2) and press ENTER. L1 is 2nd 1, L2 is 2nd 2.
9. The following screen appears. The equation of best fit is y = —0.64x2 + 0.86x + 6.90.

If you would like to plot the equation on the scatterplot follow the steps from the Finding the Equation of Best Fit
using a Graphing Calculator concept. The scatterplot and parabola are to the right.

This technique can be applied to real-life problems. You can also use technique to find the equation of any parabola,
given three points.
Example C
Find the equation of the parabola that passes through (1, 11), (2, 20), (-3, 75).

71
Solution: You can use the same steps from Example B to find the equation of the parabola. Doing this, you should
get the equation is y = 5x2 —6x + 12.
This problem can also be done by solving three equations, with three unknowns. If we plug in (x, y) to y = ax2 +
bx + c, we would get:

11 = a + b + c
20 = 4a + 2b + c
75 = 9a —3b + c

Use linear combinations to solve this system of equations (see Solving a System in Three Variables Using Linear
Combinations concept). This problem will be finished in the Problem Set.
Guided Practice
1. Find the equation of the parabola with x—intercepts (4, 0) and (-5, 0) that passes through (-3, 8).
2. A study compared the speed, x (in miles per hour), and the average fuel economy, y (in miles per gallon) of a
sports car. Here are the results.

TABLE 5.6:
speed 30 40 50 55 60 65 70 80
fuel 11.9 16.1 21.1 22.2 25.0 26.1 25.5 23.2
economy

Plot the scatterplot and use your calculator to find the equation of best fit.
Answers
1. Because we are given the intercepts, use intercept form to find the equation.
y = a(x —4)(x + 5) Plug in (-3,8) and solve for a

8 = a(—3 —4)(—3 + 5)
8 = —14a
4
—7 = a

The equation of the parabola is y = —47 (x —4)(x + 5).

2. Plotting the points, we have:

72
Using the steps from Example B, the quadratic regression equation is y = —0.009x2 + 1.24x —18.23.
Vocabulary

Quadratic Regression
The process through which the equation of best fit is a quadratic equation.

Problem Set
Find the equation of the parabola given the following points. No decimal answers.

1. vertex: (-1, 1) point: (1, -7)

2. x—intercepts: -2, 2 point: (4, 3)
3. vertex: (9, -4) point: (5, 12)
4. x—intercepts: 8, -5 point: (3, 20)
5. x—intercepts: -9, -7 point: (-3, 36)
6. vertex: (6, 10) point: (2, -38)
7. vertex: (-4, -15) point: (-10, 1)
8. vertex: (0, 2) point: (-4, -12)
9. x—intercepts: 3, 16 point: (7, 24)

Use a graphing calculator to find the quadratic equation (in standard form) that passes through the given three points.
No decimal answers.

10. (-4, -51), (-1, -18), (4, -43)

11. (-5, 131), (-1, -5), (3, 51)
12. (-2, 9), (2, 13), (6, 41)
13. Challenge Finish computing Example C using linear combinations.

For the quadratic modeling questions below, use a graphing calculator. Round any decimal answers to the nearest
hundredth.

14. The surface of a speed bump is shaped like a parabola. Write a quadratic model for the surface of the speed
bump shown.

73
 15. Physics and Photography Connection Your physics teacher gives you a project to analyze parabolic motion.
You know that when a person throws a football, the path is a parabola. Using your camera, you take an long
exposure picture of a friend throwing a football. A sketch of the picture is below.

You put the path of the football over a grid, with the x—axis as the horizontal distance and the y—axis as the
height, both in 3 feet increments. The release point, or shoulder height, of your friend is 5 ft, 3 in and you
estimate that the maximum height is 23 feet. Find the equation of the parabola.
16. An independent study was done linking advertising to the purchase of an object. 400 households were used in
the survey and the commercial exposure was over a one week period. See the data set below.

TABLE 5.7:
# of times 1 7 14 21 28 35 42 49
commer-
cial was
shown, x
# of 2 25 96 138 88 37 8 6
house-
holds
bought
item, y

a) Find the quadratic equation of best fit.

b) Why do you think the amount of homes that purchased the item went down after more exposure to the commercial?

74
 CHAPTER
2 Polynomial Functions
Chapter Outline
2.1 P ROPERTIES OF E XPONENTS
2.2 A DDING , S UBTRACTING AND MULTIPLYING POLYNOMIALS
2.3 FACTORING AND SOLVING POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
2.4 D IVIDING POLYNOMIALS
2.5 F INDING ALL S OLUTIONS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
2.6 ANALYZING THE G RAPH OF POLYNOMIAL F UNCTIONS

Polynomial Functions
In this chapter we will continue to explore non-linear functions. This chapter covers any polynomial function, or a
function whose greatest exponent is larger than 2. We will add, subtract, multiply, divide and solve these types of
functions. Towards the end of the chapter, we will analyze the graph of a polynomial function and find the inverse
and composition.

75
 2.1 Properties of Exponents

Objective
Using the properties of exponents to simplify numeric and algebraic expressions.
Review Queue
Simplify the following expressions.
1. 52
2. 33
3. 23 ·22
For questions 4-6, x = —3, y = 2, and z = —4. Evaluate the following.
4. xy2
5. (xy)2
6. x2z
y2

Product and Quotient Properties

Objective
To use and understand the multiplication and quotient properties of exponents.
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James Sousa: Properties of Exponents

Guidance
To review, the power (or exponent) of a number is the little number in the superscript. The number that is being
raised to the power is called the base. The exponent indicates how many times the base is multiplied by itself.

76
 .

There are several properties of exponents. We will investigate two in this concept.
Example A
Expand and solve 56.
Solution: 56 means 5 times itself six times.

56 = 5 ·5 ·5 ·5 ·5 ·5 = 15, 625

Investigation: Product Property

1. Expand 34 ·35.
3__·
___3__·3___·
___3_·3 _
· 3____·
___ __3 ·__3_____·
___3
` ˛¸ x ` ˛¸ x
34 35

2. Rewrite this expansion as one power of three.

39
3. What is the sum of the exponents?
4+5 = 9
+
4. Fill in the blank: am ·an = a— —

am ·
an = am+n
Rather than expand the exponents every time or find the powers separately, we can use this property to simplify the
product of two exponents with the same base.
Example B
Simplify:
(a) x3 ·x8
(b) xy2x2y9
Solution: Use the Product Property above.
(a) x3 ·x8 = x3+8 = x11
(b) If a number does not have an exponent, you may assume the exponent is 1. Reorganize this expression so the x’s
are together and y’s are together.

xy2x2y9 = x1 ·x2 ·y2 ·y9 = x1+2 ·y2+9 = x3y11

Investigation: Quotient Property

1. Expand 28 ÷ 23. Also, rewrite this as a fraction.
2·2·2·2·2·2·2·2
2·2·2
2. Cancel out the common factors and write the answer one power of 2.
/2·/2·2
/·2·2·2·2·2 = 25
2/ · 2/ · 2/
3. What is the difference of the exponents?
8 —3 = 5
= a— —
am —
4. Fill in the blank: an

77
am = am—n
an

Example C
Simplify:
(a) 59
57

(b) x4
x2

(c) xy5
x6y2

Solution: Use the Quotient Property from above.

(a) 59
57 = 59—7 = 52 = 25
(b) x4
x2 = x4—2 = x2
(c) x10y5
x6y2
= x10—6y5—2 = x4y3
Guided Practice
Simplify the following expressions. Evaluate any numerical answers.
1. 7 ·72
2. 37
33

3. 16x4y5
4x2y2
Answers
1. 7 ·72 = 71+2 = 73 = 343
2. 37
33 = 37—3 = 34 = 81

3. 16x4y5
4x2y2
= 4x4—2y5—3 = 4x2y2
Vocabulary

Product of Powers Property

am ·
an = am+n

Quotients of Powers Property

am = am—n ; a /
=0
an

Problem Set
Expand the following numbers and evaluate.

1. 26
2. 103
3. (—3)5
4. (0.25)4

Simplify the following expressions. Evaluate any numerical answers.

5. 42 ·47
6. 6 ·63 ·62
7. 883
8.4 5 2
2 ·3 2·3

78
 9. b6 ·b3
10. 52x4 ·x9
12
11. yy5
12. a8·b64
b·a
13. 3373xx63
14. d5 f 3d9 f 7
15. 285m18 n14
2m n 11 4

16. 94 p5q8
92 pq2

Investigation Evaluate the powers of negative numbers.

17. Find:
a. (—2)1
b. (—2)2
c. (—2)3
d. (—2)4
e. (—2)5
f. (—2)6
18. Make a conjecture about even vs. odd powers with negative numbers.
19. Is (—2)4 different from —24? Why or why not?

Negative and Zero Exponent Properties

Objective
To evaluate and use negative and zero exponents.
Guidance
In this concept, we will introduce negative and zero exponents. First, let’s address a zero in the exponent through an
investigation.
Investigation: Zero Exponents
1. Evaluate 56 by using the Quotient of Powers property.
56
56
56
= 56—6 = 50
2. What is a number divided by itself? Apply this to #1.
56
56 =1
3. Fill in the blanks. am
am = am—m = a— =—
a0 = 1
Investigation: Negative Exponents
1. Expand 32 and cancel out the common 3’s and write your answer with positive exponents.
37

32 = \3·\3 = 1
37 3
\·3
\·3·3·3·3·3 35

2. Evaluate 32 by using the Quotient of Powers property.

37
32
37
= 32—7 = 3—5

79
3. Are the answers from #1 and #2 equal? Write them as a single statement.
1
35
= 3—5

4. Fill in the blanks. 1

am = a— and 1
a—m = a—

a1m =ama—m and a—m

1 =

From the two investigations above, we have learned two very important properties of exponents. First, anything to
the zero power is one. Second, negative exponents indicate placement. If an exponent is negative, it needs to be
moved from where it is to the numerator or denominator. We will investigate this property further in the Problem
Set.
Example A
Simplify the following expressions. Your answer should only have positive exponents.
(a) 52
55

(b) x7yz12
x12yz7

(c) a4b0
a8b
Solution: Use the two properties from above. An easy way to think about where the “leftover” exponents should
go, is to look at the fraction and determine which exponent is greater. For example, in b, there are more x’s in the
denominator, so the leftover should go there.
(a) 52
55 = 5—3 = 513 = 1
125
(b)x yz 7 12
= y1—1z12—7 = y0z5 = x5
z5 x12yz7 x12—7 x5
(c)a b 4 0
= a4—8b0—1 = a—4b—1 = 1
a8b a4b
Alternate Method: Part c
a4b0 = a8—4
1 =
b
1
a8b a4b
Example B
Simplify the expressions. Your answer should only have positive exponents.
(a) xy5
8y—3

(b) 27g—7h0
18g
Solution: In these expressions, you will need to move the negative exponent to the numerator or denominator and
then change it to a positive exponent to evaluate. Also, simplify any numerical fractions.
(a) xy5
8y—3
= xy5y3 = xy5+3 = xy8
8 8 8

(b) 27g—7h0 = 3 = 3
2g1+7
= 3
18g 2g1g7 2g8
Example C
Multiply the two fractions together and simplify. Your answer should only have positive exponents.

4x—2y5 —5x6y
· —9
20x8 15y

Solution: The easiest way to approach this problem is to multiply the two fractions together first and then simplify.

80
 4x—2y5 —5x6y 20x—2+6y5+1 x—2+6—8y5+1+9 x—4y15 y15
·15y—9 = — = — = — = —
20x8 300x8y—9 15 15 15x4

Guided Practice
Simplify the expressions.
1. 86
89
3x10y2
2. 21x7y—4

2a8b—4 3a—3 0
·4 a4b7 b
3. 16a—5
Answers
1. 86 = 86—9 = 1 = 1
89 83 512

2.
3x10y2 = x10—7y2—(—4) = x3y6
21x7y—4 7 7
2a8b—4 3a—3 0
·4 a4b7 b = 128a 8—3b—4 = 8a5+1 = 8a6
3. 16a—5 16a—5+4b7 b7+4 b11

Vocabulary

Zero Exponent Property

a0 = 1, a /
=0

Negative Exponent Property

1 a—m and 1 = am ,a /
am = a—m =0

Problem Set
Simplify the following expressions. Answers cannot have negative exponents.

1. 82
84
x6
2. x15
3. 7—3
7—2
4. y—9
y10
5. x0y5
xy7
6. a—1b8
a5b7
7. 14c10d—4
21c6d—3
8g0h
8. 30g—9h2
y7 x
10y—2 ·x—1y
5x4
9.
g9h5 3
10. 6gh12
·18h
g8
4a10 b7 —5 4
11. · 9a b
12a—6 20a11b—8
12. —g8 h ·9g15 h9
6g—8 —h11
13. Rewrite the following exponential pattern with positive exponents: 5—4, 5—3, 5—2, 5—1, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54.
14. Evaluate each term in the pattern from #13.
15. Fill in the blanks.

As the numbers increase, you the previous term by 5.

As the numbers decrease, you the previous term by 5.

81
Power Properties

Objective
To discover and use the power properties of exponents.
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James Sousa: Properties of Exponents

Guidance
The last set of properties to explore are the power properties. Let’s investigate what happens when a power is raised
to another power.
Investigation: Power of a Power Property
1. Rewrite (23)5 as 23 five times.
(23)5 = 23 ·23 ·23 ·23 ·23
2. Expand each 23. How many 2’s are there?
(23 ) 5 = 2__
·
_2 ·
___2 ·2__
·
_2 · 2 ·2_·
___ __2 ·__2_ ·2 _·
__2 ·__2_·2 _
·
__2 ·__
2 = 215
` ˛¸ x ` ˛¸ x ` ˛¸ x ` ˛¸ x ` ˛¸ x
23 23 23 23 23
3. What is the product of the powers?
3 ·5 = 15
4. Fill in the blank. (am)n = a—·—
(am)n = amn
The other two exponent properties are a form of the distributive property.
Power of a Product Property: (ab)m = ambm
Power of a Quotient Property: a m = am
b bm
Example A
Simplify the following.
(a) (34)2
(b) (x2y)5
Solution: Use the new properties from above.
(a) (34)2 = 34·2 = 38 = 6561
(b) (x2y)5 = x2·5y5 = x10y5
Example B

82
 4
3a—6
Simplify 22a2 without negative exponents.

Solution: This example uses the Negative Exponent Property from the previous concept. Distribute the 4th power
first and then move the negative power of a from the numerator to the denominator.

4 34a—6·4 81a—24
3a—6 81 81
22a2 = 22·4a2·4 = 28a8 = =
256a8+24 256a32

Example C
4x—3 y4 z6 2
5xy—1
Simplify 12x2y ÷ 15x3z—2 without negative exponents.
Solution: This example is definitely as complicated as these types of problems get. Here, all the properties of
exponents will be used. Remember that dividing by a fraction is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal.

4x—3y4z6 5xy—1 2 4x—3y4z6 225x6z—4

÷ =
12x2y 15x3z—2 12x2y ·25x2y—2
y3z6 9x4y2
= 3x5 · 4
z
3x y z
4 5 6
= 54
xz
3y5z2
=
x

Guided Practice
Simplify the following expressions without negative exponents.
7
5a3
1. b4

2. (2x5)—3(3x9)2
—1
( 5x 2y—1 )3 16x8 y5
3. 10y6
· 4x7

Answers
1. Distribute the 7 to every power within the parenthesis.

7
5a3 57a21 78, 125a21
= b28 =
b4 b28

2. Distribute the -3 and 2 to their respective parenthesis and then use the properties of negative exponents, quotient
and product properties to simplify.

9x3
(2x5)—3(3x9)2 = 2—3x—1532x18 =
8

3. Distribute the exponents that are outside the parenthesis and use the other properties of exponents to simplify.
Anytime a fraction is raised to the -1 power, it is equal to the reciprocal of that fraction to the first power.

83
 3 —1
5x2y—1 16x8 y5 53x—6y—3 4x7
· = · 8 5
10y6 4x7 10y6 16x y
500xy—3
=
160x8y11
25
= 8x7y14

Vocabulary

Power of Power Property

(am)n = amn

Power of a Product Property

(ab)m = ambm

Power of a Quotient Property

a m = am
b bm

Problem Set
Simplify the following expressions without negative exponents.

1. (25)3
2. (3x)4
2
3. 45
4. (6x 3) 3
7
2a3
5. b5
6. (4x8)—2
1 —1
7. 72h9
3
2x4 y2
8. 5x—3y5
—4
9m5n—7
9. 27m6n5
10. (4x)2(5y)—3
(2x3y5)2
5
11. (5r 6) 4 31 r—2
12. (4t—1s)3(2—1ts—2)—3
2
6a2b4 · 8b12
13. 18a b—3 4 40a b
—8 5

2(x 4y4 ) 0 10
14. 24x3y5z
÷ 32x8z—2y5
—3
5g6
15. 15g0h—1
· 9g15h j7
h 12 2 i 2
16. Challenge a7b10
4a—5b—2 · (6ab )
12a9b—3
÷ (3a 5b—4 )3
17. Rewrite 43 as a power of 2.
18. Rewrite 92 as a power of 3.
19. Solve the equation for x. 32 ·3x = 38
20. Solve the equation for x. (2x)4 = 48

84
 2.2 Adding, Subtracting and Multiplying Poly-
nomials
Objective
To add, subtract, and multiply polynomials.
Review Queue
1. Multiply (3x —1)(x + 4).
2. Factor x2 —6x + 9.
3. Multiply (2x + 5)(2x —11).
4. Combine like terms: 3x + 15 + 2x —8 —x

Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

Objective
Adding and subtracting polynomials, as well as learning about the different parts of a polynomial.
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James Sousa: Ex: Intro to Polynomials in One Variable

Guidance
A polynomial is an expression with multiple variable terms, such that the exponents are greater than or equal to zero.
All quadratic and linear equations are polynomials. Equations with negative exponents, square roots, or variables in
the denominator are not polynomials.

Now that we have established what a polynomial is, there are a few important parts. Just like with a quadratic, a
polynomial can have a constant, which is a number without a variable. The degree of a polynomial is the largest

85
exponent. For example, all quadratic equations have a degree of 2. Lastly, the leading coefficient is the coefficient
in front of the variable with the degree. In the polynomial 4x4 + 5x3 —8x2 + 12x + 24 above, the degree is 4 and the
leading coefficient is also 4. Make sure that when finding the degree and leading coefficient you have the polynomial
in standard form. Standard form lists all the variables in order, from greatest to least.
Example A
Rewrite x3 —5x2 + 12x4 + 15 —8x in standard form and find the degree and leading coefficient.
Solution: To rewrite in standard form, put each term in order, from greatest to least, according to the exponent.
Always write the constant last.

x3 —5x2 + 12x4 + 15 —8x → 12x4 + x3 —5x2 —8x + 15

Now, it is easy to see the leading coefficient, 12, and the degree, 4.
Example B
Simplify (4x3 —2x2 + 4x + 15) + (x4 —8x3 —9x —6)
Solution: To add or subtract two polynomials, combine like terms. Like terms are any terms where the exponents
of the variable are the same. We will regroup the polynomial to show the like terms.

(4x3 —2x2 + 4x + 15) + (x4 —8x3 —9x —6)

x4 + (4x3 —8x3)— 2x2 + (4x —9x) + (15 —6)
x4 —4x3 —2x2 —5x + 9

Example C
Simplify (2x3 + x2 —6x —7)— (5x3 —3x2 + 10x —12)
Solution: When subtracting, distribute the negative sign to every term in the second polynomial, then combine like
terms.

(2x3 + x2 —6x —7)— (5x3 —3x2 + 10x —12)

2x3 + x2 —6x —7 —5x3 + 3x2 —10x + 12
(2x3 —5x3) + (x2 + 3x2) + (—6x —10x) + (—7 + 12)
—3x3 + 4x2 —16x + 5

Guided Practice
√
1. Is 2x 3 —5x + 6 a polynomial? Why or why not?
2. Find the leading coefficient and degree of 6x2 —3x5 + 16x4 + 10x —24.
Add or subtract.
3.(9x2 + 4x3 —15x + 22) + (6x3 —4x2 + 8x —14)
4.(7x3 + 20x —3)— (x3 —2x2 + 14x —18)
Answers
1. No, this is not a polynomial because x is under a square root in the equation.

86
2. In standard form, this polynomial is —3x5 + 16x4 + 6x2 + 10x —24. Therefore, the degree is 5 and the leading
coefficient is -3.
3.(9x2 + 4x3 —15x + 22) + (6x3 —4x2 + 8x —14) = 10x3 + 5x2 —7x + 8
4.(7x3 + 20x —3)— (x3 —2x2 + 14x —18) = 6x3 + 2x2 + 6x + 15
Vocabulary

Polynomial
An expression with multiple variable terms, such that the exponents are greater than or equal to zero.

Constant
A number without a variable in a mathematical expression.

Degree(of a polynomial)
The largest exponent in a polynomial.

Leading coefficient
The coefficient in front of the variable with the degree.

Standard form
Lists all the variables in order, from greatest to least.

Like terms
Any terms where the exponents of the variable are the same.

Problem Set
Determine if the following expressions are polynomials. If not, state why. If so, write in standard form and find the
degree and leading coefficient.

1. x2 + x + 5
1

2. x3 + 8x4 —15x + 14x2 —20

3. x3 + 8
√ + 9x √ + 16
5x—2
4. —1
5. x 2 —x 6 + 10
2
6. x4+8x2+12
3
7. x2—4
x
8. —6x3 + 7x5 —10x6 + 19x2 —3x + 41

Add or subtract the following polynomials.

9. (x3 + 8x2 —15x + 11) + (3x3 —5x2 —4x + 9)

10. (—2x4 + x3 + 12x2 + 6x —18)— (4x4 —7x3 + 14x2 + 18x —25)
11. (10x3 —x2 + 6x + 3) + (x4 —3x3 + 8x2 —9x + 16)
12. (7x3 —2x2 + 4x —5)— (6x4 + 10x3 + x2 + 4x —1)
13. (15x2 + x —27) + (3x3 —12x + 16)
14. (2x5 —3x4 + 21x2 + 11x —32)— (x4 —3x3 —9x2 + 14x —15)
15. (8x3 —13x2 + 24)— (x3 + 4x2 —2x + 17) + (5x2 + 18x —19)

87
Multiplying Polynomials

Objective
To multiply together several different types of polynomials.
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James Sousa: Ex: Polynomial Multiplication Involving Binomials and Trinomials

Guidance
Multiplying together polynomials is very similar to multiplying together factors. You can FOIL or we will also
present an alternative method. When multiplying together polynomials, you will need to use the properties of
exponents, primarily the Product Property (am ·an = am+n) and combine like terms.
Example A
Find the product of (x2 —5)(x3 + 2x —9).
Solution: Using the FOIL method, you need be careful. First, take the x2 in the first polynomial and multiply it by
every term in the second polynomial.

Now, multiply the -5 and multiply it by every term in the second polynomial.

Lastly, combine any like terms. In this example, only the x3 terms can be combined.

Example B
Multiply (x2 + 4x —7)(x3 —8x2 + 6x —11).

88
Solution: In this example, we will use the “box” method. Align the two polynomials along the top and left side of
a rectangle and make a row or column for each term. Write the polynomial with more terms along the top of the
rectangle.

Multiply each term together and fill in the corresponding spot.

Finally, combine like terms. The final answer is x5 —4x4 —33x3 + 69x2 —86x + 77. This method presents an
alternative way to organize the terms. Use whichever method you are more comfortable with. Keep in mind, no
matter which method you use, you will multiply every term in the first polynomial by every term in the second.
Example C
Find the product of (x —5)(2x + 3)(x2 + 4).
Solution: In this example we have three binomials. When multiplying three polynomials, start by multiplying the
first two binomials together.

(x —5)(2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x —10x —15

= 2x2 —7x —15

Now, multiply the answer by the last binomial.

(2x2 —7x —15)(x2 + 4) = 2x4 + 8x2 —7x3 —28x —15x2 —60

= 2x4 —7x3 —7x2 —28x —60

Guided Practice
Find the product of the polynomials.
1. —2x2(3x3 —4x2 + 12x —9)
2.(4x2 —6x + 11)(—3x3 + x2 + 8x —10)
3.(x2 —1)(3x —4)(3x + 4)

89
4. (2x —7)2
Answers
1. Use the distributive property to multiply —2x2 by the polynomial.

—2x2(3x3 —4x2 + 12x —9) = —6x5 + 8x4 —24x3 + 18x2

2. Multiply each term in the first polynomial by each one in the second polynomial.

(4x2 —6x + 11)(—3x3 + x2 + 8x —10) = —12x5 + 4x4 + 32x3 —40x2

+ 18x4 —6x3 —48x2 + 60x
3 2
—33x + 11x + 88x —110
= —12x5 + 22x4 —7x3 —77x2 + 148x —110

3. Multiply the first two binomials together.

(x2 —1)(3x —4) = 3x3 —4x2 —3x + 4

Multiply this product by the last binomial.

(3x3 —4x2 —3x + 4)(3x + 4) = 9x4 + 12x3 —12x3 —16x2 —9x2 —12x + 12x —16
= 9x4 —25x2 —16

4. The square indicates that there are two binomials. Expand this and multiply.

(2x —7)2 = (2x —7)(2x —7)

= 4x2 —14x —14x + 49
= 4x2 —28x + 49

Problem Set
Find the product.

1. 5x(x2 —6x + 8)
2. —x2(8x3 —11x + 20)
3. 7x3(3x3 —x2 + 16x + 10)
4. (x2 + 4)(x —5)
5. (3x2 —4)(2x —7)
6. (9 —x2)(x + 2)
7. (x2 + 1)(x2 —2x —1)
8. (5x —1)(x3 + 8x —12)
9. (x2 —6x —7)(3x2 —7x + 15)
10. (x —1)(2x —5)(x + 8)

90
11. (2x2 + 5)(x2 —2)(x + 4)
12. (5x —12)2
13. —x4(2x + 11)(3x2 —1)
14. (4x + 9)2
15. (4x3 —x2 —3)(2x2 —x + 6)
16. (2x3 —6x2 + x + 7)(5x2 + 2x —4)
17. (x3 + x2 —4x + 15)(x2 —5x —6)

91
 2.3 Factoring and Solving Polynomial Equa-
tions
Objective
To solve and factor polynomials using several different methods.
Review Queue
Factor the following quadratics.
1. x2 —9x —22
2. 4x2 —25
3. 6x2 + 7x —5
4. Set #3 equal to zero and solve.

Sum and Difference of Cubes

Objective
To learn the sum and difference of cubes formulas for factoring certain types of polynomials.
Watch This
First watch this video.

MEDIA
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URL: http:// /flx/render/embeddedobject/60116

Khan Academy: Factoring Sum of Cubes

Guidance
In the previous chapter, you learned how to factor several different types of quadratic equations. Here, we will
expand this knowledge to certain types of polynomials. The first is the sum of cubes. The sum of cubes is what
it sounds like, the sum of two cube numbers or a3 + b3. We will use an investigation involving volume to find the
factorization of this polynomial.
Investigation: Sum of Cubes Formula
1. Pictorially, the sum of cubes looks like this:

92
Or, we can put one on top of the other.

2. Recall that the formula for volume is length × width × depth. Find the volume of the sum of these two cubes.
V = a3 + b3
3. Now, we will find the volume in a different way. Using the second picture above, will add in imaginary lines so
that these two cubes look like one large prism. Find the volume of this prism.

V = a × a × (a + b)
= a2(a + b)

4. Subtract the imaginary portion on top. In the picture, they are prism 1 and prism 2.

V = a2(a + b)— ab(a

_______ —
_____b__) + b (a —
2
____b)
___
` ˛¸ x `_______˛¸ x
Prism 1 Prism 2

5. Pull out any common factors within the brackets.

V = a2(a + b)— b(a —b)[a + b]
6. Notice that both terms have a common factor of (a + b). Pull this out, put it in front, and get rid of the brackets.

93
V = (a + b)(a2 —b(a —b))
7. Simplify what is inside the second set of parenthesis.
V = (a + b)(a2 —ab + b2)
In the last step, we found that a3 + b3 factors to (a + b)(a2 —ab + b2). This is the Sum of Cubes Formula.
Example A
Factor 8x3 + 27.
Solution: First, determine if these are “cube” numbers. A cube number has a cube root. For example, the cube root
of 8 is 2 because 23 = 8. 33 = 27, 43 = 64, 53 = 125, and so on.

a3 = 8x3 = (2x)3 b3 = 27 = 33
a = 2x b=3

In the formula, we have:

(a + b)(a2 —ab + b2) = (2x + 3)((2x)2 —(2x)(3) + 32)

= (2x + 3)(4x2 —6x + 9)

Therefore, 8x3 + 27 = (2x + 3)(4x2 —6x + 9). The second factored polynomial does not factor any further.
Investigation: Difference of Cubes
1. Pictorially, the difference of cubes looks like this:
Imagine the smaller cube is taken out of the larger cube.

2. Recall that the formula for volume is length × width × depth. Find the volume of the difference of these two
cubes.
V = a3 —b3
3. Now, we will find the volume in a different way. Using the picture here, will add in imaginary lines so that the
shape is split into three prisms. Find the volume of prism 1, prism 2, and prism 3.

Prism 1 : a ·a ·(a —b)

Prism 2 : a ·b ·(a —b)
Prism 3 : b ·b ·(a —b)

94
4. Add the volumes together to get the volume of the entire shape.
V = a2(a —b) + ab(a —b) + b2(a —b)
5. Pull out any common factors and simplify.
V = (a —b)(a2 + ab + b2)
In the last step, we found that a3 —b3 factors to (a —b)(a2 + ab + b2). This is the Difference of Cubes Formula.
Example B
Factor x5 —125x2.
Solution: First, take out any common factors.

x5 —125x2 = x2(x3 —125)

What is inside the parenthesis is a difference of cubes. Use the formula.

x5 —125x2 = x2(x3 —125)

= x2(x3 —53)
= x2(x —5)(x2 + 5x + 25)

Example C
Find the real-number solutions of x3 —8 = 0.
Solution: Factor using the difference of cubes.

x3 —8 = 0
(x —2)(x2 + 2x + 4) = 0
x=2

In the last step, we set the first factor equal to zero. The second factor, x2 + 2x + 4, will give imaginary solutions.
For both the sum and difference of cubes, this will always happen.
Guided Practice
Factor using the sum or difference of cubes.
1. x3 —1
2. 3x3 + 192
3. 125 —216x3
4. Find the real-number solution to 27x3 + 8 = 0.

95
Answers
1. Factor using the difference of cubes.

x3 —1 = x3 —13
= (x —1)(x2 + x + 1)

2. Pull out the 3, then factor using the sum of cubes.

3x3 + 192 = 3(x3 + 64)

= 3(x3 + 43)
= 3(x + 4)(x2 —4x + 16)

3. Factor using the difference of cubes.

125 —216x3 = 53 —(6x)3

= (5 —6x)(52 + (5)(6x) + (6x)2)
= (5 —6x)(25 + 30x + 36x2)

4. Factor using the sum of cubes and then solve.

27x3 + 8 = 0
(3x)3 + 23 = 0
(3x + 2)(9x2 —6x + 4) = 0
2
x=—
3

Vocabulary

Sum of Cubes Formula

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 —ab + b2)

Difference of Cubes Formula

a3 —b3 = (a —b)(a2 + ab + b2)

Problem Set
Factor each polynomial by using the sum or difference of cubes.

1. x3 —27
2. 64 + x3
3. 32x3 —4
4. 64x3 + 343
5. 512 —729x3
6. 125x4 + 8x

96
 7. 648x3 + 81
8. 5x6 —135x3
9. 686x7 —1024x4

Find the real-number solutions for each equation.

10. 125x3 + 1 = 0
11. 64 —729x3 = 0
12. 8x4 —343x = 0
13. Challenge Find ALL solutions (real and imaginary) for 5x5 + 625x2 = 0.
14. Challenge Find ALL solutions (real and imaginary) for 686x3 + 2000 = 0.
15. Real Life Application You have a piece of cardboard that you would like to fold up and make an open (no
top) box out of. The dimensions of the cardboard are 36′′ × 42′′. Write a factored equation for the volume of
this box. Find the volume of the box when x = 1, 3, and 5.

Factoring by Grouping

Objective
To factor and solve certain polynomials by grouping.
Watch This

MEDIA
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James Sousa: Factor By Grouping

Guidance
In the Factoring when a /= 1 concept (in the previous chapter), we introduced factoring by grouping. We will expand
this idea to other polynomials here.
Example A
Factor x4 + 7x3 —8x —56 by grouping.
Solution: First, group the first two and last two terms together. Pull out any common factors.

4
x_ + 7x
____ _____3 — ____ —____
___8x ___
56
` ˛¸ x` ˛¸ x
x3 (x+7) —8(x+7)

Notice what is inside the parenthesis is the same. This should always happen when factoring by grouping. Pull out
this common factor.

x3(x + 7)— 8(x + 7)

(x + 7)(x3 —8)

97
Look at the factors. Can they be factored any further? Yes. The second factor is a difference of cubes. Use the
formula.

(x + 7)(x3 —8)
(x + 7)(x —2)(x2 + 2x + 4)

Example B
Factor x3 + 5x2 —x —5 by grouping.
Solution: Follow the steps from above.

x3 + 5x2 —x —5
x2(x + 5)— 1(x + 5)
(x + 5)(x2 —1)

Look to see if we can factor either factor further. Yes, the second factor is a difference of squares.

(x + 5)(x2 —1)
(x + 5)(x —1)(x + 1)

Example C
Find all real-number solutions of 2x3 —3x2 + 8x —12 = 0.
Solution: Follow the steps from Example A.

2x3 —3x2 + 8x —12 = 0

x2(2x —3) + 4(2x —3) = 0
(2x —3)(x2 + 4) = 0

Now, determine if you can factor further. No, x2 + 4 is a sum of squares and not factorable. Setting the first factor
equal to zero, we get x = 32.
Guided Practice
Factor the following polynomials by grouping.
1. x3 + 7x2 —2x —14
2. 2x4 —5x3 + 2x —5
3. Find all the real-number solutions of 4x3 —8x2 —x + 2 = 0.
Answers
Each of these problems is done in the same way: Group the first two and last two terms together, pull out any
common factors, what is inside the parenthesis is the same, factor it out, then determine if either factor can be
factored further.

98
1.
x3 + 7x2 —2x —14
x2(x + 7)— 2(x + 7)
(x + 7)(x2 —2)

x2 —2 is not a difference of squares because 2 is not a square number. Therefore, this cannot be factored further.
2.
2x4 —5x3 + 2x —5
x3(2x —5) + 1(2x —5)
(2x —5)(x3 + 1) Sum of cubes, factor further.
(2x —5)(x + 1)(x2 + x + 1)

3. Factor by grouping.

4x3 —8x2 —x + 2 = 0
4x2(x —2)— 1(x —2) = 0
(x —2)(4x2 —1) = 0
(x —2)(2x —1)(2x + 1) = 0
1 1
x = 2, ,—
2 2
Problem Set
Factor the following polynomials using factoring by grouping. Factor each polynomial completely.

1. x3 —4x2 + 3x —12
2. x3 + 6x2 —9x —54
3. 3x3 —4x2 + 15x —20
4. 2x4 —3x3 —16x + 24
5. 4x3 + 4x2 —25x —25
6. 4x3 + 18x2 —10x —45
7. 24x4 —40x3 + 81x —135
8. 15x3 + 6x2 —10x —4
9. 4x3 + 5x2 —100x —125

Find all the real-number solutions of the polynomials below.

10. 9x3 —54x2 —4x + 24 = 0

11. x4 + 3x3 —27x —81 = 0
12. x3 —2x2 —4x + 8 = 0
13. Challenge Find ALL the solutions of x6 —9x4 —x2 + 9 = 0.
14. Challenge Find ALL the solutions of x3 + 3x2 + 16x + 48 = 0.

Factoring Polynomials in Quadratic Form

Objective

99
To factor and solve polynomials that are in “quadratic form.”
Guidance
The last type of factorable polynomial are those that are in quadratic form. Quadratic form is when a polynomial
looks like a trinomial or binomial and can be factored like a quadratic. One example is when a polynomial is in
the form ax4 + bx2 + c. Another possibility is something similar to the difference of squares, a4 —b4. This can be
factored to (a2 —b2)(a2 + b2) or (a —b)(a + b)(a2 + b2). Always keep in mind that the greatest common factors
should be factored out first.
Example A
Factor 2x4 —x2 —15.
Solution: This particular polynomial is factorable. Let’s use the method we learned in the Factoring when a /
=1
concept. First, ac = —30. The factors of -30 that add up to -1 are -6 and 5. Expand the middle term and then use
factoring by grouping.

2x4 —x2 —15

2x4 —6x2 + 5x2 —15
2x2(x2 —3) + 5(x2 —3)
(x2 —3)(2x2 + 5)

Both of the factors are not factorable, so we are done.

Example B
Factor 81x4 —16.
Solution: Treat this polynomial equation like a difference of squares.

81x4 —16
(9x2 —4)(9x2 + 4)

Now, we can factor 9x2 —4 using the difference of squares a second time.

(3x —2)(3x + 2)(9x2 + 4)

9x2 + 4 cannot be factored because it is a sum of squares. This will have imaginary solutions.
Example C
Find all the real-number solutions of 6x5 —51x3 —27x = 0.
Solution: First, pull out the GCF among the three terms.

6x5 —51x3 —27x = 0

3x(2x4 —17x2 —9) = 0

Factor what is inside the parenthesis like a quadratic equation. ac = —18 and the factors of -18 that add up to -17
are -18 and 1. Expand the middle term and then use factoring by grouping.

100
 6x5 —51x3 —27x = 0
3x(2x4 —17x2 —9) = 0
3x(2x4 —18x2 + x2 —9) = 0
3x[2x2(x2 —9) + 1(x2 —9)] = 0
3x(x2 —9)(2x2 + 1) = 0

Factor x2 —9 further and solve for x where possible. 2x2 + 1 is not factorable.

3x(x2 —9)(2x2 + 1) = 0
3x(x —3)(x + 3)(2x2 + 1) = 0
x = —3, 0, 3

Guided Practice
Factor the following polynomials.
1. 3x4 + 14x2 + 8
2. 36x4 —25
3. Find all the real-number solutions of 8x5 + 26x3 —24x = 0.
Answers
1. ac = 24 and the factors of 24 that add up to 14 are 12 and 2.

3x4 + 14x2 + 8
3x4 + 12x2 + 2x2 + 8
3x2(x2 + 4) + 2(x4 + 4)
(x2 + 4)(3x2 + 2)

2. Factor this polynomial like a difference of squares.

36x4 —25
(6x2 —5)(6x2 + 5)

6 and 5 are not square numbers, so this cannot be factored further.

3. Pull out a 2x from each term.

8x5 + 26x3 —24x = 0

2x(4x4 + 13x —12) = 0
2x(4x4 + 16x2 —3x2 —12) = 0
2x[4x2(x2 + 4)— 3(x2 + 4)] = 0
2x(x2 + 4)(4x2 —3) = 0

101
Set each factor equal to zero.

4x2 —3 = 0
2x = 0 x2 + 4 = 0

and x2 = 3
4
x=0 x2 = —4
√
3
x=± 2

Notice the second factor will give imaginary solutions.

Vocabulary

Quadratic form
When a polynomial looks a trinomial or binomial and can be factored like a quadratic equation.

Problem Set
Factor the following quadratics completely.

1. x4 —6x2 + 8
2. x4 —4x2 —45
3. 4x4 —11x2 —3
4. 6x4 + 19x2 + 8
5. x4 —81
6. 16x4 —1
7. 6x5 + 26x3 —20x
8. 4x6 —36x2
9. 625 —81x4

Find all the real-number solutions to the polynomials below.

10. 2x4 —5x2 —12 = 0

11. 16x4 —49 = 0
12. 12x6 + 69x4 + 45x2 = 0

102
 2.4 Dividing Polynomials

Objective
To divide one polynomial by another using long or synthetic division.
Review Queue
Divide the following numbers by hand.
1. 60 ÷ 4
2. 18√1512
3. 825 ÷ 5
4. 7√
.6
3214.8

Long Division

Objective
To use long division to divide polynomials.
Watch This

MEDIA
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Khan Academy: Polynomial Division

Guidance
Even though it does not seem like it, factoring is a form of division. Each factor goes into the larger polynomial
evenly, without a remainder. For example, take the polynomial 2x3 —3x2 —8x + 12. If we use factoring by grouping,
we find that the factors are (2x —3)(x —2)(x + 2). If we multiply these three factors together, we will get the original
polynomial. So, if we divide by 2x —3, we should get x2 —4.

2x —3 ) 2x3 —3x2 —8x +12

How many times does 2x go into 2x3? x2 times.

103
 x2
2x —3 ) 2x3 —3x2 —8x + 12
2x3 —3x2
0

Place x2 above the x2 term in the polynomial.

Multiply x2 by both terms in the divisor (2x and -3) and place them until their like terms. Subtract from the dividend
(2x3 —3x2 —8x + 12). Pull down the next two terms and repeat.

x2 —4
2x —3 ) 2x3 —3x2 —8x +12
2x3 —3x2
—8x +12
—8x +12

—8x divided by 2x = —4
After multiplying both terms in the divisor by -4, place that under the terms you brought down. When subtracting
we notice that everything cancels out. Therefore, just like we thought, x2 —4 is a factor.
When dividing polynomials, not every divisor will go in evenly to the dividend. If there is a remainder, write it as a
fraction over the divisor.
Example A
(2x3 —6x2 + 5x —20) ÷ (x2 —5)
Solution: Set up the problem using a long division bar.

x2 —5 ) 2x3 —6x2 +5x —20

How many times does x2 go into 2x3? 2x times.

2x
x2 —5 ) 2x3 —6x2 +5x —20
2x3 —10x2
4x2 +5x —20

Multiply 2x by the divisor. Subtract that from the dividend.

Repeat the previous steps. Now, how many times does x2 go into 4x2? 4 times.

2x +4
x2 —5 ) 2x3 —6x2 +5x —20
2x3 —10x2
4x2 +5x —20
4x2 —20
5x

104
At this point, we are done. x2 cannot go into 5x because it has a higher degree. Therefore, 5x is a remainder. The
complete answer would be 2x + 4 + x2—5
5x .

Example B
(3x4 + x3 —17x2 + 19x —6) ÷ (x2 —2x + 1). Determine if x2 —2x + 1 goes evenly into 3x4 + x3 —17x2 + 19x —6. If
so, try to factor the divisor and quotient further.
Solution: First, do the long division. If x2 —2x + 1 goes in evenly, then the remainder will be zero.

3x2 +7x —6
x2 —2x + 1 ) 3x4 +x3 —17x2 +19x —6
3x4 —6x3 3x2
7x3 —20x2 +19x
7x3 —14x2 +7x
—6x2 +12x —6
—6x2 +12x —6
0

This means that x2 —2x + 1 and 3x2 + 7x —6 both go evenly into 3x4 + x3 —17x2 + 19x —6. Let’s see if we can factor
either x2 —2x + 1 or 3x2 + 7x —6 further.
x2 —2x + 1 = (x —1)(x —1) and 3x2 + 7x —6 = (3x —2)(x + 3).
Therefore, 3x4 + x3 —17x2 + 19x —6 = (x —1)(x —1)(x + 3)(3x —2). You can multiply these to check the work.
A binomial with a degree of one is a factor of a larger polynomial, f (x), if it goes evenly into it. In this example,
(x —1)(x —1)(x + 3) and (3x —2) are all factors of 3x 4+ x 3—17x 2+ 19x —6. We can also say that 1, 1, -3, and 23
are all solutions of 3x4 + x3 —17x2 + 19x —6.
Factor Theorem: A polynomial, f (x), has a factor, (x —k), if and only if f (k) = 0.
In other words, if k is a solution or a zero, then the factor, (x —k) divides evenly into f (x).
Example C
Determine if 5 is a solution of x3 + 6x2 —8x + 15.
Solution: To see if 5 is a solution, we need to divide the factor into x3 + 6x2 —8x + 15. The factor that corresponds
with 5 is (x —5).

x2 +11x +5
x —5 ) x3 +6x2 —50x +15
x3 —5x2
11x2 —50x
11x2 —55x
5x +15
5x —25
40

Since there is a remainder, 5 is not a solution.

Guided Practice
1.(5x4 + 6x3 —12x2 —3) ÷ (x2 + 3)
2. Is (x + 4) a factor of x3 —2x2 —51x —108? If so, find any other factors.

105
3. What are the real-number solutions to #2?
4. Determine if 6 is a solution to 2x3 —9x2 —12x —24.
Answers
1. Make sure to put a placeholder in for the x—term.

5x2 +6x —27

x2 + 3 ) 5x4 +6x3 —12x2 +0x —3
5x4 +15x2
6x3 —27x2 +0x
6x3 +18x
—27x2 —18x —3
—27x2 —81
—18x +78

The final answer is 5x2 + 6x —27 — 18x—78

x2+3
.
2. Divide (x + 4) into x3 —2x2 —51x —108 and if the remainder is zero, it is a factor.

x2 —6x —27
x + 4 ) x3 —2x2 —51x —108
x3 +4x2
—6x2 —51x
—6x2 —24x
—27x —108
—27x —108
0

x + 4 is a factor. Let’s see if x2 —6x —27 factors further. Yes, the factors of -27 that add up to -6 are -9 and 3.
Therefore, the factors of x3 —2x2 —51x —108 are (x + 4), (x —9), and (x + 3).
3. The solutions would be -4, 9, and 3; the opposite sign of each factor.
4. To see if 6 is a solution, we need to divide (x —6) into 2x3 —9x2 —12x —24.

2x2 +3x +6
x —6 ) 2x3 —9x2 —12x —24
2x3 —12x2
3x2 —12x
3x2 —18x
6x —24
6x —36
12

Because the remainder is not zero, 6 is not a solution.

Vocabulary

106
Long division (of polynomial)
The process of dividing polynomials where the divisor has two or more terms.

Divisor
The polynomial that divides into another polynomial.

Dividend
The polynomial that the divisor goes into. The polynomial under the division bar.

Quotient
The answer to a division problem.

Problem Set
Divide the following polynomials using long division.

1. (2x3 + 5x2 —7x —6) ÷ (x + 1)

2. (x4 —10x3 + 15x —30) ÷ (x —5)
3. (2x4 —8x3 + 4x2 —11x —1) ÷ (x2 —1)
4. (3x3 —4x2 + 5x —2) ÷ (3x + 2)
5. (3x4 —5x3 —21x2 —30x + 8) ÷ (x —4)
6. (2x5 —5x3 + 6x2 —15x + 20) ÷ (2x2 + 3)

Determine all the real-number solutions to the following polynomials, given one zero.

7. x3 —9x2 + 27x —15;—5

8. 6x3 —37x2 + 5x + 6; 6
9. Find a polynomial with the zeros 4, -2, and 32.
10. Challenge Find two polynomials with the zeros 8, 5, 1, and -1.

Synthetic Division

Objective
Use synthetic division as a short-cut and alternative to long division (in certain cases) and to find zeros.
Watch This

MEDIA
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James Sousa: Polynomial Division: Synthetic Division

Guidance
Synthetic division is an alternative to long division from the previous concept. It can also be used to divide a
polynomial by a possible factor, x —k. However, synthetic division cannot be used to divide larger polynomials, like
quadratics, into another polynomial.

107
Example A
Divide 2x4 —5x3 —14x2 —37x —30 by x —2.
Solution: Using synthetic division, the setup is as follows:

To “read” the answer, use the numbers as follows:

Therefore, 2 is a solution, because the remainder is zero. The factored polynomial is 2x3 —x2 —16x + 15. Notice
that when we synthetically divide by k, the “leftover” polynomial is one degree less than the original. We could also
write (x —2)(2x3 —x2 —16x + 15) = 2x4 —5x3 —14x2 + 47x —30.
Example B
Determine if 4 is a solution to f (x) = 5x3 + 6x2 —24x —16.
Using synthetic division, we have:

108
The remainder is 304, so 4 is not a solution. Notice if we substitute in x = 4, also written f (4), we would have
f (4) = 5(4)3 + 6(4)2 —24(4)— 16 = 304. This leads us to the Remainder Theorem.
Remainder Theorem: If f (k) = r, then r is also the remainder when dividing by (x —k).
This means that if you substitute in x = k or divide by k, what comes out of f (x) is the same. r is the remainder, but
also is the corresponding y—value. Therefore, the point (k, r) would be on the graph of f (x).
Example C
Determine if (2x —5) is a factor of 4x4 —9x2 —100.
Solution: If you use synthetic division, the factor is not in the form (x —k). We need to solve the possible factor for
zero to see what the possible solution would be. Therefore, we need to put 52 up in the left-hand corner box. Also,
not every term is represented in this polynomial. When this happens, you must put in zero placeholders. In this
example, we need zeros for the x3—term and the x—term.

This means that 5

2
is a zero and its corresponding binomial, (2x —5), is a factor.
Guided Practice
1. Divide x3 + 9x2 + 12x —27 by (x + 3). Write the resulting polynomial with the remainder (if there is one).
2. Divide 2x4 —11x3 + 12x2 + 9x —2 by (2x + 1). Write the resulting polynomial with the remainder (if there is one).
3. Is 6 a solution for f (x) = x3 —8x2 + 72? If so, find the real-number zeros (solutions) of the resulting polynomial.
Answers
1. Using synthetic division, divide by -3.

The answer is x2 + 6x —6 — x+3

9 .

2. Using synthetic division, divide by —12 .

109
The answer is 2x3 —12x2 + 18x — 2x+1
2 .

3. Put a zero placeholder for the x—term. Divide by 6.

The resulting polynomial is x2 —2x —12. While this quadratic does not factor, we can use the Quadratic Formula to
find the other roots.

√ √ √
2± 22 —4(1)(—12 ) 2 ± 4 + 48 2 ± 2 13 √
x= = = = 1 ± 13
2 2 2
√ √
The solutions to this polynomial are 6, 1 + 13 ≈ 4.61 and 1 — 13 ≈ —2.61.
Vocabulary

Synthetic Division
An alternative to long division for dividing f (x) by k where only the coefficients of f (x) are used.

Remainder Theorem
If f (k) = r, then r is also the remainder when dividing by (x —k).

Problem Set
Use synthetic division to divide the following polynomials. Write out the remaining polynomial.

1. (x3 + 6x2 + 7x + 10) ÷ (x + 2)

2. (4x3 —15x2 —120x —128) ÷ (x —8)
3. (4x2 —5) ÷ (2x + 1)
4. (2x4 —15x3 —30x2 —20x + 42) ÷ (x + 9)
5. (x3 —3x2 —11x + 5) ÷ (x —5)
6. (3x5 + 4x3 —x —2) ÷ (x —1)
7. Which of the division problems above generate no remainder? What does that mean?
8. What is the difference between a zero and a factor?
9. Find f (—2) if f (x) = 2x4 —5x3 —10x2 + 21x —4.
10. Now, divide 2x4 —5x3 —10x2 + 21x —4 by (x + 2) synthetically. What do you notice?

Find all real zeros of the following polynomials, given one zero.

11. 12x3 + 76x2 + 107x —20;—4

12. x3 —5x2 —2x + 10

110
 2.5 Finding all Solutions of Polynomial Func-
tions
Objective
To find all the solutions to higher-degree polynomials using synthetic division, factoring, and the Quadratic Formula.
Review Queue
Factor the following polynomials completely.
1. 8x3 —27
2. 3x2 —20x —7
3. 6x4 + 17x2 + 7
4. x3 —9x2 —4x + 36
5. x4 + 2x3 + x + 2
6. 162x5 —512x

Finding Rational and Real Zeros

Objective
To find all the rational and real-number zeros of a higher-degree polynomial.
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James Sousa: Ex 2: Find the Zeros of a Polynomial Function - Real Rational Zeros
Guidance
Recall from the Quadratic Functions chapter, that every quadratic equation has two solutions. The degree of a
quadratic equation is 2, thus leading us towards the notion that it has 2 solutions. The degree will always tell us
the maximum number of solutions a polynomial has. Quadratic equations also have a few different possibilities for
solutions; two real-number solutions (parabola passes through the x—axis twice), one real-number solution (where
the solution is the vertex, called a repeated root), or two imaginary solutions (where the graph does not touch the
x—axis at all).
When it comes to solutions for polynomials, all these options are possibilities. There can be rational, irrational and
imaginary solutions. Irrational and imaginary solutions will always come in pairs. This is due to the fact that to find
these types of solutions, you must use the Quadratic Formula and the ± sign will give two solutions. In this concept
we will only address real-number solutions.
Now, you might be wondering, how do we find all these solutions? One way is to use the Rational Root Theorem.

111
Rational Root Theorem: For a polynomial, f (x) = anxn + an—1xn—1 + ···+ a1x + a0, where an, an—1, ···a0 are
integers, the rational roots can be determined from the factors of an and a0. More specifically, if p is a factor of a0
and q is a factor of an, then all the rational factors will have the form ± qp.
In other words, the factors of the constant divided by the factors of the leading coefficient will yield all the possible
rational solutions to f (x).
Example A
Find all the possible rational solutions to f (x) = 6x4 —43x3 + 66x2 —3x —10.
Solution: All the possible factors of 10 are 1, 2, 5, and 10. All the possible factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, and 6. The
1.±2,±5,±10 = ±1, ± ,1± ,1± ,±2
possible combinations are ±±1,±2,±3,±6 1 ,± 23,± 5, ± 52,± ,53± ,56± 10, ± 10
2 3 6 3 . Therefore, there are
24 possibilities.
Example B
Find the rational solutions to f (x) = 6x4 —43x3 + 66x2 —3x —10.
Solution: Before the days of graphing calculators, you would have to test all 24 possible solutions to find the correct
solutions. Now, we can graph the function and eliminate any possibilities that seem unreasonable. Because the
degree of the function is 4, there will be 4 solutions. Here is the graph:

Looking back at Example A, the reasonable solutions appear to be: 5, 2, ± 12,± ,13± ,16± , or
2 ± . By 5 just looking at
3 6
the graph, the solutions between -1 and 1 are difficult to see. This is why we have listed all the solutions between -1
and 1 to test. Let’s test 5 and 2 using synthetic division.

The remainder is zero, like we thought.

Now, rather than starting over with the division by 2, continue with the leftover polynomial.

112
Again, the remainder is zero. Both 5 and 2 are zeros.
To find the last two zeros, we can test all the fractions above using synthetic division. OR, we can factor this
leftover polynomial. Because we started with a polynomial of degree 4, this leftover polynomial is a quadratic. It is
6x2 —x —1. ac = —6 and the factors of -1 that add up to -6 are -3 and 2. Expand the x—term and factor by grouping.

_—
2
_____
6x __ + 2x
____
3x ___—___1
` ˛¸ x ` ˛¸ x
3x(2x —1) + 1(2x —1)
(2x —1)(3x + 1)

Setting these two factors equal to zero, we have x = 1

2
and —13 . Therefore, the solutions to this polynomial are 5, 2,
1 and —1 .
2 3
Check your answer: To check your work, you can multiply the factors together to see if you get the original
polynomial.

(2x —
_________ _ ______+
_______1)(3x ____ ___—
1)(x
_______ ___ ___—
5)(x
_______ 2)
________
__
` ˛¸ x` ˛¸ x
(6x —x —1)(x —7x + 10)
2 2

6x4 —43x3 + 66x2 —3x —10

Example C
Find all the real solutions to f (x) = x4 + 6x3 —2x2 —48x —32.
Solution: First, sketch a graph.

113
Now, use the Rational Root Theorem to determine all possible rational roots.

factors of -32 ±32, ±16, ±8, ±4, ±2, ±1

factors of 1 = ±1

Using the graph, it looks like -4 is the only possible rational solution. Also, notice that the graph touches at -4 and
does not pass through the x—axis. That means that this solution is a repeated root. Let’s do synthetic division.

Because the root is repeated, we did synthetic division twice. At the end of the synthetic division, the leftover
polynomial is x2 —2x —2 which is not factorable. Therefore, to find the last two real solutions, we must do the
Quadratic Formula.

√
2± (—2) 2 —4(1)(—2)
x=
2(1)
√ √ √
2 ± 4 + 8 2 ± 12 2 ± 2 3 √
= = = = 1 ± 3 ≈ 2.73, —0.73
2 2 2

The roots, or zeros, of f (x) = x4 + 6x3 —2x2 —48x —32 are -4 (twice), 2.73, and -0.73. Looking back at the graph,
we see that this is where the function crosses the x—axis. The graph is always a good way to double-check your
work.

114
Guided Practice
Find all the real solutions of the following functions.
1. f (x) = x3 —2x2 —15x + 30
2. f (x) = 6x3 + 19x2 + 11x —6
3. f (x) = x5 —4x4 —18x3 + 38x2 —11x —6
Answers
1. Using the Rational Root Theorem, the possible rational roots are: ±30, ±15, ±10, ±6, ±5, ±3, ±2, ±1. Now,
graph the function.

By looking at the graph, the only reasonable rational root is 2. We can rule out 4 and -4 because they are not included
in the list of rational roots. Therefore, these two roots will be irrational. Do the synthetic division for 2.

The leftover polynomial is x2 —15 = 0. This polynomial can be solved by using square roots.

x2 —15 = 0
x2 = 15
√
x = ± 15 ≈ ±3.87

∗Instead ofusing the Rational Root Theorem and synthetic division, this problem could have also been solved using
factoring by grouping.
2. Using the Rational Root Theorem, the possible rational roots are: ±6, ±3, ±2, ± ,±32 1, ± 12,± ,13± . 16

115
By looking at the graph, the reasonable rational roots are —2, —32 , 13 or 61 . The rational answers are difficult to see
because they do not cross exactly the x—axis on an integer. Therefore, we will do the synthetic division for -2 first.

The leftover polynomial is 6x2 + 7x —3, which is factorable. You can decide if you would like to factor this
polynomial, use the Quadratic Formula, or test the rational possibilities from above. Let’s factor.

6x2 + 7x —3
6x2 + 9x —2x —3
3x(2x + 3)— 1(2x + 3)
(3x —1)(2x + 3)

From these factors, the rational solutions are 1

3
and —23 .
3. Using the Rational Root Theorem, the possible rational roots are: ±6, ±3, ±2, ±1.

116
From the graph, the possible roots are 6 and 1. It looks like 1 is a double root because the function reaches the
x—axis at 1, but does not pass through it. Do synthetic division with 6, 1, and 1 again.

The leftover polynomial is x2 + 4x + 1. This is not a factorable polynomial, so use the Quadratic Formula to find the
last two roots.

√ √ √
—4 ± 42 —4(1)(1) —4 ± 12 —4 ± 2 3 √
x= = = = —2 ± 3 ≈ —0.27, —3.73
2(1) 2 2

Vocabulary
Rational Root Theorem: For a polynomial, f (x) = anxn + an—1xn—1 + ···+ a1x + a0, where an, an—1, ···a0 are
integers, the rational roots can be determined from the factors of an and a0. More specifically, if p is a factor of a0
and q is a factor of an, then all the rational factors will have the form ± qp.
Problem Set
Find all the possible rational solutions for the following polynomials. Use the Rational Root Theorem.

1. f (x) = x3 + 6x2 —18x + 20

2. f (x) = 4x4 + x2 —15

117
 3. f (x) = —2x3 + 7x2 —x + 8
4. f (x) = x4 —3x3 —4x2 + 15x + 9

Find all the real-number solutions for each function below. Use any method you like.

5. f (x) = 6x3 —17x2 + 11x —2

6. f (x) = x4 + 7x3 + 6x2 —32x —32
7. f (x) = 16x3 + 40x2 —25x —3
8. f (x) = 2x3 —9x2 + 21x —18
9. f (x) = 4x3 —16x2 + 39x —295
10. f (x) = 18x4 + 3x3 —17x2 + 17x —55
11. f (x) = x5 + 7x4 —3x3 —65x2 —8x —156
12. Solve f (x) = 3x4 —x2 —14 by factoring. How many real solutions does this function have? What type of
solution(s) could the others be?

Finding Imaginary Solutions

Objective
To find all the solutions to any polynomial, including imaginary solutions.
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James Sousa: Ex 4: Find the Zeros of a Polynomial Function with Imaginary Zeros
Guidance
In #12 from the previous problem set, there are two imaginary solutions. Imaginary solutions always come in pairs.
To find the imaginary solutions to a function, use the Quadratic Formula. If you need a little review on imaginary
numbers and how to solve a quadratic equation with complex solutions see the Quadratic Equations chapter.
Example A
Solve f (x) = 3x4 —x2 —14. (#12 from the previous problem set.)
Solution: First, this quartic function can be factored just like a quadratic equation. See the Factoring Polynomials
in Quadratic Form concept from this chapter for review.

f (x) = 3x4 —x2 —14

0 = 3x4 —7x2 + 6x2 —14
0 = x2(3x2 —7) + 2(3x2 —7)
0 = (x2 + 2)(3x2 —7)

Now, because neither factor can be factored further and there is no x—term, we can set each equal to zero and solve.

118
 3x2 —7 = 0
x2 + 2 = 0 3x2 = 7

x2 = —2 and x2 = 7
3
r √
√ √ 7 21
x = ± —2 or ± i 2 x=± or ±
3 3

Including the imaginary solutions, there are four, which is what we would expect because the degree of this function
is four.
Example B
Find all the solutions of the function g(x) = x4 + 21x2 + 90.
Solution: When graphed, this function does not touch the x—axis. Therefore, all the solutions are imaginary. To
solve, this function can be factored like a quadratic equation. The factors of 90 that add up to 21 are 6 and 15.

g(x) = x4 + 21x2 + 90
0 = (x2 + 6)(x2 + 15)

Now, set each factor equal to zero and solve.

x2 + 6 = 0 x2 + 15 = 0
x2 = —6 and x2 = —15
√ √
x = ±i 6 x = ±i 15

Example C
Find the function that has the solution 3, -2, and 4 + i.
Solution: Notice that one of the given solutions is imaginary. Imaginary solutions always come in pairs, so 4 —i is
also a factor, they are complex conjugates. Now, translate each solution into a factor and multiply them all together.

Any multiple of this function would also have these roots. For example, 2x4 —18x3 + 38x2 + 62x —204 would have
these roots as well.
Guided Practice
Find all the solutions to the following functions.

119
1. f (x) = 25x3 —120x2 + 81x —4
2. f (x) = 4x4 + 35x2 —9
√
3. Find the equation of a function with roots 4, 2 and 1 —i.
Answers
1. First, graph the function.

Using the Rational Root Theorem, the possible realistic zeros could be 25,
1 1 or 4. Let’s try these three possibilities
using synthetic division.

Of these three possibilities, only 4 is a zero. The leftover polynomial, 25x2 —20x + 1 is not factorable, so we need
to do the Quadratic Formula to find the last two zeros.

√
20 ± 202 —4(25 )(1)
x=
2(25)
√
20 ± 400 —100
=
50
√ √
20 ± 10 3 2± 3
= or ≈ 0.746 and 0.054
50 5

120
∗Helpful Hint: Always find the decimal values of each zero to make sure they match up with the graph.
2. f (x) = 4x4 + 35x2 —9 is factorable. ac = —36.

4x4 + 35x2 —9
4x4 + 36x2 —x2 —9
4x2(x2 + 9)— 1(x2 + 9)
(x2 + 9)(4x2 —1)

Setting each factor equal to zero, we have:

4x2 —1 = 0
x2 + 9 = 0 4x2 = 1

x2 = —9 or x2 = 1
4
1
x = ±3i x=±
2
∗This problem could have also been by using the same method from #1.
√ √
3. Recall that irrational and imaginary roots come in pairs. Therefore, all the roots are 4, 2, — 2, 1 + i, 1 —i.
Multiply all 5 roots together.

√ √
(x —4)(x — 2)(x + 2)(x —(1 + i))(x —(1 —i))
(x —4)(x2 —2)(x2 —2x + 2)
(x3 —4x2 —2x + 8)(x2 —2x + 2)
x5 —6x4 + 8x3 —4x2 —20x + 16

Problem Set
Find all solutions to the following functions. Use any method.

1. f (x) = x4 + x3 —12x2 —10x + 20

2. f (x) = 4x3 —20x2 —3x + 15
3. f (x) = 2x4 —7x2 —30
4. f (x) = x3 + 5x2 + 12x + 18
5. f (x) = 4x4 + 4x3 —22x2 —8x + 40
6. f (x) = 3x4 + 4x2 —15
7. f (x) = 2x3 —6x2 + 9x —27
8. f (x) = 6x4 —7x3 —280x2 —419x + 280
9. f (x) = 9x4 + 6x3 —28x2 + 2x + 11
10. f (x) = 2x5 —19x4 + 30x3 + 97x2 —20x + 150

Find a function with the following roots.

11. 4, i
12. —3, —2i

121
 √
13. 5, —1 +√i
14. 2, 13 ,4 — 2
15. Writing Write down the steps you use to find all the zeros of a polynomial function.
16. Writing Why do imaginary and irrational roots always come in pairs?
17. Challenge Find all the solutions to f (x) = x5 + x3 + 8x2 + 8.

122
 2.6 Analyzing the Graph of Polynomial Func-
tions
Objective
To learn about the parts of a polynomial function and how to graph them. The graphing calculator will be used to
aid in graphing.
Review Queue
1. Graph 4x —5y = 25. Find the slope, x— and y—intercepts.
2. Graph y = x2 —2x —8. Find the x—intercepts, y—intercept, and vertex.
3. Find the vertex of y = —4x2 + 24x + 5. Is the vertex a maximum or minimum?

Finding and Defining Parts of a Polynomial Function Graph

Objective
Learning about the different parts of graphs for higher-degree polynomials.
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James Sousa: Ex: Increasing/ Decreasing/ Relative Extrema from Analyzing a Graph
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James Sousa: Summary of End Behavior or Long Run Behavior of Polynomial Functions
Guidance
By now, you should be familiar with the general idea of what a polynomial function graph does. It should cross the
x—axis as many times as the degree, unless there are imaginary solutions. It will curve up and down and can have a
maximum and a minimum. Let’s define the parts of a polynomial function graph here.

123
Notice that in both the cubic (third degree, on the left) and the quartic (fourth degree, on the right) functions, there
is no vertex. We now have minimums and maximums. If there are more than one minimum or maximum, there will
be an absolute maximum/minimum, which is the lowest/highest point of the graph. A local maximum/minimum
is a maximum/minimum relative to the points around it. The places where the function crosses the x—axis are still
the solutions (also called x—intercepts, roots or zeros). In the quartic function, there is a repeated root at x = 4. A
repeated root will touch the x—axis without passing through or it can also have a “jump” in the curve at that point
(see Example A). All of these points together (maximums, minimums, x—intercepts, and y—intercept) are called
critical values.
Another important thing to note is end behavior. It is exactly what it sounds like; how the “ends” of the graph
behaves or points. The cubic function above has ends that point in the opposite direction. We say that from left
to right, this function is mostly increasing. The quartic function’s ends point in the same direction, both positive,

124
just like a quadratic function. When considering end behavior, look at the leading coefficient and the degree of the
polynomial.
Example A
Use a table to graph y = x3.
Solution: Draw a table and pick at least 5 values for x.

TABLE 6.1:

x x3 y
-2 (—2)3 -8
-1 (—1)3 -1
0 03 0
1 13 1
2 23 8

Plot the points and connect. This particular function is the parent graph for cubic functions. Recall from quadratic
functions, that the parent graph has a leading coefficient of 1, no other x—terms, and no y—intercept. y = x4 and
y = x5 are also parent graphs.
Example B
Analyze the graph below. Find the critical values, end behavior, and find the domain and range.

125
Solution: First, find the solutions. They appear to be (-2, 0), (1, 0), and (2, 0). Therefore, this function has
a minimum degree of 3. However, look at the y—intercept. The graph slightly bends between the maximum and
minimum. This movement in the graph tells us that there are two imaginary solutions (recall that imaginary solutions
always come in pairs). Therefore, the function has a degree of 5. Approximate the other critical values:
maximum: (-1.1, 10)
minimum: (1.5, -1.3)
y—intercept: (0, 5)
In general, this function is mostly increasing and the ends go in opposite directions. The domain and range are both
all real numbers.
When describing critical values, you may approximate their location. In the next concept, we will use the graphing
calculator to find these values exactly.
Sometime it can be tricky to see if a function has imaginary solutions from the graph. Compare the graph in Example
B to the cubic function above. Notice that it is smooth between the maximum and minimum. As was pointed out
earlier, the graph from Example B bends. Any function with imaginary solutions will have a slightly irregular shape
or bend like this one does.
Example C
Sketch a graph of a function with roots —4, —3, 2 , and 3,1has an absolute maximum at (2, 5), and has negative end
behavior. This function does not have any imaginary roots.
Solution: There are several possible answers for this graph because we are only asking for a sketch. You would
need more information to get an exact answer. Because this function has negative end behavior and four roots, we
know that it will pass through the x—axis four times and face down. The absolute maximum is located between the
roots 12 and 3. Plot these five points and connect to form a graph.

126
Guided Practice
1. Use a table to graph f (x) = —(x + 2)2(x —3).
2. Analyze the graph. Find all the critical values, domain, range and describe the end behavior.

3. Draw a graph of the cubic function with solutions of -6 and a repeated root at 1. This function is generally
increasing and has a maximum value of 9.
Answers
1. This function is in intercept form. Because the factor, (x + 2) is squared, we know it is a repeated root. Therefore,
the function should just touch at -2 and not pass through the x—axis. There is also a zero at 3. Because the function
is negative, it will be generally decreasing. Think of the slope of the line between the two endpoints. It would be
negative. Select several points around the zeros to see the behavior of the graph.

127
 TABLE 6.2:
x y
-4 14
-2 0
0 12
2 16
3 0
4 -36

2. There are three real zeros at approximately -3.5, 1, and 7. Notice the curve between the zeros 1 and 7. This
indicated there are two imaginary zeros, making this at least a fifth-degree polynomial. Think about an imaginary
horizontal line at y = 3. This line would touch the graph five times, so there should be five solutions. Next, there is
an absolute minimum at (-0.5, -7.5), a local maximum at (2.25, 5), a local minimum at (2.25, 2.25) and an absolute
maximum at (5, 6). The y—intercept is at (0, -6). The domain and range are both all real numbers and the end
behavior is mostly decreasing.
3. To say the function is “mostly increasing” means that the slope of the line that connects the two ends (arrows) is
positive. Then, the function must pass through (-6, 0) and touch, but not pass through (1, 0). From this information,
the maximum must occur between the two zeros and the minimum will be the double root.

128
Vocabulary

Absolute Maximum/Minimum
The highest/lowest point of a function. When referring to the absolute maximum/minimum value, use the
y—value.
Local Maximum/Minimum
The highest/lowest point relative to the points around it. A function can have multiple local maximums or
minimums.

Solutions:
The x—intercepts. Also called roots or zeros.
Critical Values: The x—intercepts, maximums, minimums, and y—intercept.
End Behavior: How the ends of a graph look. End behavior depends on the degree of the function and the leading
coefficient.
Parent Graph: The most basic function of a particular type. It has a leading coefficient of 1, no additional x—terms,
and no constant.
Problem Set
Use the given x—values to make a table and graph the functions below.

1.

f (x) = x3 —7x2 + 15x —2

x = —2, —1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

2.

g(x) = —2x4 —11x3 —3x2 + 37x + 35

x = —5, —4, —3, —2, —1, 0, 1, 2

129
 3.

y = 2x3 + 25x2 + 100x + 125

x = —7, —6, —5, —4, —3, —2, —1, 0

Make your own table and graph the following functions.

4. f (x) = (x + 5)(x + 2)(x —1)

5. y = x4
6. y = x5
7. Analyze the graphs of y = x2, y = x3, y = x4, and y = x5. These are all parent functions. What do you think
the graph of y = x6 and y = x7 will look like? What can you say about the end behavior of all even functions?
Odd functions? What are the solutions to these functions?
8. Writing How many repeated roots can one function have? Why?

Analyze the graphs of the following functions. Find all critical values, the domain, range, and end behavior.

9.

130
10.

11.

131
 12.

For questions 13-15, make a sketch of the following real-solution functions.

13. Draw two different graphs of a cubic function with zeros of -1, 1, and 4.5 and a minimum of -4.
14. A fourth-degree polynomial with roots of -3.2, -0.9, 1.2, and 8.7, positive end behavior, and a local minimum
of -1.7.
15. A fourth-degree function with solutions of -7, -4, 1, and 2, negative end behavior, and an absolute maximum
at —11 , 1755 .
2 128
16. Challenge Find the equation of the function from #15.

Graphing Polynomial Functions with a Graphing Calculator

Objective
To graph polynomial functions and find critical values using a graphing calculator.
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James Sousa: Ex: Solve a Polynomial Equation Using a Graphing Calculator (Approximate Solutions)
Guidance
In the Quadratic Functions chapter, you used the graphing calculator to graph parabolas. Now, we will expand upon
that knowledge and graph higher-degree polynomials. Then, we will use the graphing calculator to find the zeros,
maximums and minimums.

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Example A
Graph f (x) = x3 + x2 —8x —8 using a graphing calculator.
Solution: These instructions are for a TI-83 or 84. First, press Y =. If there are any functions in this window, clear
them out by highlighting the = sign and pressing ENTER. Now, in Y 1, enter in the polynomial. It should look like:
xA3 + xA2 —8x —8. Press GRAPH.

To adjust the window, press ZOOM. To get the typical -10 to 10 screen (for both axes), press 6:ZStandard. To
zoom out, press ZOOM, 3:ZoomOut, ENTER, ENTER. For this particular function, the window needs to go from
-15 to 15 for both x and y. To manually input the window, press WINDOW and change the Xmin, Xmax,Ymin, and
Ymax so that you can see the zeros, minimum and maximum. Your graph should look like the one to the right.
Example B
Find the zeros, maximum, and minimum of the function from Example A.
Solution: To find the zeros, press 2nd TRACE to get the CALC menu. Select 2:Zero and you will be asked “Left
Bound?” by the calculator. Move the cursor (by pressing the ↑ or ↓) so that it is just to the left of one zero. Press
ENTER. Then, it will ask “Right Bound?” Move the cursor just to the right of that zero. Press ENTER. The
calculator will then ask “Guess?” At this point, you can enter in what you think the zero is and press ENTER again.
Then the calculator will give you the exact zero. For the graph from Example A, you will need to repeat this three
times. The zeros are -2.83, -1, and 2.83.
To find the minimum and maximum, the process is almost identical to finding zeros. Instead of selecting 2:Zero,
select 3:min or 4:max. The minimum is (1.33, -14.52) and the maximum is (-2, 4).
Example C
Find the y—intercept of the graph from Example A.
Solution: If you decide not to use the calculator, plug in zero for x and solve for y.

f (0) = 03 + 02 —8 ·0 —8
= —8

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Using the graphing calculator, press 2nd TRACE to get the CALC menu. Select 1:value. X = shows up at the
bottom of the screen. If there is a value there, press CLEAR to remove it. Then press 0 and ENTER. The calculator
should then say “Y = —8.”
Guided Practice
Graph and find the critical values of the following functions.
1. f (x) = —13x 4—x 3 + 10x 2 + 25x —4
2. g(x) = 2x5 —x4 + 6x3 + 18x2 —3x —8
3. Find the domain and range of the previous two functions.
4. Describe the types of solutions, as specifically as possible, for question 2.
Answers
Use the steps given in Examples A, B, and C.
1. zeros: -5.874, -2.56, 0.151, 5.283
y—intercept: (0, -4)
minimum: (-1.15, -18.59)
local maximum: (-4.62, 40.69)
absolute maximum: (3.52, 113.12)

2. zeros: -1.413, -0.682, 0.672

y—intercept: (0, -8)
minimum: (-1.11, 4.41)
maximum: (0.08, -8.12)

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3. The domain of #1 is all real numbers and the range is all real numbers less than the maximum; (—∞, 113.12]. The
domain and range of #2 are all real numbers.
4. There are three irrational solutions and two imaginary solutions.
Problem Set
Graph questions 1-6 on your graphing calculator. Sketch the graph in an appropriate window. Then, find all the
critical values, domain, range, and describe the end behavior.

1. f (x) = 2x3 + 5x2 —4x —12

2. h(x) = —14 x 4—2x 3 — 13
4
x —8x —9
2
3. y = x3 —8
4. g(x) = —x3 —11x2 —14x + 10
5. f (x) = 2x4 + 3x3 —26x2 —3x + 54
6. y = x4 + 2x3 —5x2 —12x —6
7. What are the types of solutions in #2?
8. Find the two imaginary solutions in #3.
9. Find the exact values of the irrational roots in #5.

Determine if the following statements are SOMETIMES, ALWAYS, or NEVER true. Explain your reasoning.

10. The range of an even function is (—∞, max], where max is the maximum of the function.
11. The domain and range of all odd functions are all real numbers.
12. A function can have exactly three imaginary solutions.
13. An nth degree polynomial has n real zeros. √
14. Challenge The exact value for one of the zeros in #2 is —4 + 7. What is the exact value of the other root?
Use this information to find the imaginary roots.

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 CHAPTER
3 Roots, Radicals and
Function Operations
Chapter Outline
3.1 USING RATIONAL E XPONENTS AND NTH ROOTS
3.2 G RAPHING SQUARE ROOT AND CUBED ROOT FUNCTIONS
3.3 SOLVING R ADICAL EQUATIONS
3.4 F UNCTION O PERATIONS AND THE I NVERSE OF A FUNCTION

This chapter extends what we have learned about polynomials and exponents and applies those ideas to square root
and cubed root functions. First, we will introduce rational exponents and simplify these expressions. We will also
solve equations with radicals and rational exponents. Then, we switch gears a little and learn how to find the inverse
of a function as well as how to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and compose them. The last lesson is an introduction
to statistics.

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 3.1 Using Rational Exponents and nth Roots

Objective
To introduce rational exponents and nth roots. Then, we will apply the properties of exponents to rational functions
and nth roots.
Review Queue
Evaluate each expression.

1. (5x)2
2. 4x5y7
12xy
√
9

3. r 81x2 y5
75
4.
96

Defining nth Roots

Objective
To define and use nth roots.
Guidance
So far, we have seen exponents with integers and the square root. In this concept, we will link roots and exponents.
First, let’s define additional roots. Just like the square and the square root are inverses of each other, the inverse of a
cube is the cubed root. The inverse of the fourth power is the fourth root.

3√ √ √ √
27 = 33 = 3, 5 32 = 25 = 2
3 5

√
The nth root of a number, xn, is x, n xn = x. And, just like simplifying square roots, we can simplify nth roots.
Example A
√
Find 6 729.
Solution: To simplify a number to the sixth root, there must be 6 of the same factor to pull out of the root.
729 = 3 ·3 ·3 ·3 ·3 ·3 = 36
√ 6√
Therefore, 6 729 = 36 = 3. The sixth root and the sixth power cancel each other out. We say that 3 is the sixth
root of 729.
From this example, we can see that it does not matter where the exponent is placed, it will always cancel out with
the root.

√ √ 6 √ 6
36 = 6 3 or
6 6
3
√
6
729 = (1.2009 ...)6
3=3

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So, it does not matter if you evaluate the root first or the exponent.
√
The
√ nth Root
√ mTheorem: For any real number a, root n, and exponent m, the following is always true:
n
am =
m
n
a = na .
Example B
Evaluate without a calculator:
) 5√323
a
b)√163
Solution:
a) If you solve this problem as written, you would first find 323 and then apply the 5th root.
√ √
323 = 5 38768 = 8
5

However, this would be very difficult to do without a calculator. This is an example where it would be easier to apply
the root and then the exponent. Let’s rewrite the expression and solve.
√5 3
32 = 23 = 8
√
b) This problem does not need to be rewritten. 16 = 4 and then 43 = 64.
Example C
Simplify:
√
a) 4 64
s
54x3
b) 3
125y5
Solution:
a) To simplify the fourth root of a number, there must be 4 of the same factor to pull it out of the root. Let’s write
the prime factorization of 64 and simplify.
√ √ √
4
64 = 4 2 ·2 ·2 ·2 ·2 ·2 = 2 4 4
Notice that there are 6 2’s in 64. We can pull out 4 of them and 2 2’s are left under the radical.
b) Just like simplifying fractions with square roots, we can separate the numerator and denominator.
s
3 54x3
√ √ √
= √
3
54x3 = √3 2 ·3 ·3 ·3 ·x3 = 3x√3 2
125y 5 3
125y 5 3
5 ·5 ·5 ·y 3 ·y 2 5y y2
3

Notice that because the x is cubed, the cube and cubed root cancel each other out. With the y-term, there were five,
so three cancel out with the root, but two are still left under radical.
Guided Practice
Simplify each expression below, without a calculator.
√
1. 4 625z8
√7
2. 32x5 y
√
3. 5 9216
r
3 40
4.
175
Answers
4√
√
1. First, you can separate this number into two different roots, 625 ·4 z8. Now, simplify each root.

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√ √
4
√ √
4
625 · z8 = 54 · z4 ·z4 = 5z 2
4 4

When looking at the z8, think about how many z4 you can even pull out of the fourth root. The answer is 2, or a z2,
outside of the radical.
2. 32 = 25, which means there are not 7 2’s that can be pulled out of the radical. Same with the x5 and the y.
Therefore, you cannot simplify the expression any further.
3. Write out 9216 in the prime factorization and place factors into groups of 5.

q
5√
9216 = 5 2 ·2 ·2 ·2 ·2 · 2 ·2 ·2 ·2 ·2 ·3 ·3
√
= 25 ·25 ·32
5

√
= 2 ·2 32
5

√
= 45 9

4. Reduce the fraction, separate the numerator and denominator and simplify.
r r √
3 √ √
40 8 √ 23 3
352 = 2 3 1225
3 3
= = √ 2
·√
175 = 35 3
35 3
35
3
352 35
√
3
In the red step, we rationalized the denominator by multiplying the top and bottom by 352, so that the denominator
√
3
would be 353 or just 35. Be careful when rationalizing the denominator with higher roots!
Vocabulary

nth root √
The nth root of a number, xn, is x, n xn = x.

Problem Set
Reduce the following radical expressions.

√
1. 3√81
2. 5 128
r 4
25
3.
8
√ 5
4. 6 64
r 2
3 8
5.
81
r
4 243
6.
√ 16
3
7. 24x5
√
8. 4s 48x7y13
5 160x
8
9.
y7
√
3 2
10. s 1000x6
4 162x
5
11.
y3z10
√ 3
12. 40x3y4

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Rational Exponents and Roots

Objective
To introduce rational exponents and relate them to nth roots.
Guidance
Now that you are familiar with nth roots, we will convert them into exponents. Let’s look at the square root and see
if we can use the properties of exponents to determine what exponential number it is equivalent to.
Investigation: Writing the Square Root as an Exponent

TABLE 7.1:

√ 2 √
1. Evaluate x . What happens? The √ and the 2 cancel each other out, x2 = x.
2. Recall that when a power is raised to another power, 2= 1
n·/
2 2
we multiply the exponents. Therefore, we can rewrite n/= 12
the exponents and root as an equation, n ·2 = 1. Solve
for n.
√ √ 2
= x( 2 )·2= x1 = x
2 1 1
3. From #2, we can conclude that = 21 . x = x2

√ 1 √ 1 √
x = x 2 . We can extend this idea to the other roots as well; x = x3 = x=
3 4
From this√ investigation, we see that
x 4 ,. .. x = x n .
1 n 1

Example A
1
Find 2564 .
Solution: Rewrite this expression in terms of roots. A number to the one-fourth power is the same as the fourth root.
1
√
4 √
4
2564 = 256 = 44 = 4
1
Therefore, 2564 = 4.
Example B
3
Find 492 .
Solution: This problem is the same as the ones in the previous concept. However, now, the root is written in the
exponent. Rewrite the problem.
3 1 √ √ 3
49 2 = 493 2 = 493 or 49
√ 3
From the previous concept, we know that it is easier to evaluate the second option above. 49 = 73 = 343.
The Rational
√ Exponent
√ Theorem: For any real number a, root n, and exponent m, the following is always true:
m m
a n = am =
n n
a .
Example C
2
Find 5 3 using a calculator. Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.
2
Solution: To type this into a calculator, the keystrokes would probably look like: 5 3 . The “^” symbol is used
to indicate a power. Anything in parenthesis after the “^” would be in the exponent. Evaluating this, we have
2.924017738..., or just 2.92.
Other calculators might have a xy button. This button has the same purpose as the ^ and would be used in the exact

140
same way.
Guided Practice
√
1. Rewrite 7 12 using rational exponents. Then, use a calculator to find the answer.
4
2. Rewrite 8459 using roots. Then, use a calculator to find the answer.
Evaluate without a calculator.
4
3. 1253
5
4. 2568
q
1
5. 812
Answers
1
1. Using rational exponents, the 7th root becomes the power;12 7 = 1.426.
1
7
9√
2. Using roots, the 9 in the denominator of the exponent is the root; 8454 = 19.99. To enter this into a calculator,
you can use the rational exponents. If you have a TI-83 or 84, press MATH and select 5: √ x . On the screen, you
should type 9 √
x A A 4
845 4 to get the correct answer. You can also enter 845 9 and get the exact same answer
√ 4
3. 1253 = 125 = 54 = 625
4 3

√ 5
4. 2568 = 256 = 25 = 32
5 8

q q √
1 √
5. 812 = 81 = 9 = 3
Vocabulary

Rational Exponent
An exponent that can be written as√a fraction. For any nth root, the n of the root can be written in the
1
denominator of a rational exponent. x = x n .
n

Problem Set
Write the following expressions using rational exponents and then evaluate using a calculator. Answers should be
rounded to the nearest hundredth.

. √
1 455

. √
2 140
√ 3
9

3. 8
50

Write the following expressions using roots and then evaluate using a calculator. Answers should be rounded to the
nearest hundredth.
5
4. 723
2
5. 953
3
6. 1254

Evaluate the following without a calculator.

2
7. 643
4
8. 273
5
9. 164

141
 10.√√253
1
. √95 2

1
2
. 322 5

For the following problems, rewrite the expressions with rational exponents and then simplify the exponent and
evaluate without a calculator.
s
8
4 2
13.
3
r 6
3 7
14.
2
q 6
1
15. (16) 2

Applying the Laws of Exponents to Rational Exponents

Objective
To use the laws of exponents with rational exponents.
Guidance
When simplifying expressions with rational exponents, all the laws of exponents that were learned in the Polynomial
Functions chapter are still valid. On top of that, all the rules of fractions still apply.
Example A
1 3
Simplify x 2 ·x 4 .
Solution: Recall from the Product Property of Exponents, that when two numbers with the same base are multiplied
we add the exponents. Here, the exponents do not have the same base, so we need to find a common denominator
and then add the numerators.
1 3 2 3 5
x 2 ·x 4 = x 4 ·x 4 = x 4
This rational exponent does not reduce, so we are done.
Example B
2 4
Simplify 4x 3 y
5
16x3 y 6
Solution: This problem utilizes the Quotient Property of Exponents. Subtract the exponents with the same base and
reduce 16
4.
2
1 —3y 4—5
4 x 3 y4
= 4( x) 3
2
6 = 1 x —37 y 196
5 4
16x3 y 6
19
y 6
If you are writing your answer in terms of positive exponents, your answer would be 7 . Notice, that when a
4x 3
rational exponent is improper we do not change it to a mixed number.
If we were to write the answer using roots, then we would take out the whole numbers. For example, y = 19
6
can be
19 1 √
written as y 6 = y3 y 6 = y3 6 y because 6 goes into 19, 3 times with a remainder of 1.
Example C
6 52
Simplify 9x10 .

142
Solution: This example uses the Powers Property of Exponents. When a power is raised to another power, we
multiply the exponents.
√ 5 30
9x15 2 = 9 52 ·x( 10 )·( 2 ) = 9 x 20 = 243x 2
6 5 6 5 3

Example D
1 23
2x 2 y6
Simplify 5 9 .
4x 4 y 4

Solution: On the numerator, the entire expression is raised to the 23 power. Distribute this power to everything inside
the parenthesis. Then, use the Powers Property of Exponents and rewrite 4 as 2 2.
1 23
2x 2 y6 2 1 4

5 9
= 2 3 x 53 y 9
4x 4 y 4 22 x 4 y 4
Combine like terms by subtracting the exponents.
2 1

= 2( 3)—2 x( 3 ) —( 4 ) y4—( 4) = 2 3 x 12 y4
2 3 x 3 y4 2 1 5 9 —4 —11 7
5 9
22 x 4 y 4
7
y4
Finally, rewrite the answer with positive exponents by moving the 2 and x into the denominator. 4 11
2 3 x 12
Guided Practice
Simplify each expression. Reduce all rational exponents and write final answers using positive exponents.
3 1 2
1. 4d 5 ·8 3 d 5
7
w4
2. 1
w2

3 6 4
3. 3 2 x4 y 53
Answers
1. Change 4 and 8 so that they are powers of 2 and then add exponents with the same base.
3 1 2 3 2 5
4d 5 ·8 3 d 5 = 2 2d 5 · 2 3 13 d 5 = 23 d 5 = 8d
2. Subtract the exponents. Change the 1 power to 2 .
2 4
7 7 5
w4
1 = w4
2 =w 4
w2 w4
3. Distribute the 4
3 power to everything inside the parenthesis and reduce.
12 16 24 16 8
= 3 6 x 3 y 15 = 32 x 3 y 5 = 9x 3 y
3 6 4 16 8
3 23 x4 y 5
5

Problem Set
Simplify each expression. Reduce all rational exponents and write final answer using positive exponents.

4 3 3
1. 15 a 5 25 2 a 5
2. 7b 3 492 b—3
4 1 2

8
3. m 92
m3
4 11
x7 y 6
4. 1 5
x 14 y 3
5 3 1
5. 8 3 r5 s 4 t 3
21 7
24 r 5 s 2t 9

143
 3 4 10
3
6. a2 b5
5 32
7. 5x 7 y4
2 52
4x 5
8. 4
9y 5
18 52
75d
9. 3
5

3d 5

3 13
81 2 a3
10. 9
8a 2
11. 27 m n—2 4 2 m— 3 n5
2 4 3 1 2 8
3 5
3 2 2
3x 8 y 5
12. 1 3
5x 4 y—10

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 3.2 Graphing Square Root and Cubed Root
Functions
Objective
To graph square root and cubed root functions by hand and using a graphing calculator.
Review Queue
Graph the following functions without using a graphing calculator.

1. y = —2x + 5
2. y = x2 + 4x —5
3. y = —(x —1)(x + 7)
4. Using a graphing calculator, graph f (x) = x 3 —6x 2 —9x + 54. Find any minimums or maximum and all
solutions.

Graphing Square Root Functions

Objective
To graph a square root function with and without a calculator.
Guidance
√ √
A square root function has the form y = a x —h + k, where y = x is the parent graph. Graphing the parent graph,
we have:
TABLE 7.2:
x y
16 4
9 3
4 2
1 1
0 0
-1 not a real number

145
 √
Notice that this shape is half of a parabola, lying on its side. For y = x, the output is the same as the input of
√
y = x2. The domain and range of y = x are all positive real numbers, including zero. x cannot be negative because
you cannot take the square root of a negative number.
Example A
√
Graph y = x —2 + 5 without a calculator.
Solution: To graph this function, draw a table. x = 2 is a critical value because it makes the radical zero.

TABLE 7.3:
x y
2 5
3 6
6 7
11 8

146
After plotting the points, we see that the shape is exactly the same as the parent graph. It is just shifted up 5 and to
the right 2. Therefore, we can conclude that h is the horizontal shift and k is the vertical shift.
The domain is all real numbers such that x ≥ 2 and the range is all real numbers such that y ≥ 5.
Example B
√
Graph y = 3 x + 1. Find the domain and range.
Solution: From the previous example, we already know that there is going to be a horizontal shift to the left one
unit. The 3 in front of the radical changes the width of the function. Let’s make a table.

TABLE 7.4:
x y
—1 0
0 3
3 6
8 9
15 12

147
Notice that this graph grows much faster than the parent graph. Extracting (h, k) from the equation, the starting point
is (—1, 0) and then rather than increase at a “slope” of 1, it is three times larger than that.
Example C
√
Graph f (x) = — x —2 + 3.
Solution: Extracting (h, k) from the equation, we find that the starting point is (2, 3). The negative sign in front
of the radical indicates a reflection. Let’s make a table. Because the starting point is (2, 3), we should only pick
x-values after x = 2.
TABLE 7.5:
x y
2 3
3 2
6 1
11 0
18 -1

148
The negative sign in front of the radical, we now see, results in a reflection over x-axis.
Using the graphing calculator: If you wanted to graph this function using the TI-83 or 84, press Y = and clear out
any functions. Then, press the negative sign, (-) and 2nd x2, which is √ . Then, type in the rest of the function, so
that Y = —√ (X —2) + 3. Press GRAPH and adjust the window.
Guided Practice
√
1. Evaluate y = —2 x —5 + 8 when x = 9.
Graph the following square root functions. Describe the relationship to the parent graph and find the domain and
range. Use a graphing calculator for #3.
√
2. y = —x
√
3. f (x) = 12 x + 3
√
4. f (x) = —4 x —5 + 1
Answers
1. Plug in x = 9 into the equation and solve for y.
√ √
y = —2 9 —5 + 8 = —2 4 + 8 = —2(2) + 8 = —4 + 8 = —4
2. Here, the negative is under the radical. This graph is a reflection of the parent graph over the y-axis.
The domain is all real numbers less than or equal to zero. The range is all real numbers greater than or equal to zero.

149
3. The starting point of this function is (—3, 0) and it is going to “grow” half as fast as the parent graph.
The domain is all real numbers greater than or equal to -3. The range is all real numbers greater than or equal to
zero.

4. Using the graphing calculator, the function should be typed in as: Y = —4 √ (X —5) + 1. It will be a reflection
over the x-axis, have a starting point of (5, 1) and grow four times as fast as the parent graph.

150
Vocabulary

General Equation
√ for a Square Root Function
f (x) = a x —h + k where h is the horizontal shift and k is the vertical shift.

Starting point
The initial point of a square root function, (h, k).

Problem Set
Graph the following square root functions. Use your calculator to check your answers.
√
1.√ x +2
2. x√— 5 —2
3.—2 √x + 1
4.1+ √ x —3
5. 1
2√
x+8
6.3 √x + 6
7.2√ 1 —x
8. √x + 3 —5
9. 4 x +9 —8
10. —32 √√x —3 + 6
11. —√
3 5 —x + 7
12. 2 3 —x —9

Graphing Cubed Root Functions

Objective
To graph a cubed root function with and without a calculator.

151
Guidance
√
A cubed root function is different from that of a square root. Their general forms look very similar, y = a 3 x —h + k
√
and the parent graph is y = 3 x. However, we can take the cubed root of a negative number, therefore, it will be
defined for all values of x. Graphing the parent graph, we have:

TABLE 7.6:
x y
—27 -3
-8 -2
-1 -1
0 0
1 1
8 2
27 3

√ √
For y = 3 x, the output is the same as the input of y = x3. The domain and range of y = 3 x are all real numbers.
Notice there is no “starting point” like the square root functions, the (h, k) now refers to the point where the function
bends.
Example A
√ √
Describe how to obtain the graph of y = 3 x + 5 from y = 3 x.

152
Solution: From the previous concept, we know that the +5 indicates a vertical shift of 5 units up. Therefore, this
graph will look exactly the same as the parent graph, shifted up five units.
Example B
√
Graph y = —3 x + 2 —3. Find the domain and range.

Solution: From the previous example, we know that from the parent graph, this function is going to shift to the left
two units and down three units. The negative sign will result in a reflection.
Alternate Method: If you want to use a table (like in the previous concept), that will also work. Here is a table,
then plot the points. (h, k) should always be the middle point in your table.

153
 TABLE 7.7:
x y
6 -5
-1 -4
-2 -3
-3 -2
-10 -1

Example C
√
Graph f (x) = 1 x —4.
3
2
Solution: The -4 tells us that, from the parent graph, the function will shift to the right four units. The 12 effects how
quickly the function will “grow”. Because it is less than one, it will grow slower than the parent graph.

Using the graphing calculator: If you wanted to graph this function using the TI-83 or 84, press Y = and clear out
any functions. Then, press (1 ÷ 2), MATH and scroll down to 4: √3 and press ENTER. Then, type in the rest of
√
the function, so that Y = 12 3 (X —4). Press GRAPH and adjust the window.
Important Note: The domain and range of all cubed root functions are both all real numbers.
Guided Practice
√
1. Evaluate y = 3 x + 4 —11 when x = —12.
√ √
2. Describe how to obtain the graph of y = 3 x + 4 —11 from y = 3 x.
Graph the following cubed root functions. Check your graphs on the graphing calculator.
√
3. y = 3 x —2 —4
√
4. f (x) = —3 x —1
Answers
1. Plug in x = —12 and solve for y.
√ √
y = 3 —12 + 4 —11 = 3 —8 + 4 = —2 + 4 = 2

154
 √ √
2. Starting with y = 3 x, you would obtain y = 3 x + 4 —11 by shifting the function to the left four units and down
11 units.
3. This function is a horizontal shift to the right two units and down four units.

√
4. This function is a reflection of y = 3 x and stretched to be three times as large. Lastly, it is shifted down one unit.

Vocabulary

General Equa√ tion for a Cubed Root Function

f (x) = a 3 x —h + k, where h is the horizontal shift and k is the vertical shift.

155
Problem Set
Graph the following cubed root functions. Use your calculator to check your answers.

1
. √x+4
3

2
. √x —3
√ 3

3
. √x + 2 —1
3

4. —3√x —6
5. 2 3 x+1
√
6. —3 3 x + 5
√
7. 2 √1 —x
1 3

8. 2 3 x + 4 —3
1√3
9. —
√ x —5 + 2
1
0. 6—x + 7
3
3

√
3
11. —5 √ x —1 + 3
12. 4 3 7 —x —8

Extracting the Equation from a Graph

Objective
To look at the graph of a square root or cubed root function and determine the equation.
Guidance
This concept is the opposite of the previous two. Instead of graphing from the equation, we will now find the
equation, given the graph.
Example A
Determine the equation of the graph below.

Solution: From the previous two concepts, we know this is a square root function, so the general form is y =

156
 √ √
a x —h + k. The starting point is (—6, 1). Plugging this in for h and k, we have y = a x + 6 + 1. Now, find a,
using the given point, (—2, 5). Let’s substitute it in for x and y and solve for a.

√
5 = a —2 + 6 + 1
√
4=a 4
4 = 2a
2=a

√
The equation is y = 2 x + 6 + 1.
Example B
Find the equation of the cubed root function where h = —1 and k = —4 and passes through (—28, —3).
√ √
Solution: First, plug in what we know to the general equation; y = 3 x —h + k ⇒ y = a 3 x + 1 —4. Now, substitute
x = —28 and y = —3 and solve for a.

√
—3 = a 3 —28 + 1 —4
1 = —3a
1
—3 = a

√
The equation of the function is y = —13 x + 1 —4.
3

Example C
Find the equation of the function below.

Solution: It looks like (0, —4) is (h, k). Plug this in for h and k and then use the second point to find a.

157
 √
—6 = a 3 1 —0 —4
√
—2 = a 3 1
—2 = a

√
The equation of this function is y = —2 3 x —4.
When finding the equation of a cubed root function, you may assume that one of the given points is (h, k). Whichever
point is on the “bend” is (h, k) for the purposes of this text.
Guided Practice
Find the equation of the functions below.
1.

2.

158
3. Find the equation of a square root equation with a starting point of (—5, —3) and passes through (4, —6).
Answers
1. Substitute what you know into the general equation to solve for a. From Example C, you may assume that (5, 8)
is (h, k) and (—3, 7) is (x, y).

√
y = a 3 x —5 + 8
√
7 = a 3 —3 —5 + 8
—1 = —2a
1
2
=a

√
The equation of this function is y = 1 x —5 + 8.
3
2
2. Substitute what you know into the general equation to solve for a. From the graph, the starting point, or (h, k) is
(4, —11) and (13, 1) are a point on the graph.

√
y = a x —4 —11
√
1 = a 13 —4 —11
12 = 3a
4=a

√
The equation of this function is y = 4 x —4 —11.
3. Substitute what you know into the general equation to solve for a. From the graph, the starting point, or (h, k) is
(—5, —3) and (4, —6) are a point on the graph.

159
 √
y = a x + 5 —3
√
—6 = a 4 + 5 —3
—3 = 3a
—1 = a

√
The equation of this function is y = — x + 5 —3.
Problem Set
Write the equation for each function graphed below.

1.

2.

160
3.

4.

161
 5.

6.

162
7.

8.

163
 9.
10. Write the equation of a square root function with starting point (—1, 6) passing through (3, 16).
11. Write the equation of a square root function with starting point (—6, —3) passing through (10, —15).
12. Write the equation of a cube root function with (h, k) = (2, 7) passing through (10, 11).

164
 3.3 Solving Radical Equations

Objective
To solve radical equations.
Review Queue
Solve for x.

1. x2 —9x + 14 = 0
2. 3x2 —11x —20 = 0
3.√x = 4

Solving Simple Radical Equations

Objective
To solve basic radical equations.
Guidance
Solving radical equations are very similar to solving other types of equations. The objective is to get x by itself.
However, now there are radicals within the equations. Recall that the opposite of the square root of something is to
square it.
Example A
√
Is x = 5 the solution to 2x + 15 = 8?
Solution: Plug in 5 for x to see if the equation holds true. If it does, then 5 is the solution.

√
2 (5) + 15 = 8
√
10 + 15 = 9
√
25 /
=8

√
We know that 25 = 5, so x = 5 is not the solution.
Example B
√
Solve 2x —5 + 7 = 16.
Solution: To solve for x, we need to isolate the radical. Subtract 7 from both sides.

√
2x —5 + 7 = 16
√
2x —5 = 9

Now, we can square both sides to eliminate the radical. Only square both sides when the radical is alone on one side
of the equals sign.

165
 √
2x —52 = 92
2x —5 = 81
2x = 86
x = 43

√ √ √
Check: 2 (43)— 5 + 7 = 86 —5 + 7 = 81 + 7 = 9 + 7 = 16 G
ALW Y A check S your answers when solving radical equations. Sometimes, you will solve an equation, get
a solution, and then plug it back in and it will not work. These types of solutions are called extraneous solutions
and are not actually considered solutions to the equation.
Example C
√
Solve 3 3 x —8 —2 = —14.
Solution: Again, isolate the radical first. Add 2 to both sides and divide by 3.

√
3 3 x —8 —2 = —14
√
3 3 x —8 = —12
√
3
x —8 = —4

Now, cube both sides to eliminate the radical.

√
3
x —83 = (—4)3
x —8 = —64
x = —56

√ √
Check: 3 3 —56 —8 —2 = 3 3 —64 —2 = 3 ·—4 —2 = —12 —2 = —14 G
Guided Practice
Solve the equations and check your answers.
1.√x + 5 = 6
√
2. 5 2x —1 + 1 = 26
. √
3 4
3x + 11 —2 = 3
Answers
1. The radical is already isolated here. Square both sides and solve for x.

√
x + 52 = 62
x + 5 = 36
x = 31

√ √
Check: 31 + 5 = 36 = 6 G
2. Isolate the radical by subtracting 1 and then dividing by 5.

166
 √
5 2x —1 + 1 = 26
√
5 2x —1 = 25
√
2x —1 = 5

Square both sides and continue to solve for x.

√
2x —12 = 52
2x —1 = 25
2x = 26
x = 13

√ √ √
Check: 5 2 (13)— 1 + 1 = 5 26 —1 = 5 25 + 1 = 5 ·5 + 1 = 25 + 1 = 26 G
3. thisIn problem, we have a fourth root. That means, once we isolate the radical, we must
raise both sides to the fourth power to eliminate it.

√
4
3x + 11 —2 = 3
√
4
3x —114 = 54
3x —11 = 625
3x = 636
x = 212
√ √ √
3 (212 ) + 11 —2 = 636 —11 —2 = 625 —2 = 5 —2 = 3 G
4 4
Check: 4

Vocabulary

Extraneous Solution
A solved-for value of x, that when checked, is not actually a solution.

Problem Set
Solve the equations and check your answers.

1.√x +√5 = 6
2.2— √ x+1 = 0
3.4√ 5 —x = 12
4. x + 9 + 7 = 11
√
5. 1 3 x —2 = 1
√
2
x+3 +5 = 9
3
6.
√
7.5 15 — √ x + 2 = 17
5
.
8 —√5 = x —5 —7
9. 4 √x —6 + 10 = 13
10. 85 3 x + 5 = 8
√
11. 3√ x + 7 —2 = 25
12. 4 235 + x + 9 = 14

167
Solving Radical Equations with Variables on Both Sides

Objective
To solve more complicated radical equations.
Guidance
In this concept, we will continue solving radical equations. Here, we will address variables and radicals on both
sides of the equation.
Example A
√
Solve 4x + 1 —x = —1
Solution: Now we have an x that is not under the radical. We will still isolate the radical.

√
4x + 1 —x = —1
√
4x —1 = x —1

Now, we can square both sides. Be careful when squaring x —1, the answer is not x2 —1.

√
4x + 12 = (x —1)2
4x + 1 = x2 —2x + 1

This problem is now a quadratic. To solve quadratic equations, we must either factor, when possible or use the
Quadratic Formula. Combine like terms and set one side equal to zero.

4x + 1 = x2 —2x + 1
0 = x2 —6x
0 = x(x —6)
x = 0 or 6
√ √ √
Check both solutions: 4 (0) + 1—1 = 0 + 1—1 = 1—1 = 0 = / —1. 0 is an extraneous solution. 4 (6) + 1—6 =
√
24 + 1 —6 = 5 —6 = —1 G Therefore, 6 is the only solution.
Example B
√ √
Solve 8x —11 — 3x + 19 = 0.
Solution: In this example, you need to isolate both radicals. To do this, subtract the second radical from both sides.
Then, square both sides to eliminate the variable.

√ √
8x —11 — 3x + 19 = 0
√ √
8x —112 = 3x + 192
8x —11 = 3x + 19
5x = 30
x=6

168
 √ √ √ √ √ √
Check: 8 ( 6)— 11 — 3 (6 ) + 19 = 48 —11 — 18 + 19 = 37 — 37 = 0 G
Example C
√
Solve 4 4x + 1 = x
Solution: The radical is isolated. To eliminate it, we must raise both sides to the fourth power.

√ 4
4
2x2— 1 = x4
2
2x— 1 = x4
0 = x4 —2x2 + 1
0 = (x2 —1)(x2 —1)
0 = (x —1)(x + 1)(x —1)(x + 1)
x = 1 or —1
q √ √ q √ √
Check: 4
2(1)2 —1 = 4 2 —1 = 4 1 = 1 G and 4 2(—1)2 —1 = 4 2 —1 = 4 1 = 1 G
Guided Practice
Solve the following radical equations. Check for extraneous solutions.
√
1
. 3 4x3 —24 = x
2.√5x —3 = √3x + 19
3.√6x —5 —x = —10
Answers
1. The radical is isolated. Cube both sides to eliminate the cubed root.

√ 3
3
4x3 —24 = x3
4x3 —24 = x3
—24 = —3x3
8 = x3
2=x
q √ √
Check: 3
4 (2)3 —24 = 3 32 —24 = 3 8 = 2 G
2. Square both sides to solve for x.

√ √
5x —32 = 3x + 192
5x —3 = 3x + 19
2x = 22
x = 11

Check:
√ √
5 11( )— 3 = 3 (11) + 19
√ √
—3 = 33 + 19 G
55 √
√
52 = 52

169
3. Add x to both sides and square to eliminate the radical.

√
6x —52 = (x —10)2
6x —5 = x2 —20x + 100
0 = x2 —26x + 105
0 = (x —21)(x —5)
x = 21 or 5

Check both solutions:

√ √ √
x = 21 : 6 (21)— 5 —21 = 126 —5 —21 = 121 —21 = 11 —21 = —10 G
√ √ √
6 (5)— 5 —21 = 30 —5 —21 = 25 —21 = 5 —21 /
= —10
x = :5

5 is an extraneous solution.
Problem Set
Solve the following radical equations. Be sure to check for extraneous solutions.

1.√
√
x —3 = x —5
2.√ x + 3 + 15 = x —12
3. 4
3x2 + 54 = x√
4. √ x + 60 = 4 √x
2

5. x4 + 5x3 = 2 2x + 10
√
6. x√= 5x —6
7. √ 3x + 4 = x √
—2
8. x3√+ 8x — 9x2 —60 = 0
x√= 4x + 4 √ —x2
3
9.
4
+3 = 2 x+3
4
10. x √
3

11. x2√— 42x2 + 343 √ =0

12. x x —21 = 2 x3 —25x + 25
2

For questions 13 and 14, you will need to use the method illustrated in the example below.

√ √
x —15 = x —3
√ 2 √
x —15 = x —3 2
√
x —15 = x —6 x + 9
√
—24 = —6 x
√ 2
(4) 2 = x
16 = x

1. Square both sides

2. Combine like terms to isolate the remaining radical
3. Square both sides again to solve

170
Check:
√ √
16 —15 = 16 —3
√
1 = 4 —3
1=1

13.√
√
x + 11 —√
√
2 = x —21
14. x —6 = 7x —22

Solving Rational Exponent Equations

Objective
To solve equations where the variable has a rational exponent.
Guidance
This concept is very similar to the previous two. When solving a rational exponent equation, isolate the variable.
Then, to eliminate the exponent, you will need to raise everything to the reciprocal power.
Example A
5
Solve 3x 2 = 96.
Solution: First, divide both sides by 3 to isolate x.

5
3x 2 = 96
5
x 2 = 32

x is raised to the five-halves power. To cancel out this exponent, we need to raise everything to the two-fifths power.

5 2
= 325
5
x2 2

2
x = 32
√5
x = 5 32 2 = 22 = 4

5
Check: 3(4) 2 = 3 ·2 5 = 3 ·32 = 96 G
Example B
3
Solve —2(x —5) 4 + 48 = —202.
3
Solution: Isolate (x —5) 4 by subtracting 48 and dividing by -2.

3
—2(x —5) 4 + 48 = —202
3
—2(x —5) 4 = —250
3
(x —5) 4 = —125

171
To undo the three-fourths power, raise everything to the four-thirds power.

h i4
3 3 4
(x —5) 4 = (—125) 3
x —5 = 625
x = 630

3 3
Check: —2(630 —5) 4 + 48 = —2 ·6254 + 48 = —2 ·125 + 48 = —250 + 48 = —202 G
Guided Practice
Solve the following rational exponent equations and check for extraneous solutions.
2
1. 8(3x —1) 3 = 200
3
2. 6x 2 —141 = 1917
Answers
1. Divide both sides by 8 and raise everything to the three-halves power.

2
8(3x —1) 3 = 200
h i3
2 2 3
(3x —1) 3 = (25) 2
3x —1 = 125
3x = 126
x = 42

Check: 8(3(42)— 1) 32 = 8(126 —1) 32 = 8(125) 32 = 8 ·25 = 200 G

2. Here, only the x is raised to the three-halves power. Subtract 141 from both sides and divide by 6. Then, eliminate
the exponent by raising both sides to the two-thirds power.

3
6x 2 —141 = 1917
3
6x 2 = 2058
3
x 2 = 343
2
x = 343 3 = 72 = 49

3
Check: 6(49) 2 —141 = 6 ·343 —141 = 2058 —141 = 1917 G
Problem Set
3
1. 2x 2 = 54
1
2. 3x 3 + 5 = 17
2
3. (7x —3) 5 = 4
1
4. (4x + 5) 2 = x —4
5 1
5. x 2 = 16x 2
3
6. (5x + 7) 5 = 8
2
7. 5x 3 = 45

172
 2 2
8. (7x —8) 3 = 4( x —5) 3
3
9. 7x 7 + 9 = 65
3
10. 4997 = 5x 2 —3
3
11. 2x 4 = 686
3
12. x3 = (4x —3) 2

173
 3.4 Function Operations and the Inverse of a
Function
Objective
To manipulate functions by taking the inverse and composing them with other functions.
Review Queue
f (x) = x + 5 and g(x) = x2 —4x + 8. Find:

1. f (x) + g(x)
2. f (x)— g(x)
3. g(x)— f (x)
4. f (x) ·g(x)

Function Operations

Objective
To add, subtract, multiply, divide and compose two or more functions.
Guidance
As you saw in the Review Queue, we have already dealt with adding, subtracting, and multiplying functions. To
add and subtract, you combine like terms (see the Adding and Subtracting Polynomials concept). When multiplying,
you either FOIL or use the “box” method (see the Multiplying Polynomials concept). When you add, subtract, or
multiply functions, it is exactly the same as what you would do with polynomials, except for the notation. Notice,
in the Review Queue, we didn’t write out the entire function, just f (x)— g(x), for example. Let’s continue:

f (x)— g(x) = (x + 5)— (x2 —4x + 8)

= x + 5 —x2 + 4x —8
= —x2 + 5x —3

Distribute the negative sign to the second function and combine like terms. Be careful! f (x) —g(x) /
= g(x) — f (x).
Also, this new function, f (x)— g(x) has a different domain and range that either f (x) or g(x).
Example A
√
If f (x) = x —8 and g(x) = 12x , find f g and gf . Determine any restrictions for gf .
2
Solution: First, even though the x is not written along with the f (x) and g(x), it can be implied that f and g represent
f (x) and g(x).
√ √
f g = x —8 ·12 x 2 = 12 x x —8
2
To divide the two functions, we will place f over g in a fraction.
√ √
f
= x —8 = 2 x —8
g 1 x2 x2
2

To find the restriction(s) on this function, we need to determine what value(s) of x make the denominator zero
because we cannot divide by zero. In this case x /
= 0. Also, the domain of f (x) is only x ≥ 8, because we cannot take

174
the square root of a negative number. The portion of the domain where f (x) is not defined is also considered part of
the restriction. Whenever there is a restriction on a function, list it next to the function, separated by a semi-colon.
We will not write x /= 0 separately because it is included in x Z
< 8.
√
f 2 x —8
g
= x2 <8
; xZ
Now we will introduce a new way to manipulate functions; composing them. When you compose two functions, we
put one function into the other, where ever there is an x. The notation can look like f (g(x)) or f ◦ g, and is read “ f
of g of x”. Let’s do an example.
Example B
Using f (x) and g(x) from Example A find f (g(x)) and g( f (x)) and any restrictions on the domains.
Solution: For f (g(x)), we are going to put g(x) into f (x) everywhere there is an x-value.
√
f (g(x)) = g (x)— 8
Now, substitute in the actual function for g(x).

√
f (g(x)) = g (x)— 8
r
1 2
= x —8
2

To find the domain of f (g(x)), let’s determine where x is defined. The radicand is equal to zero when x = 4 or
x = —4. Between 4 and -4, the function is not defined because the square root would be negative. Therefore, the
domain is all real numbers; —4 Z
<xZ < 4.
Now, to find g( f (x)), we would put f (x) into g(x) everywhere there is an x-value.

g( f (x)) = 1 [ f (x)]2
2
1 h√ i2
= x —8
2
1
= 2(x —8)
1
= 2x —4

Notice that f (g(x)) /

= g( f (x)). It is possible that f ◦ g = g ◦ f and is a special case, addressed in the next concept.
To find the domain of g( f (x)), we will determine where x is defined. g( f (x)) is a line, so we would think that the
domain is all real numbers. However, while simplifying the composition, the square and square root canceled out.
Therefore, any restriction on f (x) or g(x) would still exist. The domain would be all real numbers such that x ≥ 8
from the domain of f (x). Whenever operations cancel, the original restrictions from the inner function still exist.
As with the case of f (g(x)), no simplifying occurred, so the domain was unique to that function.
Example C
√
If f (x) = x4 —1 and g(x) = 2 4 x + 1, find g ◦ f and the restrictions on the domain.
Solution: Recall that g ◦ f is another way of writing g( f (x)). Let’s plug f into g.

175
 √
g ◦ f = 2 4 f (x) + 1
q
= 2 4 (x 4 —1) + 1
√
= 2 x4
4

= 2 |x|

The final function, g ◦ f =

/ 2x because x is being raised to the 4 th power, which will always yield a positive answer.
Therefore, even when x is negative, the answer will be positive. For example, if x = —2, then g ◦ f = 2 q (—2)4 = 4

2 ·2 = 4.. An absolute value function has no restrictions on the domain. This will always happen when even roots
and powers cancel. The range of this function is going to be all positive real numbers because the absolute value is
never negative.
Recall, the previous example, however. The restrictions, if there are any, from the inner function, f (x), still exist.
Because there are no restrictions on f (x), the domain of g ◦ f remains all real numbers.
Guided Practice
f (x) = 5x—1 and g(x) = 4x + 7. Find:
1. f g
2. g — f
3. f
g
4. g( f (x)) and the domain
5. f ◦ f
Answers
1. f g is the product of f (x) and g(x).

f g = 5x—1(4x + 7)
= 20x0 + 35x—1
= 20 + 35x—1 or 20x +35
x

Both representations are correct. Discuss with your teacher how s/he would like you to leave your answer.
2. Subtract f (x) from g(x) and simplify, if possible.

g — f = (4x + 7)— 5x—1

4x2 + 7x —5
= 4x + 7 —5x—1 or
x

3. Divide f (x) by g(x). Don’t forget to include the restriction(s).

f 5x—1
g = 4x + 7
5 7
= x(4x +7) ; x /
= 0, —4

176
Recall the properties of exponents. Anytime there is a negative exponent, it should be moved into the denominator.
We set each factor in the denominator equal to zero to find the restrictions.
4. g( f (x)) is a composition function. Let’s plug f (x) into g(x) everywhere there is an x.

g( f (x)) = 4 f (x) + 7
= 4(5x—1) + 7

= 20x—1 + 7 or 20 +7x
x

The domain of f (x) is all real numbers except x /

= 0, because we cannot divide by zero. Therefore, the domain of
g( f (x)) is all real numbers except x /
= 0.
5. f ◦ f is a composite function on itself. We will plug f (x) into f (x) everywhere there is an x.

f ( f (x)) = 5( f (x))—1
= 5(5x—1)—1
= 5 ·5—1x1
=x

Vocabulary

Restriction
A value of the domain where x cannot be defined.

Composite Function
A function, h(x), such that h(x) = f (g(x)), also written h = f ◦ g. When f (x) and g(x) are composed, we plug
g(x) into f (x) everywhere there is an x-value, resulting in a new function, h(x). The domain of h(x) is the set
of all x-values that are in the domain of f (x) and g(x).

Problem Set
For problems 1-8, use the following functions to form the indicated compositions and clearly indicate any restrictions
to the domain of the composite function.

√
f (x) = x2 + 5 g(x) = 3 x —5 h(x) = 5x + 1

1. f + h
2. h —g
3. f
g
4. fh
5. f ◦g
6. h( f (x))
7. g◦ f
8. f ◦g ◦h

For problems 9-16, use the following functions to form the indicated compositions and clearly indicate any restric-
tions to the domain of the composite function.

177
 √
√
p(x) = 5 q(x) = 5 x r(x) = x
s(x) = 1 x2
x 5 5

9. ps
10. q
r
11. q+r
12. p(q(x))
13. s(q(x))
14. q ◦s
15. q ◦ p ◦s
16. p ◦r

Inverse Functions

Objective
To find the inverse of a relation and function.
Guidance
By now, you are probably familiar with the term “inverse”. Multiplication and division are inverses of each other.
More examples are addition and subtraction and the square and square root. We are going to extend this idea to
functions. An inverse relation maps the output values to the input values to create another relation. In other words,
we switch the x and y values. The domain of the original relation becomes the range of the inverse relation and the
range of the original relation becomes the domain of the inverse relation.
Example A
Find the inverse mapping of S = {(6, —1), (—2, —5), (—3, 4), (0, 3), (2, 2)}.
Solution: Here, we will find the inverse of this relation by mapping it over the line y = x. As was stated above in
the definition, the inverse relation switched the domain and range of the original function. So, the inverse of this
relation, S, is S—1 (said “s inverse”) and will flip all the x and y values.
S—1 = {(—1, 6), (—5, —2), (4, —3), (3, 0), (2, 2)}
If we plot the two relations on the x —y plane, we have:

178
The blue points are all the points in S and the red points are all the points in S—1. Notice that the points in S—1 are a
reflection of the points in S over the line, y = x. All inverses have this property.
If we were to fold the graph on y = x, each inverse point S—1 should lie on the original point from S. The point (2, 2)
lies on this line, so it has no reflection. Any value on this line will remain the same.
Domain of S: x ∈ {6, —2, —3, 0, 2}
Range of S: y ∈ {—1, —5, 4, 3, 2}
Domain of S′: x ∈ {—1, —5, 4, 3, 2}
Range of S′: y ∈ {6, —2, —3, 0, 2}
By looking at the domains and ranges of S and S—1, we see that they are both functions (no x-values repeat). When
the inverse of a function is also a function, we say that the original function is a one-to-one function. Each value
maps one unique value onto another unique value.
Example B
Find the inverse of f (x) = 23 x —1.
Solution: This is a linear function. Let’s solve by doing a little investigation. First, draw the line along with y = x
on the same set of axes.

179
Notice the points on the function (blue line). Map these points over y = x by switching their x and y values. You
could also fold the graph along y = x and trace the reflection.

The red line in the graph to the right is the inverse of f ( x) = 23 x —1. Using slope triangles between (-1, 0) and (1,
3), we see that the slope is 32. Use (-1, 0) to find the y-intercept.

f —1(x) = 3 x + b
2
3
0 = 2(—1) + b
3
2
=b

180
The equation of the inverse, read “ f inverse”, is f —1(x) = 32x + 32.
You may have noticed that the slopes of f and f —1 are reciprocals of each other. This will always be the case for
linear functions. Also, the x-intercept of f becomes the y-intercept of f —1 and vise versa.
Alternate Method: There is also an algebraic approach to finding the inverse of any function. Let’s repeat this
example using algebra.
1. Change f (x) to y.
y = 23 x —1
2. Switch the x and y. Change y to y—1 for the inverse.
x = 23 y—1 —1
3. Solve for y′.

2
x = y—1 —1
3
3 3 2
(x + 1) = · y—1
2 2 3
3
x + 3 = y—1
2 2

The algebraic method will work for any type of function.

Example C
√
Determine if g(x) = x —2 and f (x) = x2 + 2 are inverses of each other.
Solution: There are two different ways to determine if two functions are inverses of each other. The first, is to find
f —1 and g—1 and see if f —1 = g and g—1 = f .

√
x= y—1 —2 x = (y—1)2 + 2
x2 = y—1 —2 and x —2 = (y—1)2
√
x2 + 2 = y—1 = g—1(x) ± x —2 = y—1 = f —1(x)

√ √
Notice the ± sign in front of the square root for f —1. That means that g—1 is x —2 and — x —2.
Therefore, f —1 is not really a function because it fails the vertical line test. However, if you were to take each
part separately, individually, they are functions. You can also think about reflecting f (x) over y = x. It would be a
parabola on its side, which is not a function.

181
The inverse of g would then be only half of the parabola, see below. Despite the restrictions on the domains, f and
g are inverses of each other.

Alternate Method: The second, and easier, way to determine if two functions are inverses of each other is to use
composition. If f ◦ g = g ◦ f = x, then f and g are inverses of each other. Think about it; if everything cancels
out and all that remains is x, each operation within the functions are opposites, making the functions “opposites” or
inverses of each other.

q √
f ◦g = (x 2 + 2)— 2 g◦ f = x —22 + 2
√
= x2 and = x —2 + 2
=x =x

182
Because f ◦ g = g ◦ f = x, f and g are inverses of each other. Both f ◦ g = x and g ◦ f = x in order for f and g to be
inverses of each other.
Guided Practice
1. Find the inverse of g(x) = —34 x + 12 algebraically.
2. Find the inverse of f (x) = 2x3 + 5 algebraically. Is the inverse a function?
√
3. Determine if h(x) = 4x4 —7 and j(x) = 14 x —7 are inverses of each other using compositions.
4

Answers
1. Use the steps given in the Alternate Method for Example B.

3
y = — x + 12
4
3
x = — y—1 + 12
4
3
x —12 = — y—1
4
4
— (x —12) = y—1
3
g—1 (x) = —4 x + 16
3
2. Again, use the steps from Example B.

y = 2x3 + 5
x = 2(y—1)3 + 5
x —5 = 2(y—1)3
x —5
= (y—1)3
2 r
f (x) = 3 x —5
—1
2

Yes, f —1 is a function. Plot in your graphing calculator if you are unsure and see if it passes the vertical line test.
3. First, find h( j(x)).

1√ 4
h( j(x)) = 4 x+7 —7
4

4
4
1
= 4· x + 7 —7
4
1
= 64x

Because h( j(x)) /
= x, we know that h and j are not inverses of each other. Therefore, there is no point to find j(h(x)).
Vocabulary

Inverse Relation/Function
When a relation or function’s output values are mapped to create input values for a new relation (or function).
The input values of the original function would become the output values for the new relation (or function).

183
One-to-one Function
When the inverse of a function is also a function.

Problem Set
Write the inverses of the following functions. State whether or not the inverse is a function.

1. (2, 3), (—4, 8), (—5, 9), (1, 1)

2. (9, —6), (8, —5), (7, 3), (4, 3)

Find the inverses of the following functions algebraically. Note any restrictions to the domain of the inverse
functions.

3. f (x) = 6x —9
4. f (x) = 4 x+3
1
√
5. f (x) = x + 7
6. f (x) = x2 + 5
7. f (x) = x√
3 —11

8. f (x) = 5 x + 16

Determine whether f and g are inverses of each other by checking to see whether finding f ◦ g = x or g ◦ f = x. You
do not need to show both.

9. f (x) = 23 x —14 and g( x) = 32 x + 21

10. f (x) = x+5 and g(x) = 8x + 5
√ 8
3
11. f (x) = 3x —7 and g( x) = x —7
3
3
12. f (x) = x—9x ,x =
/ 9 and g(x ) = x—1
9x

Find the inverses of the following functions algebraically. Note any restrictions to the domain of the inverse
functions. These problems are a little trickier as you will need to factor out the y variable to solve. Use the example
below as a guide.
f (x) = 3x+13
2x—11
Example:

1. = 3y+13
2y—11 First, switch x and y
2. 2xy —11x = 3y + 13 Multiply both sides by 2y —11 to eliminate the fraction
3. 2xy —3y = 11x + 13 Now rearrange the terms to get both terms with y in them on one side and everything else
on the other side
4. y(2x —3) = 11x + 13 Factor out the y
5. y = 11x+13
2x—3 Finally, Divide both sides by 2x —3 to isolate y.

So, the inverse of f (x) = 2x—11 ,x /

3x+13 = 112 is f —1 (x) = 11x+13
2x—3 ,x /
= 32 .

13. f (x) = x+7

x
,x =
/ 0
14. f (x) = x ,x =
x—8 / 8

Multi-step problem.

15. In many countries, the temperature is measured in degrees Celsius. In the US we typically use degrees
Fahrenheit. For travelers, it is helpful to be able to convert from one unit of measure to another. The following
problem will help you learn to do this using an inverse function.

184
a. The temperature at which water freezes will give us one point on a line in which x represents the degrees
in Celsius and y represents the degrees in Fahrenheit. Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius and 32 degrees
Fahrenheit so the first point is (0, 32). The temperature at which water boils gives us the second point
(100, 212), because water boils at 100 degrees Celsius or 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Use this information
to show that the equation to convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit is y = 95x + 32 or F = 95C + 32.
b. Find the inverse of the equation above by solving for C to derive a formula that will allow us to convert
from Fahrenheit to Celsius.
c. Show that your inverse is correct by showing that the composition of the two functions simplifies to
either F or C (depending on which one you put into the other.)

185
 CHAPTER
4 Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions
Chapter Outline
4.1 E XPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY
4.2 L OGARITHMIC F UNCTIONS
4.3 P ROPERTIES OF L OGARITHMS
4.4 SOLVING E XPONENTIAL AND L OGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

In this chapter, we will analyze two new types of functions, exponents and logarithms. Up until now, the variable has
been the base, with numbers in the exponent; linear, quadratic, cubic, etc. Exponential functions have the variable in
the exponent. Logarithmic functions are the inverse of exponential functions. We will graph these functions, solve
equations, and use them for modeling real-life situations.

186
 4.1 Exponential Growth and Decay

Objective
To analyze and use exponential growth and decay functions.
Review Queue
Simplify the following expressions. Your final answer should have only positive exponents.
1. 2x2 ·6x4
2. 5xy—1
15x3y3

3. (3x2y5)3
4. Solve for x: 2x = 32

Exponential Growth Function

Objective
To analyze an exponential growth function and its graph.
Guidance
An exponential function has the variable in the exponent of the expression. All exponential functions have the
form: f (x) = a ·bx—h + k, where h and k move the function in the x and y directions respectively, much like the other
functions we have seen in this text. b is the base and a changes how quickly or slowly the function grows. Let’s take
a look at the parent graph, y = 2x.
Example A
Graph y = 2x. Find the y-intercept.
Solution: Let’s start by making a table. Include some positive and negative values for x and zero.

TABLE 8.1:
x 2x y
3 23 8
2 22 4
1 21 2
0 20 1
-1 2—1 1
2
-2 2—2 1
4
-3 2—3 1
8

187
This is the typical shape of an exponential growth function. The function grows “exponentially fast”. Meaning, in
this case, the function grows in powers of 2. For an exponential function to be a growth function, a > 0 and b > 1
and h and k are both zero (y = abx). From the table, we see that the y-intercept is (0, 1).
Notice that the function gets very, very close to the x-axis, but never touches or passes through it. Even if we chose
x = —50, y would be 2—50 = 2501 , which is still not zero, but very close. In fact, the function will never reach zero,
even though it will get smaller and smaller. Therefore, this function approaches the line y = 0, but will never touch
or pass through it. This type of boundary line is called an asymptote. In the case with all exponential functions,
there will be a horizontal asymptote. If k = 0, then the asymptote will be y = 0.
Example B
Graph y = 3x—2 + 1. Find the y-intercept, asymptote, domain and range.
Solution: This is not considered a growth function because h and k are not zero. To graph something like this
(without a calculator), start by graphing y = 3x and then shift it h units in the x-direction and k units in the y-direction.

188
Notice that the point (0, 1) from y = 3x gets shifted to the right 2 units and up one unit and is (2, 2) in the translated
function, y = 3x—2 + 1. Therefore, the asymptote is y = 1. To find the y-intercept, plug in x = 0.

y = 30—2 + 1 = 3—2 + 1 = 1 1 = 1.1

9

The domain of all exponential functions is all real numbers. The range will be everything greater than the asymptote.
In this example, the range is y > 1.
Example C
Graph the function y = —12 ·4x. Determine if it is an exponential growth function.
Solution: In this example, we will outline how to use the graphing calculator to graph an exponential function.
First, clear out anything in Y =. Next, input the function into Y 1, — 12 4AX and press GRAPH. Adjust your window
accordingly.

189
This is not an exponential growth function, because it does not grow in a positive direction. By looking at the
definition of a growth function, a > 0, and it is not here.
Guided Practice
Graph the following exponential functions. Determine if they are growth functions. Then, find the y-intercept,
asymptote, domain and range. Use an appropriate window.
1. y = 3x—4 —2
2. f (x) = (—2)x+5
3. f (x) = 5x
4. Abigail is in a singles tennis tournament. She finds out that there are eight rounds until the final match. If the
tournament is single elimination, how many games will be played? How many competitors are in the tournament?
Answers
1. This is not a growth function because h and k are not zero. The y-intercept is y = 3 0—4 —2 = 1
81
—2 = —1 80
81 , the
asymptote is at y = —2, the domain is all real numbers and the range is y > —2.

190
2. This is not a growth function because h is not zero. The y-intercept is y = (—2)0+5 = (—2)5 = —32, the asymptote
is at y = 0, the domain is all real numbers and the range is y > 0.

3. This is a growth function. The y-intercept is y = 5◦ = 1, the asymptote is at y = 0, the domain is all real numbers
and the range is y > 0.

191
4. If there are eight rounds to single’s games, there are will be 28 = 256 competitors. In the first round, there will
be 128 matches, then 64 matches, followed by 32 matches, then 16 matches, 8, 4, 2, and finally the championship
game. Adding all these all together, there will be 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 or 255 total matches.
Vocabulary

Exponential Function
A function whose variable is in the exponent. The general form is y = a ·bx—h + k.

Exponential Growth Function

A specific type of exponential function where h = k = 0, a > 0, and b > 1. The general form is y = abx.

Asymptote
A boundary line that restricts the domain or range. This line is not part of the graph.

Problem Set
Graph the following exponential functions. Give the y-intercept, the equation of the asymptote and the domain and
range for each function.

1. y = 4x
2. y = (—1)(5)x
3. y = 3x —2
4. y = 2x + 1
5. y = 6x+3
6. y = —14 (2 ) x + 3

192
 7. y = 7x+3 —5
8. y = —(3)x—4 + 2
9. y = 3(2)x+1 —5
10. An investment grows according the function A = P(1.05)t where P represents the initial investment, A repre-
sents the value of the investment and t represents the number of years of investment. If $10,000 was the initial
investment, how much would the value of the investment be after 10 years to the nearest dollar?

Exponential Decay Function

Objective
To graph and analyze an exponential decay function.
Guidance
In the last concept, we only addressed functions where |b|> 1. So, what happens when b is less than 1? Let’s analyze
x
y = 12 .
Example A
Graph y = 1 x and compare it to y = 2x.
2
Solution: Let’s make a table of both functions and then graph.

TABLE 8.2:
1 x 2x
x 2
1 3 = 1
23 = 8
3 2 8
1 2 = 1
22 = 4
2 2 4

193
 TABLE 8.2: (continued)
1 x
x 2
2x
1
1 1
2 = 12 21 = 2
0
0 1
2 =1 20 = 1
—1
-1 1
=2 2—1 = 1
2 2
—2
-2 1
=4 2—2 = 1
2 4
3
-3 1
=8 2—3 = 1
2 8

x
Notice that y = 12 is a reflection over the y-axis of y = 2 x. Therefore, instead of exponential growth, the function
x
y = 12 decreases exponentially, or exponentially decays. Anytime b is a fraction or decimal between zero and one,
the exponential function will decay. And, just like an exponential growth function, and exponential decay function
has the form y = abx and a > 0. However, to be a decay function, 0 < b < 1. The exponential decay function also
has an asymptote at y = 0.
Example B
Determine which of the following functions are exponential decay functions, exponential growth functions, or
neither. Briefly explain your answer.
a) y = 4(1.3)x
b) f (x) = 3 6 x
5

c) y = 3 x
10
d) g(x) = —2(0.65)x
Solution: a) and b) are exponential growth functions because b > 1. c) is an exponential decay function because b
is between zero and one. d) is neither growth or decay because a is negative.
Example C
Graph g(x) = —2 2 x—1 + 1. Find the y-intercept, asymptote, domain, and range.
3
A
Solution: To graph this function, you can either plug it into your calculator (entered Y = —2 23 X —1 + 1) or
x
graph y = —2 23 and shift it to the right one unit and up one unit. We will use the second method; final answer is
the blue function below.

194
The y-intercept is:
y = —2 2 0—1 + 1 = —2 ·3 + 1 = —3 + 1 = —2
3 2
The horizontal asymptote is y = 1, the domain is all real numbers and the range is y < 1.
Guided Practice
Graph the following exponential functions. Find the y-intercept, asymptote, domain, and range.
1. f (x) = 4 1 x
3

2. y = —2 2 x+3
3

3. g(x) = 3 x —6
5
4. Determine if the following functions are exponential growth, exponential decay, or neither.
a) y = 2.3x
b) y = 2 4 —x
3
c) y = 3 ·0.9x
d) y = 1 4 x
2 5
Answers
1.

195
y-intercept: (4, 0)
asymptote: y = 0
domain: all reals
range: y < 0
2.

196
y-intercept: 0, —16
27
asymptote: y = 0
domain: all reals
range: y < 0
3.

197
y-intercept: (—5, 0)
asymptote: y = —6
domain: all reals
range: y > —6
4. a) exponential growth
b) exponential decay; recall that a negative exponent flips whatever is in the base. y = 2 4 —x
3 is the same as
x
y = 2 34 , which looks like our definition of a decay function.
c) exponential decay
d) neither; a < 0
Vocabulary

Exponential Decay Function

An exponential function that has the form y = abx where a > 0 and 0 < b < 1.

Problem Set
Determine which of the following functions are exponential growth, exponential decay or neither.

1. y = — 2 x +5
3
x—4
2. y= 3 4

3. y = 5x —2

Graph the following exponential functions. Give the y-intercept, the equation of the asymptote and the domain and
range for each function.

4. y = 1 x
2

198
 5. y = (0.8)x+2
x—1
6. y = 4 23 —5
x
7. y = — 7 + 3
5
x+5
8. y = 89 —2
9. y = (0.75) x—2 + 4
10. A discount retailer advertises that items will be marked down at a rate of 10% per week until sold. The initial
price of one item is $50.
a. Write an exponential decay function to model the price of the item x weeks after it is first put on the rack.
b. What will the price be after the item has been on display for 5 weeks?
c. After how many weeks will the item be half its original price?

Using Exponential Growth and Decay Models

Objective
To use different exponential functions in real-life situations.
Guidance
When a real-life quantity increases by a percentage over a period of time, the final amount can be modeled by the
equation: A = P(1 + r)t , where A is the final amount, P is the initial amount, r is the rate (or percentage), and t is the
time (in years). 1 + r is known as the growth factor.
Conversely, a real-life quantity can decrease by a percentage over a period of time. The final amount can be modeled
by the equation: A = P(1 —r)t , where 1 —r is the decay factor.
Example A
The population of Coleman, Texas grows at a 2% rate annually. If the population in 2000 was 5981, what was the
population is 2010? Round up to the nearest person.
Solution: First, set up an equation using the growth factor. r = 0.02,t = 10, and P = 5981.

A = 5981(1 + 0.02)10
= 5981(1.02)10
= 7291 people

Example B
You deposit $1000 into a savings account that pays 2.5% annual interest. Find the balance after 3 years if the interest
rate is compounded a) annually, b) monthly, c) daily.
Solution: For part a, we will use A = 1000(1.025)3 = 1008.18, as we would expect from Example A.
But, to determine the amount if it is compounded in amounts other than yearly, we need to alter the equation. For
nt
compound interest, the equation is A = P 1 + nr , where n is the number of times the interest is compounded within
a year. For part b, n = 12.

12·3
0.025
A = 1000 1 +
12
= 1000(1.002)36
= 1077.80

199
In part c, n = 365.

365·3
0.025
A = 1000 1 +
365
= 1000(1.000068)1095
= 1077.88

Example C
You buy a new car for $35,000. If the value of the car decreases by 12% each year, what will the value of the car be
in 5 years?
Solution: This is a decay function because the value decreases.

A = 35000(1 —0.12)5
= 35000(0.88)5
= 18470.62

The car would be worth $18,470.62 after five years.

Guided Practice
1. Tommy bought a truck 7 years ago that is now worth $12,348. If the value of his truck decreased 14% each year,
how much did he buy it for? Round to the nearest dollar.
2. The Wetakayomoola credit card company charges an Annual Percentage Rate (APR) of 21.99%, compounded
monthly. If you have a balance of $2000 on the card, what would the balance be after 4 years (assuming you do not
make any payments)? If you pay $200 a month to the card, how long would it take you to pay it off? You may need
to make a table to help you with the second question.
3. As the altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure (the pressure of the air around you) decreases. For every 1000
feet up, the atmospheric pressure decreases about 4%. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101.3. If you are on
top of Hevenly Mountain at Lake Tahoe (elevation about 10,000 feet) what is the atmospheric pressure?
Answers
1. Tommy needs to use the formula A = P(1 —r)t and solve for P.

12348 = P(1 —0.14)7

12348 = P(0.86)7 Tommy’s truck was originally $35, 490.
12348
(0.86)7
= P ≈ 35490

nt
2. you need to use the formula A = P 1 + nr , where n = 12 because the interest is compounded monthly.

12·4
0.2199
A = 2000 1 +
12
= 2000(1018325)48
= 4781.65

200
To determine how long it will take you to pay off the balance, you need to find how much interest is com-
pounded in one month, subtract $200, and repeat. A table might be helpful. For each month after the first,
12·( 1 )
we will use the equation, B = R 1 + 0.2199
12
12
= R(1.018325), where B is the current balance and R is the
remaining balance from the previous month. For example, in month 2, the balance (including interest) would be
12·( 12
1
)
B = 1800 1 + 0.2199
12
= 1800 ·1.08325 = 1832.99.

TABLE 8.3:
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6
Balance 2000 1832.99 1662.91 1489.72 1313.35 930.09
Payment 200 200.00 200.00 200.00 200.00 200.00
Remainder $1800 1632.99 1462.91 1289.72 913.35 730.09

TABLE 8.4:
Month 7 8 9 10 11
Balance 790.87 640.06 476.69 299.73 108.03
Payment 200.00 200.00 200.00 200.00 108.03
Remainder 590.87 440.06 276.69 99.73 0

It is going to take you 11 months to pay off the balance and you are going to pay 108.03 in interest, making your
total payment $2108.03.
3. The equation will be A = 101, 325(1 —0.04)100 = 1709.39. The decay factor is only raised to the power of 100
because for every 1000 feet the pressure decreased. Therefore, 10, 000 ÷ 1000 = 100. Atmospheric pressure is what
you don’t feel when you are at a higher altitude and can make you feel light-headed. The picture below demonstrates
the atmospheric pressure on a plastic bottle. The bottle was sealed at 14,000 feet elevation (1), and then the resulting
pressure at 9,000 feet (2) and 1,000 feet (3). The lower the elevation, the higher the atmospheric pressure, thus the
bottle was crushed at 1,000 feet.

Vocabulary

Growth Factor
The amount, 1 + r, an exponential function grows by. Populations and interest commonly use growth factors.

Decay Factor

201
 The amount, 1 —r, an exponential function decreases by. Populations, depreciated values, and radioactivity
commonly use decay factors.

Compounded Interest
When an amount of money is charges a particular interest rate and that rate is collected yearly, monthly,
quarterly, or even daily. It is compounded because after the first “collection” interest is taken on interest.

Problem Set
Use an exponential growth or exponential decay function to model the following scenarios and answer the questions.

1. Sonya’s salary increases at a rate of 4% per year. Her starting salary is $45,000. What is her annual salary, to
the nearest $100, after 8 years of service?
2. The value of Sam’s car depreciates at a rate of 8% per year. The initial value was $22,000. What will his car
be worth after 12 years to the nearest dollar?
3. Rebecca is training for a marathon. Her weekly long run is currently 5 miles. If she increase her mileage each
week by 10%, will she complete a 20 mile training run within 15 weeks?
4. An investment grows at a rate of 6% per year. How much, to the nearest $100, should Noel invest if he wants
to have $100,000 at the end of 20 years?
5. Charlie purchases a 7 year old used RV for $54,000. If the rate of depreciation was 13% per year during those
7 years, how much was the RV worth when it was new? Give your answer to the nearest one thousand dollars.
6. The value of homes in a neighborhood increase in value an average of 3% per year. What will a home
purchased for $180,000 be worth in 25 years to the nearest one thousand dollars?
7. The population of school age children in a community is decreasing at a rate of 2% per year. The current
population is $152,000. How many children were there 5 years ago?
8. The value of a particular piece of land worth $40,000 is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per year. Assuming the
rate of appreciation continues, how long will the owner need to wait to sell the land if he hopes to get $50,000
for it? Give your answer to the nearest year.
nt
For problems 9-12, use the formula for compound interest: A = P 1 + nr .

9. If $12,000 is invested at 4% annual interest compounded monthly, how much will the investment be worth in
10 years? Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
10. If $8,000 is invested at 5% annual interest compounded semiannually, how much will the investment be worth
in 6 years? Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
11. If $20,000 is invested at 6% annual interested compounded quarterly, how much will the investment be worth
in 12 years. Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
12. How much of an initial investment is required to insure an accumulated amount of at least $25,000 at the end
of 8 years at an annual interest rate of 3.75% compounded monthly. Give your answer to the nearest one
hundred dollars.

The Number e

Objective
To use the natural number, e, in exponential functions and real-life situations.
Guidance
√
There are many special numbers in mathematics: π, zero, 2, among others. In this concept, we will introduce
another special number that is known only by a letter, e. It is called the natural number (or base), or the Euler

202
number, named after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler who popularized the use of the letter e for the
constant. Credit for discovery of the constant itself goes to another important Swiss mathematician, Jacob Bernoulli,
and his study of sequences in compound interest.
From the previous concept, we learned that the formula for compound interest is A = P 1 + r nt . Let’s set P,r and t
n
n
equal to one and see what happens, A = 1 + 1n .
n
Investigation: Finding the values of 1 + 1n as n gets larger
1. Copy the table below and fill in the blanks. Round each entry to the nearest 4 decimal places.

TABLE 8.5:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n 1 2
1 + 1n 1 + 11 = 1 + 12 =
2 2.25

2. Does it seem like the numbers in the table are approaching a certain value? What do you think the number is?
100 1000
3. Find 1 + 100
1 and 1 + 1000
1 . Does this change your answer from #2?
4. Fill in the blanks: As n approaches , approaches e ≈ 2.718281828459 ...
n
We define e as the number that 1 + 1n approaches as n → ∞ (n approaches infinity). e is an irrational number with
the first 12 decimal places above.
Example A
Graph y = ex. Identify the asymptote, y-intercept, domain and range.
Solution: As you would expect, the graph of ex will curve between 2x and 3x.

203
The asymptote is y = 0 and the y-intercept is (0, 1) because anything to the zero power is one. The domain is all real
numbers and the range is all positive real numbers; y > 0.
Example B
Simplify e2 ·e4.
Solution: The bases are the same, so you can just add the exponents. The answer is e6.
Example C
Gianna opens a savings account with $1000 and it accrues interest continuously at a rate of 5%. What is the balance
in the account after 6 years?
Solution: In the previous concept, the word problems dealt with interest that compounded monthly, quarterly,
annually, etc. In this example, the interest compounds continuously. The equation changes slightly, from A =
nt
P 1 + nr to A = Pert , without n, because there is no longer any interval. Therefore, the equation for this problem
is A = 1000e0.05(6) and the account will have $1349.86 in it. Compare this to daily accrued interest, which would be
365(6)
A = 1000 1 + 0.05
365
= 1349.83.
Guided Practice
1. Determine if the following functions are exponential growth, decay, or neither.
a) y = 12ex
b) y = —4ex
c) y = e—x
d) y = 2 1 —x
e
2. Simplify the following expressions with e.
a) 2e—3 ·e2
b)16e
4e 6
2

3. The rate of radioactive decay of radium is modeled by R = Pe—0.00043t , where R is the amount (in grams) of radium
present after t years and P is the initial amount (also in grams). If there is 698.9 grams of radium present after 5,000
years, what was the initial amount?
Answers
1. Recall to be exponential growth, the base must be greater than one. To be exponential decay, the base must be
between zero and one.
a) Exponential growth; e > 1
b) Neither; a < 0
c) Exponential decay; e—x = 1 x
e and 0 < 1e < 1
1 —x = ex
d) Exponential growth;
e
2. a) 2e ·e = 2e or e
—3 2 —1 2

b) 4e6 = e4
16e2 4
3. Use the formula given in the problem and solve for what you don’t know.

204
 R = Pe—0.00043t
698.9 = Pe—0.00043(5000)
698.9 = P(0.11648)
6000 = P

There was about 6000 grams of radium to start with.

Vocabulary

Natural Number (Euler Number)

n
The number e, such that as n → ∞ , 1 + 1n → e. e ≈ 2.71828.

Problem Set
Determine if the following functions are exponential growth, decay or neither. Give a reason for your answer.

1. y = 43ex
2. y = —e—x + 3
x
3. y = 1e + 2
—x
4. y = 3e —5

Simplify the following expressions with e.

5. 5e—4
e3
6. 6e5e—4
4e4 —2
7. 3e—2e3

Solve the following word problems.

8. The population of Springfield is growing exponentially. The growth can be modeled by the function P =
Ie0.055t , where P represents the projected population, I represents the current population of 100,000 in 2012
and trepresents the number of years after 2012.
a. To the nearest person, what will the population be in 2022?
b. In what year will the population double in size if this growth rate continues?
9. The value of Steve’s car decreases in value according to the exponential decay function: V = Pe—0.12t, where
V is the current value of the vehicle, t is the number of years Steve has owned the car and Pis the purchase
price of the car, $25,000.
a. To the nearest dollar, what will the value of Steve’s car be in 2 years?
b. To the nearest dollar, what will the value be in 10 years?
10. Naya invests $7500 in an account which accrues interest continuously at a rate of 4.5%.
a. Write an exponential growth function to model the value of her investment after t years.
b. How much interest does Naya earn in the first six months to the nearest dollar?
c. How much money, to the nearest dollar, is in the account after 8 years?

205
 8.2 Logarithmic Functions

Objective
To learn about the inverse of an exponential function, the logarithm.
Review Queue
Find the inverse of the following functions.
1. f (x) = 12 x —5
√
2. g(x) = x + 5
3. h(x) = 6x2 —1
Solve the equations below.
4. 3x = 27
5. 2x = 1
8
6. 5x = 1

Defining Logarithms

Objective
To define and use logarithms.
Guidance
You can probably guess that x = 3 in 2x = 8 and x = 4 in 2x = 16. But, what is x if 2x = 12? Until now, we did not
have an inverse to an exponential function. But, because we have variables in the exponent, we need a way to get
them out of the exponent. Introduce the logarithm. A logarithm is defined as the inverse of an exponential function.
It is written logb a = x such that bx = a. Therefore, if 52 = 25 ( exponential form), then log5 25 = 2 ( logarithmic
form).
There are two special logarithms, or logs. One has base 10, and rather that writing log10, we just write log. The
other is the natural log, the inverse of the natural number. The natural log has base e and is written ln This is the
only log that is not written using log.
Example A
Rewrite log3 27 = 3 in exponential form.
Solution: Use the definition above, also called the “key”.

logb a = x ↔bx = a
log3 27 = 3 ↔33 = 27

Example B
Find:

206
a) log 1000
b) log7 49
1

c) log 1 (—8)
2

Solution: Using the key, we can rearrange all of these in terms of exponents.
a) log 1000 = x ⇒ 10x = 1000, x = 3.
b) log 7 149 = x ⇒ 7x = 1 ,x = —2.
49
1 x = —8. There
c) log 1 (—8) = x ⇒ 2
is no solution. A positive number when raised to any power will never be
2
negative.
There are two special logarithms that you may encounter while writing them into exponential form.
The first is logb 1 = 0, because b0 = 1. The second is logb b = 1 because b1 = b ·b can be any number except 1.
Example C
Use your calculator to find the following logarithms. Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.
a) ln 7
b) log 35
c) log5 226
Solution:
a) Locate the LN button on your calculator. Depending on the brand, you may have to input the number first. For a
TI-83 or 84, press the LN, followed by the 7 and ENTER. The answer is 1.95.
b) The LOG button on the calculator is base 10. Press LOG, 35, ENTER. The answer is 1.54.
c) To use the calculator for a base other than 10 or the natural log, you need to use the change of base formula.
logb x
Change of Base Formula: loga x = logb a
, such that x, a, and b > 0 and a and b =
/ 1.
So, to use this for a calculator, you can use either LN or LOG.
log5 226 = log 226
log 5
or ln 226
ln 5
≈ 3.37

In the TI-83 or 84, the keystrokes would be LOG (226)

LOG(5) , ENTER.
Guided Practice
1. Write 62 = 36 in logarithmic form.
2. Evaluate the following expressions without a calculator.
a) log 1 16
2

b) log 100
c) log64 18
3. Use a calculator to evaluate each expression. Round your answers to the hundredths place.
a) ln 32
b) log7 94
c) log 65
4. Use the change of base formula to evaluate log8 79 in a calculator.
Answers
1. Using the key, we have: 62 = 36 → log6 36 = 2.

207
2. Change each logarithm into exponential form and solve for x.
1 x = 16. x must be negative because the answer is not a fraction, like the base.
a) log 1 16 → 2
2

24 = 16, so 1 —4
2 = 16. Therefore, log 1 16 = —4.
2

b) log 100 → 10x = 100. x = 2, therefore, log 100 = 2.

√ 1
c) log 64 18 → 64x = 18 . First, 64 = 8, so 642 = 8. To make this a fraction, we need to make the power negative.
1
64—2 = 18 , therefore log 64 18 = —12 .
3. Using a calculator, we have:
a) 3.47
b) 2.33
c) 1.81
log 79 log( 79 )
4. Rewriting log 8 97 using the change of base formula, we have: log 8 . Plugging it into a calculator, we get log 8
≈
—0.12.
Vocabulary

Logarithm
The inverse of an exponential function and is written logb a = x such that bx = a.

Exponential Form
bx = a, such that b is the base and x is the exponent.

Logarithmic Form
logb a = x, such that b is the base.

Natural Log
The inverse of the natural number, e, written ln.

Change of Base Formula

logb x log x
Let b, x, and y be positive numbers, b =
/ 1 and y =
/ 1. Then, logy x = logb y
. More specifically, logy x = log y
and
logy x = lnx ,
ln y
so that expressions can be evaluated using a calculator.

Problem Set
Convert the following exponential equations to logarithmic equations.

1. 3x = 5
2. ax = b
3. 4(5x) = 10

Convert the following logarithmic equations to exponential equations.

4. log2 32 = x
5. log 13 x = —2
6. loga y = b

convert the following logarithmic expressions without a calculator.

208
 7. log5 25
8. log 1 27
3
9. log 1 10
10. log2 64

Evaluate the following logarithmic expressions using a calculator. You may need to use the Change of Base Formula
for some problems.

11. log 72
12. ln 8
13. log2 12
14. log3 9

Inverse Properties of Logarithmic Functions

Objective
To understand the inverse properties of a logarithmic function.
Guidance
By the definition of a logarithm, it is the inverse of an exponent. Therefore, a logarithmic function is the inverse of
an exponential function. Recall what it means to be an inverse of a function. When two inverses are composed (see
the Inverse of a Function concept), they equal x. Therefore, if f (x) = bx and g(x) = logb x, then:
f ◦ g = blogb x = x and g ◦ f = logb bx = x
These are called the Inverse Properties of Logarithms.
Example A
Find:
a)10log 56
b)eln 6 ·eln 2
Solution: For each of these examples, we will use the Inverse Properties.
a) Using the first property, we see that the bases cancel each other out. 10log56 = 56
b) Here, e and the natural log cancel out and we are left with 6 ·2 = 12.
Example B
Find log4 16x
Solution: We will use the second property here. Also, rewrite 16 as 42.
log4 16x = log4(42)x = log4 42x = 2x
Example C
Find the inverse of f (x) = 2ex—1.
Solution: See the Finding the Inverse concept for the steps on how to find the inverse.
Change f (x) to y. Then, switch x and y.

209
 y = 2ex—1
x = 2ey—1

Now, we need to isolate the exponent and take the logarithm of both sides. First divide by 2.

x
= ey—1
2
x
ln = ln ey—1
2
Recall the Inverse Properties from earlier in this concept. logb bx = x; applying this to the right side of our equation,
we have ln ey—1 = y —1. Solve for y.

x
ln = y —1
2
x
ln +1 = y
2
Therefore, ln x
2
+ 1 is the inverse of 2e y—1 .
Guided Practice
1. Simplify 5log5 6x.
2. Simplify log9 81x+2.
3. Find the inverse of f (x) = 4x+2 —5.
Answers
1. Using the first inverse property, the log and the base cancel out, leaving 6x as the answer.

5log5 6x = 6x

2. Using the second inverse property and changing 81 into 92 we have:

log9 81x+2 = log9 92(x+2)

= 2(x + 2)
= 2x + 4

3. Follow the steps from Example C to find the inverse.

f (x) = 4x+2 —5
y = 4x+2 —5
x = 4y+2 —5
x + 5 = 4y+2
log4(x + 5) = y + 2
log4(x + 5)— 2 = y

Vocabulary

210
Inverse Properties of Logarithms
logb bx = x and blogb x = x, b /
=1

Problem Set
Use the Inverse Properties of Logarithms to simplify the following expressions.

1. log3 27x
x
2. log 5 15
1 x
3. log 2 32
4. 10log(x+3)
5. log6 36(x—1)
6. 9log9(3x)
7. eln(x—7)
1 3x
8. log 100
9. lne(5x—3)

Find the inverse of each of the following exponential functions.

10. y = 3ex+2
x
11. f (x) = 5 e17
12. y = 2 + e2x—3
f (x) = 7 x +1—5
3
13.
14. y = 2(6) x—25
x
15. f (x) = 13 (8) 2 —5

Graphing Logarithmic Functions

Objective
To graph a logarithmic function by hand and using a calculator.
Guidance
Now that we are more comfortable with using these functions as inverses, let’s use this idea to graph a logarithmic
function. Recall that functions are inverses of each other when they are mirror images over the line y = x. Therefore,
if we reflect y = bx over y = x, then we will get the graph of y = logb x.

211
Recall that an exponential function has a horizontal asymptote. Because the logarithm is its inverse, it will have a
vertical asymptote. The general form of a logarithmic function is f (x) = logb(x —h) + k and the vertical asymptote

212
is x = h. The domain is x > h and the range is all real numbers. Lastly, if b > 1, the graph moves up to the right. If
0 < b < 1, the graph moves down to the right.
Example A
Graph y = log3(x —4). State the domain and range.
Solution:

To graph a logarithmic function without a calculator, start by drawing the vertical asymptote, at x = 4. We know the
graph is going to have the general shape of the first function above. Plot a few “easy” points, such as (5, 0), (7, 1),
and (13, 2) and connect.
The domain is x > 4 and the range is all real numbers.
Example B
Is (16, 1) on y = log(x —6)?
Solution: Plug in the point to the equation to see if it holds true.

1 = log(16 —6)
1 = log 10
1=1

Yes, this is true, so (16, 1) is on the graph.

Example C
Graph f (x) = 2 ln(x + 1).
Solution: To graph a natural log, we need to use a graphing calculator. Press Y = and enter in the function,
Y = 2 ln(x + 1), GRAPH.

213
Guided Practice
1. Graph y = log 1 x + 2 in an appropriate window.
4

2. Graph y = —log x using a graphing calculator. Find the domain and range.
3. Is (-2, 1) on the graph of f (x) = log 1 (x + 4)?
2

Answers
1. First, there is a vertical asymptote at x = 0. Now, determine a few easy points, points where the log is easy to
find; such as (1, 2), (4, 1), (8, 0.5), and (16, 0).

214
To graph a logarithmic function using a TI-83/84, enter the function into Y = and use the Change of Base Formula.
The keystrokes would be:
Y= log(x)
+ 2, GRAPH
log( 14 )

To see a table of values, press 2nd → GRAPH.

2. The keystrokes are Y = —log(x), GRAPH.

215
The domain is x > 0 and the range is all real numbers.
3. Plug (-2, 1) into f (x) = log 1 (x + 4) to see if the equation holds true.
2

1 = log 1 (—2 + 4)
2
1x
1 = log 1 2 → =2
2 2
1/= —1

Therefore, (-2, 1) is not on the graph. However, (-2, -1) is.

Problem Set
Graph the following logarithmic functions without using a calculator. State the equation of the asymptote, the
domain and the range of each function.

1. y = log5 x
2. y = log2(x + 1)
3. y = log(x)— 4
4. y = log 1 (x —1) + 3
3
5. y = —log 1 (x + 3)— 5
2
6. y = log4(2 —x) + 2

Graph the following logarithmic functions using your graphing calculator.

7. y = ln(x + 6)— 1
8. y = —ln(x —1) + 2
9. y = ln(1 —x) + 3

216
10. Is (3, 8) on the graph of y = log3(2x —3) + 7?
11. Is (9, -2) on the graph of y = log 1 (x —5) ?
4
12. Is (4, 5) on the graph of y = 5 log2(8 —x)?

217
 4.3 Properties of Logarithms

Objective
To simplify expressions involving logarithms.
Review Queue
Simplify the following exponential expressions.
1
1. (3x 2 ) 4
2. 5x2y ·8x—1y6
—1
2x—1 y2 z8
3. 5x0y12z

Product and Quotient Properties

Objective
To use and apply the product and quotient properties of logarithms.
Guidance
Just like exponents, logarithms have special properties, or shortcuts, that can be applied when simplifying expres-
sions. In this lesson, we will address two of these properties.
Example A
Simplify logb x + logb y.
Solution: First, notice that these logs have the same base. If they do not, then the properties do not apply.
logb x = m and logb y = n, then bm = x and bn = y.
Now, multiply the latter two equations together.

bm ·bn = xy
bm+n = xy

Recall, that when two exponents with the same base are multiplied, we can add the exponents. Now, reapply the
logarithm to this equation.
bm+n = xy → logb xy = m + n
Recall that m = logb x and n = logb y, therefore logb xy = logb x + logb y.
This is the Product Property of Logarithms.
Example B
Expand log12 4y.
Solution: Applying the Product Property from Example A, we have:
log12 4y = log12 4 + log12 y

218
Example C
Simplify log3 15 —log3 5.
Solution: As you might expect, the Quotient Property of Logarithms is log b xy = logb x —logb y (proof in the
Problem Set). Therefore, the answer is:

15
log3 15 —log3 5 = log3
5
= log3 3
=1

Guided Practice
Simplify the following expressions.
1. log7 8 + log7 x2 + log7 3y
2. log y —log 20 + log 8x
3. log2 32 —log2 z
4. log8 16x
y2
Answers
1. Combine all the logs together using the Product Property.

log7 8 + log7 x2 + log7 3y = log7 8x23y

= log7 24x2y

2. Use both the Product and Quotient Property to condense.

y
log y —log 20 + log 8x = log ·8x
20
2xy
= log 5

3. Be careful; you do not have to use either rule here, just the definition of a logarithm.

log2 32 —log2 z = 5 —log2 z

4. When expanding a log, do the division first and then break the numerator apart further.

16x
log 8 = log8 16x —log8 y2
y2
= log8 16 + log8 x —log8 y2
4
= + log8 x —log8 y2
3

To determine log8 16, use the definition and powers of 2: 8n = 16 → 2 3n = 24 → 3n = 4 → n = 43 .

Vocabulary

219
Product Property of Logarithms
As long as b /
= 1, then logb xy = logb x + logb y

Quotient Property of Logarithms

As long as b /
= 1, then log b yx = logb x —logb y

Problem Set
Simplify the following logarithmic expressions.

1. log3 6 + log3 y —log3 4

2. log 12 —log x + log y2
3. log6 x2 —log6 x —log6 y
4. ln 8 + ln 6 —ln 12
5. ln 7 —ln 14 + ln 10
6. log11 22 + log11 5 —log11 55

Expand the following logarithmic functions.

7. log3(abc)
2
8. log ab
xy
9. log 9 5
2x
10. log y
8x2
11. log 15
5
12. log 4 9y
13. Write an algebraic proof of the quotient property. Start with the expression loga x —loga y and the equations
loga x = m and loga y = n in your proof. Refer to the proof of the product property in Example A as a guide
for your proof.

Power Property of Logarithms

Objective
To use the Power Property of logarithms.
Guidance
The last property of logs is the Power Property.
logb x = y
Using the definition of a log, we have by = x. Now, raise both sides to the n power.

(by)n = xn
bny = xn

Let’s convert this back to a log with base b, logb xn = ny. Substituting for y, we have logb xn = n logb x.
Therefore, the Power Property says that if there is an exponent within a logarithm, we can pull it out in front of the
logarithm.

220
Example A
Expand log6 17x5.
Solution: To expand this log, we need to use the Product Property and the Power Property.

log6 17x5 = log6 17 + log6 x5

= log6 17 + 5 log6 x

Example B
4
2x
Expand ln y3 .
Solution: We will need to use all three properties to expand this example. Because the expression within the natural
log is in parenthesis, start with moving the 4th power to the front of the log.

4
2x 2x
ln = 4 ln y3
y3
= 4(ln 2x —ln y3)
= 4(ln 2 + ln x —3 ln y)
= 4 ln 2 + 4 ln x —12 ln y

Depending on how your teacher would like your answer, you can evaluate 4 ln 2 ≈ 2.77, making the final answer
2.77 + 4 ln x —12 ln y.
Example C
Condense log 9 —4 log 5 —4 log x + 2 log 7 + 2 log y.
Solution: This is the opposite of the previous two examples. Start with the Power Property.

log 9 —4 log 5 —4 log x + 2 log 7 + 2 log y

log 9 —log 54 —log x4 + log 72 + log y2

Now, start changing things to division and multiplication within one log.
log 9·7
2y2
5x
4 4

Lastly, combine like terms.

log 441y24
625x
Guided Practice
Expand the following logarithmic expressions.
1. ln x3
xy 2
2. log 16 32z5

3. log(5c4)2
4. Condense into one log: ln 5 —7 ln x4 + 2 ln y.
Answers

221
1. The only thing to do here is apply the Power Property: 3 ln x.
2. Let’s start with using the Quotient Property.

x2y
log 16 log x2y —log16 32z5
32z5 = 16

Now, apply the Product Property, followed by the Power Property.

= log16 x2 + log16 y — log 16 32 + log16 z 5

5
= 2 log16 x + log16 y —4 —5 log16 z

Simplify log16 32 → 16n = 32 → 24n = 25 and solve for n. Also, notice that we put parenthesis around the second
log once it was expanded to ensure that the z5 would also be subtracted (because it was in the denominator of the
original expression).
3. For this problem, you will need to apply the Power Property twice.

log(5c4)2 = 2 log 5c4

= 2(log 5 + log c4)
= 2(log 5 + 4 log c)
= 2 log 5 + 8 log c

Important Note: You can write this particular log several different ways. Equivalent logs are: log 25+8 log c, log 25+
log c8 and log 25c8. Because of these properties, there are several different ways to write one logarithm.
4. To condense this expression into one log, you will need to use all three properties.

ln 5 —7 ln x4 + 2 ln y = ln 5 —ln x28 + ln y2
5y2
= ln x28

Important Note: If the problem was ln 5 —(7 ln x4 + 2 ln y) , then the answer would have been ln x285y2 . But, because
there are no parentheses, the y2 is in the numerator.
Vocabulary

Power Property
As long as b /
= 1, then logb xn = n logb x.

Problem Set
Expand the following logarithmic expressions.

1. log4(9x)3
2
3x
2. log y

222
 3 2
3. log8 xzy4
2
25x 4
4. log 5 y
—2
6x
5. ln y3
6
e5x—2
6. ln y3

Condense the following logarithmic expressions.

7. 2 log6 x + 5 log6 y
8. 3(log x —log y)
9. 1 log( x + 1)— 3 log y
2
10. 4 log2 y + 31 log2 x 3
11. 1 [10 log ( x —3) + log 32 —log y]
5 2 2 2
12. 4 12 log3 y —13 log3 x —log3 z

223
 4.4 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic
Equations
Objective
To solve exponential and logarithmic equations.
Review Queue
Solve the following equations.
1. 2x = 32
2. x2 —9x + 20 = 0
3.√x —5 + 3 = 11
4. 8x = 128

Solving Exponential Equations

Objective
To learn how to solve exponential equations.
Guidance
Until now, we have only solved pretty basic exponential equations, like #1 in the Review Queue above. We know
that x = 5, because 25 = 32. Ones like #4 are a little more challenging, but if we put everything into a power of 2,
we can set the exponents equal to each other and solve.

8x = 128
23x = 27
7
3x = 7 So ,8 3 = 128.

x= 7
3

But, what happens when the power is not easily found? We must use logarithms, followed by the Power Property to
solve for the exponent.
Example A
Solve 6x = 49. Round your answer to the nearest three decimal places.
Solution: To solve this exponential equation, let’s take the logarithm of both sides. The easiest logs to use are either
ln (the natural log), or log (log, base 10). We will use the natural log.

224
 6x = 49
ln 6x = ln 49
x ln 6 = ln 49
ln 49
x= ≈ 2.172
ln 6

Example B
Solve 10x—3 = 1003x+11.
Solution: Change 100 into a power of 10.

10x—3 = 102(3x+11)
x —3 = 6x + 22
—25 = 5x
—5 = x

Example C
Solve 82x—3 —4 = 5.
Solution: Add 4 to both sides and then take the log of both sides.

82x—3 —4 = 5
82x—3 = 9
log 82x—3 = log 9
(2x —3) log 8 = log 9
log 9
2x —3 =
log 8
2x = 3 + log9
log 8
3 log 9
x= + ≈ 2.56
2 2 log 8

Notice that we did not find the numeric value of log 9 or log 8 until the very end. This will ensure that we have the
most accurate answer.
Guided Practice
Solve the following exponential equations.
1. 4x—8 = 16
2. 2(7)3x+1 = 48
3. 2
3
·5x+2 + 9 = 21
Answers
1. Change 16 to 42 and set the exponents equal to each other.

225
 4x—8 = 16
4x—8 = 42
x —8 = 2
x = 10

2. Divide both sides by 2 and then take the log of both sides.

2(7)3x+1 = 48
73x+1 = 24
ln 73x+1 = ln 24
(3x + 1) ln 7 = ln 24
3x + 1 = ln24
ln 7
ln 24
3x = —1 +
ln 7
1 ln 24
x=— + ≈ 0.211
3 3 ln 7

3. Subtract 9 from both sides and multiply both sides by 32. Then, take the log of both sides.

2 x+2
3
·5 + 9 = 21
2 x+2
3
·5 = 12
5x+2 = 18
(x + 2) log 5 = log 18
log 18
x= —2 ≈ —0.204
log 5

Problem Set
Use logarithms and a calculator to solve the following equations for x. Round answers to three decimal places.

1. 5x = 65
2. 2x = 90
3. 6x+1 + 3 = 13
4. 6(113x—2) = 216
5. 8 + 132x—5 = 35
6. 1 ·7x—3 —5 = 14
2

Solve the following exponential equations without a calculator.

7. 4x = 8
8. 52x+1 = 125
9. 93 = 34x—6
10. 7(2x—3) = 56
11. 16x ·4x+1 = 32x+1
12. 33x+5 = 3 ·9x+3

226
Solving Logarithmic Equations

Objective
To solve a logarithmic equation with any base.
Guidance
A logarithmic equation has the variable within the log. To solve a logarithmic equation, you will need to use the
inverse property, blogb x = x, to cancel out the log.
Example A
Solve log2(x + 5) = 9.
Solution: There are two different ways to solve this equation. The first is to use the definition of a logarithm.

log2(x + 5) = 9
29 = x + 5
512 = x + 5
507 = x

The second way to solve this equation is to put everything into the exponent of a 2, and then use the inverse property.

2log2(x+5) = 29
x + 5 = 512
x = 507

Make sure to check your answers for logarithmic equations. There can be times when you get an extraneous solution.
log2(507 + 5) = 9 → log2 512 = 9 G
Example B
Solve 3 ln(—x)— 5 = 10.
Solution: First, add 5 to both sides and then divide by 3 to isolate the natural log.

3 ln(—x)— 5 = 10
3 ln(—x) = 15
ln(—x) = 5

Recall that the inverse of the natural log is the natural number. Therefore, everything needs to be put into the
exponent of e in order to get rid of the log.

eln(—x) = e5
—x = e5
x = —e5 ≈ —148.41

227
Checking the answer, we have 3 ln(—(—e5))— 5 = 10 → 3 ln e5 —5 = 10 → 3 ·5 —5 = 10 G
Example C
Solve log 5x + log(x —1) = 2
Solution: Condense the left-hand side using the Product Property.

log 5x + log(x —1) = 2

log[5x(x —1)] = 2
log(5x2 —5x) = 2

Now, put everything in the exponent of 10 and solve for x.

10log(5x2—5x) = 102
5x2 —5x = 100
x2 —x —20 = 0
(x —5)(x + 4) = 0
x = 5, —4

Now, check both answers.

log 5(5) + log(5 —1) = 2 log 5(—4) + log((—4)— 1) = 2

log 25 + log 4 = 2 G log(—20) + log(—5) = 2 ×
log 100 = 2

-4 is an extraneous solution. In the step log(—20) + log(—5) = 2, we cannot take the log of a negative number,
therefore -4 is not a solution. 5 is the only solution.
Guided Practice
Solve the following logarithmic equations.
1. 9 + 2 log3 x = 23
2. ln(x —1)— ln(x + 1) = 8
3. 1
2
log5(2x + 5) = 5
Answers
1. Isolate the log and put everything in the exponent of 3.

9 + 2 log3 x = 23 9 + 2 log3 2187 = 23

2 log3 x = 14 9 + 2 ·7 = 23 G
log3 x = 7 9 + 14 = 23
x = 37 = 2187

2. Condense the left-hand side using the Quotient Rule and put everything in the exponent of e.

228
 ln(x —1)— ln(x + 1) = 8
x —1
ln =8
x+1
x —1
= ln 8
x+1
x —1 = (x + 1) ln 8
x —1 = x ln 8 + ln 8
x —x ln 8 = 1 + ln 8
x(1 —ln 8) = 1 + ln 8

x = 1 +ln8 ≈ —2.85
1 —ln 8

Checking our answer, we get ln(—2.85 —1)— ln(2.85 + 1) = 8, which does not work because the first natural log is
of a negative number. Therefore, there is no solution for this equation.
3. Multiply both sides by 2 and put everything in the exponent of a 5.

1
log5(2x + 5) = 2
2
1
log5(2x + 5) = 4 log (2 ·310 + 5) = 2
2 5
1
2x + 5 = 625 Check : log5 625 = 2 G
2
1
2x = 620 ·4 = 2
2
x = 310

Problem Set
Use properties of logarithms and a calculator to solve the following equations for x. Round answers to three decimal
places and check for extraneous solutions.

1. log7(2x + 3) = 3
2. 8 ln(3 —x) = 5
3. 4 log3 3x —log3 x = 5
4. log(x + 5) + log x = log 14
5. 2 ln x —ln x = 0
6. 3 log3(x —5) = 3
7. 2 log x = 2
3 3
8. 5 log 2x —3 log 1x = log 8
9. 2 ln xe+2 —ln x = 10
10. 2 log6 x + 1 = log6(5x + 4)
11. 2 log 1 x + 2 = log 1 (x + 10)
2 2
12. 3 log 2 x —log 2 27 = log 2 8
3 3 3

229
 CHAPTER
5 Rational Functions
Chapter Outline
5.1 DIRECT, I NVERSE , AND JOINT VARIATION
5.2 G RAPHING RATIONAL F UNCTIONS
5.3 S IMPLIFYING , MULTIPLYING, AND D IVIDING RATIONAL E XPRESSIONS
5.4 ADDING & S UBTRACTING RATIONAL E XPRESSIONS AND C OMPLEX FRACTIONS
5.5 SOLVING RATIONAL EQUATIONS

This chapter deals with functions that have the variable in the denominator of a fraction. First, we will discuss
the concept of variation and how that relates to a rational function. Next, we will graph several different types of
rational functions followed by multiplying, dividing, adding, and subtracting rational expressions. Lastly, we will
solve rational equations.

230
 5.1 Direct, Inverse, and Joint Variation

Objective
To determine if a set of data is related directly, indirectly, or jointly.
Review Queue
1. Find the equation of the line that passes through the origin and (—4, —2).
2. Find the equation of the line that passes through the origin and (—1, 3).
3. Find the equation of the line that passes through (—3, 5) and (3, 1).

Direct Variation

Objective
To determine if a set of data is related directly.
Guidance
We say that a set of data is related directly if the independent and dependent variables both grow large or small
together. For example, the equation of the line y = 2x would represent a direct variation relationship. As x gets
bigger, so would y. In fact, direct variation equation is y = kx, k /
= 0, which looks just like the equation of a line
without a y-intercept. We call k the constant of variation and y is said to vary directly with x. k can also be written
k = yx .
Example A
The variables x and y vary directly, and y = 10 when x = 2. Write an equation that relates x and y and find y when
x = 9.
Solution: Using the direct variation equation, we can substitute in x and y and solve for k.

y = kx
10 = k(2)
5=k

Therefore, the equation is y = 5x. To find y when x is 9, we have y = 5 ·9 = 45.

Example B
Determine if the set of data varies directly. If so, find the direct variation equation.

TABLE 9.1:
x 4 8 16 20
y 1 2 4 5

Solution: Looking at the set of data, the x values increase. For the data to vary directly, the y values would also have
to increase, and they do. To find the equation, use the first point and find k.

231
 y = kx
1 = k(4)
1
4
=k

So, the equation for the first point is y = 14x. Plug each point into the equation to make sure it works.
2 = 14(8) G 4 = 41 (16) G 5 = 41 (20) G
Example C
The number of calories, C, a person burns working out varies directly with length of time it was done, t (in minutes).
A 150 pound person can burn 207 calories swimming laps for 30 minutes. Write a variation model for C as a function
of t. Then, determine how long it will take that person to burn 520 calories.
Solution: Plug in what you know to the direct variation model and solve for k.

C = kt
207 = k(30) The model for a 150-pound person is C = 6.9t.
6.9 = k

To find how long it will take to this person to burn 520 calories, solve for t.

520 = 6.9t It will take 75.4 minutes to burn 520 calories.

75.4 = t

Guided Practice
1. x and y vary directly. When x = —8, y = —6. Find the equation and determine x when y = 12.
2. Determine if the set below varies directly.

TABLE 9.2:
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 2 4 8 16 20

3. Taylor’s income varies directly with the number of hours he works. If he worked 60 hours last week and made
$900, how much does he make per hour? Set up a direct variation equation.
Answers
1. First, solve for k.
—6
k = xy = —8 = 34 → y = 34 x
Now, substitute in 12 for y and solve for x.

232
 12 = 3x
4
4
3
·12 = x
16 = x

2. At first glance, it looks like both values increase together. Let’s check to see if k is the same for each set of points.
k = xy = 12 = 24 =
/ 8
3
At this point, we can stop because the point (3, 8) does not have the same ratio as the first two points. Therefore, this
set of data does not vary directly.
3. We want to find Taylor’s hourly wage, which is the constant of variation.
k = 900
60
= 15, he makes $15/hour. The equation would be y = 15x.
Vocabulary

Direct Variation
When the dependent variable grows large or small as the independent variable does.

Constant of Variation
The rate of which the dependent variable grows, k, in y = kx.

Problem Set
For problems 1-3, use the given x and y values to write a direct variation equation and find y given that x = 12.

1. x = 3, y = 15
2. x = 9, y = —3
3. x = 12,y = 13

For problems 4-6, use the given x and y values to write a direct variation equation and find x given that y = 2.

4. x = 5, y = 4
5. x = 18, y = 3
6. x = 7, y = —28

Determine if the following data sets vary directly.

7.

TABLE 9.3:
x 12 16 5 20
y 3 4 1 5

8.

233
 TABLE 9.4:
x 2 10 5 6
y 14 70 35 42

Solve the following word problems using a direct variation equation.

9. Based on her weight and pace, Kate burns 586 calories when she runs 5 miles. How many calories will she
burn if she runs only 3 miles? How many miles (to the nearest mile) does she need to run each week if she
wants to burn one pound (3500 calories) of body fat each week?
10. One a road trip, Mark and Bill cover 450 miles in 8 hours, including stops. If they maintain the same pace,
how far (to the nearest mile) will they be from their starting point after 15 hours of driving?
11. About three hours into a fundraising car wash, the Mathletes Club earned $240 washing 48 cars. How much
was charged for each carwash? How many more cars will they have to wash to reach their goal of earning
$400?
12. Dorothy earned $900 last week for working 36 hours. What is her hourly wage? If she works full time (40
hours) in a week how much will she make?

Inverse Variation

Objective
To determine if a set of data is related indirectly.
Guidance
We say that a set of data is related inversely if the independent increases and dependent variables decreases or vice
versa. For example, the further away from an object that you are, the smaller it appears. In inverse variation, the
variables are related inversely. As x gets bigger, y would get smaller. The inverse variation equation is y = x; k, x /
= 0.k
We still call k the constant of variation and y is said to vary inversely with x. k can also be written k = xy.
Example A
The variables x and y vary inversely, and y = 7 when x = 2. Write an equation that relates x and y and find y when
x = —6.
Solution: Using the inverse variation equation, we can substitute in x and y and solve for k.

k = yx
k = 7 ·2
k = 14

Therefore, the equation is y = 14 .

x To find y when x is -6, we have y = 14
—6 = —37 .
Example B
Determine if the set of data varies directly, inversely, or neither. Find the equation if possible.

TABLE 9.5:
x 1 2 3 4
y 12 6 4 3

234
Solution: Looking at the set of data, the x values increase. For the data to vary directly, the y values would also have
to increase, and they do not. So, it could be an inverse relationship. Let’s see if k is the same for every set of points.

k = 1 ·12 = 12
k = 2 ·6 = 12
k = 3 ·4 = 12
k = 4 ·3 = 12

So, for each set of points, k = 12. Therefore, the equation is y = 12x . If k is not the same, then the answer would have
been neither.
Example C
Sherry is driving from San Francisco to Los Angeles (380 miles). How long does it take her if she drives 65 miles
per hour (the speed limit)? How fast does she have to drive to get to LA in five and a half hours?
Solution: The faster Sherry drives, the less time it will take her to get to LA. Therefore, this is an inverse relationship.
y is the time driving, k is the 380 miles between LA and San Francisco and x is the speed.
y= 380
x
So, it is going to take her y = 380
65
≈ 5.85 hours, which is 5 hours and 51 minutes. For her to get there in 5.5 hours,
she would have to drive 5.5 = x → 5.5x = 380 → x = 69.1 miles per hour.
380

Guided Practice
1. x and y vary inversely. When x = 3, y = —5. Find the equation and determine x when y = 12.
2. Determine if the set below varies directly or inversely.

TABLE 9.6:
x 1 2 3 4 5
y 2 6 12 24 36

3. It takes one worker 12 hours to complete a specific job. If two workers do the same job, it takes them 6 hours to
finish the job. What type of relationship is this? How long would it take 6 workers to do the same job?
Answers
1. First, solve for k.

k = xy → 3 ·—5 = —15
15
y=—
x

Now, substitute in 12 for y and solve for x.

15
12 = —
x
12x = —15
5
x=—
4

235
2. At first glance, it looks like both values increase together, so we know the set does not vary inversely. Let’s check
for direct variation by determining if k is the same for each set of points.
k = xy = 2 /
=3/
= 4 .. .
None of these points have the same ratio; therefore the data set does not vary inversely or directly.
3. This is an inverse relationship because as the number of workers goes up, the number of hours it takes to complete
the job goes down. k = 12 ·1 = 2 ·6 = 12 and the inverse variation equation is y = x . For 6 workers to complete the12

job, it would take y = 126

= 2 hours.
Vocabulary

Inverse Variation
When the dependent variable grows large or small and the independent variable does the opposite.

Problem Set
For problems 1-3, the variable x and y vary inversely. Use the given x and y values to write an inverse variation
equation and find y given that x = 15.

1. x = 4, y = 3
2. x = 15 ,y = 10
3. x = 8, y = 34

For problems 4-6, the variable x and y vary inversely. Use the given x and y values to write an inverse variation
equation and find x given that y = 2.

4. x = 6, y = 23
3
5. x = 16, y = 8
6. x = 45 ,y = 9

Determine if the following data sets vary inversely.

7.

TABLE 9.7:
x 12 6 9 2
y 3 6 4 18

8.

TABLE 9.8:
x 4 7 2 8
y 10 6 20 5

Solve the following word problems using an inverse variation equation.

9. At a party there are 3 pizzas to share. If each pizza has 8 slices, determine how many pieces each child will
receive if 12 kids attend the party. What if 8 children attend? Write an inverse variation equation to determine
how many slices each child receives if there are x kids at the party.

236
 10. When Lionel drives from Barcelona to Madrid, 390 miles, it takes him about 6.5 hours. How fast will he have
to drive in order to make the trip in 5 hours?
11. Alena and Estella can complete a job in 18 hours when they work together. If they invite Tommy to help, how
long will the job take? How many friends need to work together on the job to complete it in 4 hours?
12. The temperature of the Pacific Ocean varies inversely with the depth. If the temperature at 2000 m is 2.2
degrees Celsius, what is the temperature at a depth of 4000 m?

Joint Variation

Objective
To define and use joint variation.
Guidance
The last type of variation is called joint variation. This type of variation involves three variables, usually x, y and
z. For example, in geometry, the volume of a cylinder varies jointly with the square of the radius and the height. In
this equation the constant of variation is π, so we have V = πr2h. In general, the joint variation equation is z = kxy.
Solving for k, we also have k = xyz.

Example A
Write an equation for the given relationships.
a) y varies inversely with the square of x.
b) z varies jointly with x and the square root of y.
c) z varies directly with x and inversely with y.
Solution:
a) y = k
x2
b) z = kx √y
c) z = kx
y
Example B
z varies jointly with x and y. If x = 3, y = 8, and z = 6, find the variation equation. Then, find z when x = —2 and
y = 10.
Solution: Using the equation when it is solved for k, we have:
k = z = 6 = 1 , so the equation is z = 1 xy.
xy 3·8 4 4

When x = —2 and y = 10, then z = ·—2 ·10 = —5.

1
4
Example C
Geometry Connection The volume of a pyramid varies jointly with the area of the base and the height with a
constant of variation of 13. If the volume is 162 units3 and the area of the base is 81 units2, find the height.
Solution: Find the joint variation equation first.
V= 1
3
Bh
Now, substitute in what you know to solve for the height.

237
 1
162 = ·81 ·h
3
162 = 27 h
6=h

Guided Practice
1. Write the equation for z, that varies jointly with x and the cube of y and inversely with the square root of w.
2. z varies jointly with y and x. If x = 25, z = 10, and k = 15. Find y.
3. Kinetic energy P (the energy something possesses due to being in motion) varies jointly with the mass m (in
kilograms) of that object and the square of the velocity v (in meters per seconds). The constant of variation is 12.
a) Write the equation for kinetic energy.
b) If a car is travelling 104 km/hr and weighs 8800 kg, what is its kinetic energy?
Answers
1. z = √
kxy 3

w
2. The equation would be z = 15xy. Solving for y, we have:

1
10 = ·25 ·y
5
10 = 5y
2=y

3. a) P = 1
2
mv2
b) The second portion of this problem isn’t so easy because we have to convert the km/hr into meters per second.
104 z
kzm /hr ·1000 m = 0.44 m
·3600 zkzm
/h/r s s
Now, plug this into the equation from part a.

1 m 2
P= ·8800 kg · 0.44
2 s
kg ·m2
= 1955.56
s2

Typically, the unit of measurement of kinetic energy is called a joule. A joule is kg·m2 .
s2

Vocabulary

Joint Variation
Variation where one variable depends upon two independent variables.

Problem Set
For questions 1-4, write an equation that represents relationship between the variables.

1. w varies inversely with respect to x and y.

238
 2. r varies inversely with the square of q.
3. z varies jointly with x and y and inversely with w.
4. a varies directly with b and inversely with c and the square root of d.

Write the variation equation and answer the questions in problems 5-10.

5. z varies jointly with x and y. If x = 2, y = 3 and z = 4, write the variation equation and find z when x = —6 and
y = 2.
6. z varies jointly with x and y. If x = 5, y = —1 and z = 10, write the variation equation and find z when x = —12
and y = 7.
7. z varies jointly with x and y. If x = 7, y = 3 and z = —14, write the variation equation and find y when z = —8
and x = 3.
8. z varies jointly with x and y. If x = 8, y = —3 and z = —6, write the variation equation and find x when z = 12
and y = —16.

Solve the following word problems using a variation equation.

9. If 20 volunteers can wash 100 cars in 2.5 hours, find the constant of variation and find out how many cars 30
volunteers can wash in 3 hours.
10. If 10 students from the environmental club can clean up trash on a 2 mile stretch of road in 1 hour, find the
constant of variation and determine how low it will take to clean the same stretch of road if only 8 students
show up to help.
11. The work W (in joules) done when lifting an object varies jointly with the mass m (in kilograms) of the object
and the height h (in meters) that the object is lifted. The work done when a 100 kilogram object is lifted 1.5
meters is 1470 joules. Write an equation that relates W, m, and h. How much work is done when lifting a 150
kilogram object 2 meters?
12. The intensity I of a sound (in watts per square meter) varies inversely with the square of the distance d (in
meters) from the sound’s source. At a distance of 1.5 meters from the stage, the intensity of the sound at a
rock concert is about 9 watts per square meter. Write an equation relating I and d. If you are sitting 10 meters
back from the stage, what is the intensity of the sound you hear?

239
 5.2 Graphing Rational Functions

Objective
To graph several different types of rational functions and identify the critical values.
Review Queue
Graph the following functions.
1. y = 2x —3
2. y = x2 —2x —15
3. y = —2x2 —x + 15

Graphing

Objective
To graph basic rational functions.
Guidance
p(x)
A rational function is in the form q(x) where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) =
/ 0. The parent graph for
rational functions is y = 1x , and the shape is called a hyperbola.

TABLE 9.9:
x y
—4 —14

240
 TABLE 9.9: (continued)
x y
—2 —21
—1 —1
—12 —2

TABLE 9.10:
x y
4 1
4
1
2 2
1 1
1
2 2

Notice the following properties of this hyperbola: the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote, the y-axis is a vertical
asymptote, and the domain and range are all real numbers except where the asymptotes are. Recall that the vertical
asymptote is the value that makes the denominator zero because we cannot divide by zero. For the horizontal
asymptote, it is the value where the range is not defined.
The two parts of the graph are called branches. In the case with a hyperbola, the branches are always symmetrical
about the point where the asymptotes intersect. In this example, they are symmetrical about the origin.
In this lesson, all the rational functions will have the form f (x) = a
x —h + k.
Example A
Graph f (x) = —2 . Find
x
any asymptotes, the domain, range, and any zeros.
Solution: Let’s make a table of values.
TABLE 9.11:
x y
1 —2
2 —1
4 —21

Notice that these branches are in the second and fourth quadrants. This is because of the negative sign in front of the
2, or a. The horizontal and vertical asymptotes are still the x and y-axes. There are no zeros, or x-intercepts, because
the x-axis is an asymptote. The domain and range are all non-zero real numbers (all real numbers except zero).

241
Example B
Graph y = 1
x —5 + 2. Find all asymptotes, zeros, the domain and range.
Solution: For y = x —
1 + 2, the vertical asymptote is x = 5 because that would make the denominator zero and we
5
cannot divide by zero. When x = 5, the value of the function would be y = 10 + 2, making the range undefined at
y = 2. The shape and location of the branches are the same as the parent graph, just shifted to the right 5 units and
up 2 units.

Therefore, for the general form of a rational function, y = a

x —h + k, x = h is the vertical asymptote and y = k is the
horizontal asymptote.
The domain is all real numbers; x /
= 5 and the range is all real numbers; y /
= 2. To find the zero, set the function
equal to zero and solve for x.

242
 1
0= +2
x —5
1
—2 = x —5
—2x + 10 = 1
—2x = —9

x = 9 = 4.5
2

To find the y-intercept, set x = 0, and solve for y. y = 1

0—5 + 2 = —15 + 2 = 1 45 .
Example C
Find the equation of the hyperbola below.
Solution: We know that the numerator will be negative because the branches of this hyperbola are in the second and
fourth quadrants. The asymptotes are x = —3 and y = —4. So far, we know y = x+3 —4. In order to determine a, wea
can use the given x-intercept.

a
0= —4
—3.75 + 3
4=
a —3
The equation is y = —4
—0.75 x+3
—3 = a

Guided Practice
—1
1. What are the asymptotes for f (x) = x+6 + 9? Is (—5, —8) on the graph?
Graph the following rational functions. Find the zero, y-intercept, asymptotes, domain and range.
2. y = 4x —2

243
3. y = 2
x—1 +3
4. Determine the equation of the hyperbola.

Answers
1. The asymptotes are x = —6 and y = 9. To see if the point (—5, —8) is on the graph, substitute it in for x and y.

—1
—8 = +9 —8 /
= 8, therefore, the point (—5, —8) is not on the graph.
—5 + 6
—8 = —1 + 9

2. There is no y-intercept because the y-axis is an asymptote. The other asymptote is y = —2. The domain is all real
numbers; x /= 0. The range is all real numbers; y /= —2. The zero is:

244
 4
0= —2
x
2= 4
x
2x = 4
x=2

3. The asymptotes are x = 1 and y = 3. Therefore, the domain is all real numbers except 1 and the range is all real
numbers except 3. The y-intercept is y = 0—1 + 3 = —2 +23 = 1 and the zero is:

245
 2
0= +3
x —1
2
—3 = x —1
—3x + 3 = 2
1
—3x = —1 → x = 3

4. The asymptotes are x = —1, y = 3, making the equation y = a

x+1 + 3. Taking the y-intercept, we can solve for a.

a 1
4= +3 The equation is y = + 3.
0+1 x+1
1=a

Vocabulary

Rational Function
p(x)
A function in the form q(x)
, where p and q are both functions and q =
/ 0.

Hyperbola
The shape of a rational function.

Branches
The two pieces of a hyperbola.

Problem Set

1. What are the asymptotes for y = x+8

2 —3? Is (—6, —2) a point on the graph?

2. What are the asymptotes for y = 6 — x—4

1 ? Is (5, 4) a point on the graph?

For problems 3-8, graph each rational function, state the equations of the asymptotes, the domain and range and the
intercepts.

3. y= 3 x
4. y = x+5
2

5. y = x—
1 —4
3
2
6. y = x+4 —3
7. y = 5 +x 2
1
8. y = 3 —x+2

Write the equations of the hyperbolas.

246
 9.

10.

Graphing

Objective
To graph rational functions when the numerator and denominator have the same degree.
Guidance
In the previous concept, we graphed functions in the form y = x—1 + k, where x = h and y = k are the asymptotes.
h
In this concept, we will extend graphing rational functions when both the denominator and numerator are linear or

247
both quadratic. So, there will be no “k” term in this concept. Let’s go through an example to determine any patterns
in graphing this type of rational function.
Example A
Graph f (x) = 2x—1 .
x+4 Find asymptotes, x and y intercepts, domain and range.
Solution: To find the vertical asymptote, it is the same as before, the value that makes the denominator zero. In this
case, x = —4. Also the same is how to find the x and y intercepts.
y-intercept (when x = 0): y = 2·0—1
0+4 = —41
x-intercept (when y = 0):

0=
2x —1
x+4
0 = 2x —1
1 = 2x
1
2
=x

When solving for the x-intercept, to get the denominator out, we multiplied both sides by x + 4. But, when we
multiply anything by 0, it remains 0. Therefore, to find the x-intercept, we only need to set the numerator equal to
zero and solve for x.
The last thing to find is the horizontal asymptote. We know that the function is positive, so the branches will be in
the first and third quadrants. Let’s make a table.

TABLE 9.12:
x y
—13 3
—7 5
—5 11
—3 —7
—1 —1
0 —0.25
2 0.5
5 1
14 1.5

It looks like the horizontal asymptote is y = 2 because both branches seem to approach 2 as x gets larger, both
positive and negative. If we plug in x = 86, y = 1.9 and when x = —94, y = 2.1. As you can see, even when x is very
large, the function is still approaching 2.

248
Looking back at the original equation, f (x) = 2x—1 , extract
x+4 the leading coefficients and leave them numerator over
denominator, 1 . This is the horizontal asymptote. We can generalize this pattern for all rational functions. When
2

the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, the horizontal asymptote is the ratio of the
leading coefficients.
Finally, the domain is all real numbers; x /
= —4 and the range is all real numbers; y /
= 2.
Example B
Graph y = 3x2+10 .
x2—1
Find the asymptotes, intercepts, domain, and range.
Solution: From the previous example, we can conclude that the horizontal asymptote is at y = 3. Because the
denominator is squared, there will be two vertical asymptotes because x2 —1 factors to (x —1)(x + 1). Therefore,
the vertical asymptotes are x = 1 and x = —1. As for the intercepts, there are no x-intercepts because there is no real
solution for 3x2 + 10 = 0. Solving for the y-intercept, we have y = —10 = —10.
1
At this point, put the equation in your calculator to see the general shape. To graph this function using a TI-83 or 84,
A2+10)
enter the function into Y = like this: (3x(xA2—1) and press GRAPH. You will need to expand the window to include
the bottom portion of the graph. The final graph is to the left.
The domain is still all real numbers except the vertical asymptotes. For this function, that would be all real numbers;
x/
= —1, x /
= 1.
The range is a bit harder to find. Notice the gap in the range from the horizontal asymptote and the y-intercept.
Therefore, the range is (—∞, —10] ∪(3, ∞).

249
The notation above is one way to write a range of numbers called interval notation and was introduced in the
Finding the Domain and Range of Functions concept. The ∪ symbol means “union.” Notice that —∞ and ∞ are not
included in the range.
In general, rational functions with quadratics in the denominator are split into six regions and have branches in three
of them, like the example above. However, there are cases when there are no zeros or vertical asymptotes and those
look very different. You should always graph the function in a graphing calculator after you find the critical values
and make as accurate a sketch as you can.
Example C
x2—9
Graph y = x2+6x+8
in your graphing calculator. Find all asymptotes, intercepts, the domain and range.
Solution: The y-intercept is y = —98 and the x-intercepts are 0 = x 2 —9 → x = 3,—3. The horizontal asymptote is
y = 1 and when we factor and solve the denominator we get the vertical asymptotes; x2 + 6x + 8 = 0 → x = —4, —2.

250
At this point, use the graphing calculator to determine the orientation of the function. Notice that the middle section
curves up like an x3 function. This is because the zero is between the two vertical asymptotes.
Notice that the middle section passes through the horizontal asymptote. Let’s see what happens at y = 1.

x2 —9
1=
x2 + 6x + 8
x2 + 6x + 8 = x2 —9
6x = —17
17
x = — 6 ≈ —2.83

Because we found a value for x, this means the range is all real numbers. The domain is x ∈ R; x /
= 3, —3.
Example D
Graph f (x) = x2—8x+12 .
x2—x—6
Find the intercepts, asymptotes, domain and range.
Solution: Let’s factor the numerator and denominator to find the intercepts and vertical asymptotes.
f (x) = x2—8x+12 = (x—6)(x—2)
x2+x—6 (x+3)(x—2)

Notice that the numerator and denominator both have a factor of (x —2). When this happens, a hole is created
because x = 2 is both a zero and an asymptote. Therefore, x = 2 is a hole and neither a zero nor an asymptote.

251
There is a vertical asymptote at x = —3 and a zero at x = 6. The horizontal asymptote is at y = 1. The graph of
f (x) = x2—8x+12
x2—x—6
will look like the graph of f (x) = x—6
x+3
, but with a hole at x = 2. A hole is not part of the domain.
—4 2
And, the output value that corresponds with the hole is not part of the range. In this example, f (2 ) = 2—6
2+3 = 6 = —3
is not part of the range.
The domain is x ∈ R; x =
/ 2, —3 and the range is y ∈ R; y =
/ 1, —23 .
Guided Practice
Graph the following functions. Find all intercepts, asymptotes, the domain and range. Double-check your answers
with a graphing calculator.
1. y = 4x—5
2x+7

2. f (x) = x2—9
x2+1

3. y = 2x2+7x+3
x2+3x+2
x2—4
4. y = 2x2—5x+2
Answers
1. y-intercept: y = —75 = —57 , x-intercept: 0 = 4x —5 → x = 54, horizontal asymptote: y = 4
2
= 2, vertical asymptote:
2x + 7 = 0 → x = —72 , domain: R; x = / —72 , range: R; y =
/ 2

252
2. y-intercept: y = —19 = —9, x-intercepts: 0 = x 2 —9 → x = ±3, horizontal asymptote: y = 1, vertical asymptote:
none, domain: R, range: R; y /
=1
∗Special Note: When there are no vertical asymptotes and the numerator and denominator are both quadratics, this
is the general shape. It could also be reflected over the horizontal asymptote.

3. y-intercept: 0, 32 , x-intercepts: (—3, 0) and —12,0 , horizontal asymptote: y = 2, vertical asymptotes: x =

—2, x = —1.
domain: R; x /
= —1, —2
range: y ∈ (—∞, 2.1] ∪[12, ∞)

253
4. horizontal asymptote: y = 12 , y-intercept: (0, —2)
vertical asymptotes: x = 12 , x-intercept: 2, 0)
(—
hole: x = 2, f (2) = 43
domain: R; x /
= 12 ,2
range: R; y /
= 12 , 43

Vocabulary

254
Degree
The largest exponent in a polynomial.

Interval Notation
One way to write the domain or range of a function. [ and ] include the endpoint(s) of the interval and ( and )
do not. The ∪ symbol is used to join two intervals of a domain or range.

Hole
An input value that is a vertical asymptote and a zero. It is not considered part of the domain. An important
note, the graphing calculator will not show a hole in the picture.

Problem Set
Graph the following rational functions. Write down the equations of the asymptotes, the domain and range, x and y
intercepts and identify any holes.

1. y = x+3
x—5
2. y = 5x+2
x—4
3. y = 23—x
x+10
4. y= x2+5x+6
x2—8x+12
2+4
5. y = 2x2x+x—3
6. y = 2x22—x—10
3x +10x+8
x2—4
7. y = x2+3x—10
8. y = 6x2—7x—3
4x2—1
3—8
9. y = x3+xx2—4 x—4
10. Graph y = x — 1 + 3 and y = 3x—5
2 x—2 on the same set of axes. Compare the two. What do you notice? Explain your
results.

Graphing

Objective
To learn how to graph rational functions where the degrees of the numerator and denominator are not the same.
Guidance
In this concept we will touch on the different possibilities for the remaining types of rational functions. You will
need to use your graphing calculator throughout this concept to ensure your sketches are correct.
Example A
Graph y = 2x2 +11x—6 .
x+3 Find all asymptotes, intercepts, the domain and range.
Solution: In this example the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. Whenever
this happens the horizontal asymptote will be y = 0, or the x-axis. Now, even though the x-axis is the horizontal
asymptote, there will still be a zero at x = —3 (solving the numerator for x and setting it equal to zero). The vertical
asymptotes will be the solutions to 2x2 + 11x —6 = 0. Factoring this quadratic, we have (2x —1)(x + 6) = 0 and the
solutions are x = 12 and —6. The y-intercept is 0, —12 . At this point, we can plug our function into the graphing
calculator to get the general shape.

255
Because the middle portion crosses over the horizontal asymptote, the range will be all real numbers. The domain is
x ∈ R; x = —6; x /
= 12 .
Be careful when graphing any rational function. This function does not look like the graph to the left in a TI-83/84.
This is because the calculator does not have the ability to draw the asymptotes separately and wants to make the
function continuous. Make sure to double-check the table (2nd → GRAPH) to find where the function is undefined.
Example B
Graph f (x) = x2+7x—30 .
x+5 Find all asymptotes, intercepts, the domain and range.
Solution: In this example the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator. When this
happens, there is no horizontal asymptote. Instead there is a slant asymptote. Recall that this function represents
division. If we were to divide x 2 + 7x —30 by x + 5, the answer would be x + 2 — x+5
20 . The slant asymptote would be

the answer, minus the remainder. Therefore,for this problem the slant asymptote is y = x + 2. Everything else is the
same. The y-intercept is —530 → ( 0, —6) and the x-intercepts are the solutions to the numerator, x 2 + 7x —30 = 0 →
(x + 10)(x —3) → x = —10, 3. There is a vertical asymptote at x = —5. At this point, you can either test a few points
to see where the branches are or use your graphing calculator.

256
The domain would be all real numbers; x /
= —5. Because of the slant asymptote, there are no restrictions on the
range. It is all real numbers.
Example C
Graph y = 3x2 —16x—12 .
x—6 Find the asymptotes and intercepts.
Solution: Because the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, there will be a horizontal
asymptote along the x-axis. Next, let’s find the vertical asymptotes by factoring the denominator; (x —6)(3x + 2).
Notice that the denominator has a factor of (x —6), which is the entirety of the numerator. That means there will be
a hole at x = 6.

257
Therefore, the graph of y = 3x2 —x—6
16x—12
will be the same as y = 3x+2
1 except with a hole at x = 6. There is no
x-intercept, the vertical asymptote is at x = —3 and the y-intercept is 0, 12 .
2

Recap
For a rational function; f (x) = p(x)
q(x)
= amxm+...+a0
bnxn+...+b0

1. If m < n, then there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

2. If m = n, then there is a horizontal asymptote at y = abmn (ratio of the leading coefficients).
3. If m > n, then there is a slant asymptote at y = (amxm + ... + a0) ÷ (bnxn + ... + b0) without the remainder. In
this concept, we will only have functions where m is one greater than n.

Guided Practice
Graph the following functions. Find any intercepts and asymptotes.
1. y = 3x+5
2x2 +9x+20

2. f (x) = x2+4x+4
x2—3x—4

3. g(x) = x2—16
x+3
4. y = 2 2x+3
6x —x—15
Answers
1. x-intercept: —53 ,0 , y-intercept: 0, 14
horizontal asymptote: y = 0
vertical asymptotes: none

2. x-intercept: (—2, 0), y-intercept: (0, —1)

horizontal asymptote: y = 1
vertical asymptotes: x = 4 and x = —1

258
3. x-intercepts: (—4, 0) and (4, 0)
y-intercept: 0, —16
3
slant asymptote: y = x —3
vertical asymptotes: x = —3

4. x-intercepts: none, hole at x = —32

y-intercept: 0, —15
horizontal asymptote: y = 0
vertical asymptote: x = 53

259
Vocabulary

Slant Asymptote
In a rational function, when the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator a slant
asymptote is produced instead of a horizontal one. It is the result of long division of the function, without the
remainder.

Problem Set
Graph the following functions. Find any intercepts, asymptote and holes.

1. y = x2 —
x+1
x—12
2
2. f (x) = x +3x—10
x—3
x—7
3. y = 2x2—11x— 21
4. g(x) = 3x+5
2x2—2

5. y = x2+x—30
x+6
x +x—30
6. f (x) = 2x3—5x
2
2—4x+3

7. y = x —2x
3 2—3x
x —5x+6
2

8. f (x) = x22x+5
+5x—6
9. g(x) = —x2+3x+4
2x—6
3x2—x—10
10. Determine the slant asymptote of y = 3x+5
. Now, graph this function. Is there really a slant asymptote?
Can you explain your results?

260
 5.3 Simplifying, Multiplying, and Dividing Ra-
tional Expressions
Objective
To simplify, multiply, and divide rational expressions.
Review Queue
Simplify the following fractions.
1. 8
20
2. 6x3y2
9xy5
3. 7a5bc2
35ab4c9
Multiply or divide the following fractions.
4. 4 ·10
5 18
2 1
5. 3÷ 4
12 3
6. 5 ÷ 10

Simplifying Rational Expressions

Objective
To simplify rational expressions involving factorable polynomials.
Guidance
Recall that a rational function is a function, f (x), such that f (x) = p(x)
q(x)
, where p(x) and q(x) are both polynomials.
p(x)
A rational expression, is just . Like any fraction, a rational expression can be simplified. To simplify a rational
q(x)
expression, you will need to factor the polynomials, determine if any factors are the same, and then cancel out any
like factors.
3·3 = 3
9 = \
Fraction: 15
3\ ·5 5
+6x+9 = c(xc+ c3)c (x+3)
Rational Expression: xx22+8x+15 c(xc+ c3)c(x+5)
= x+3
x+5

With both fractions, we broke apart the numerator and denominator into the prime factorization. Then, we canceled
the common factors.
Important Note: x+3 x+5
is completely factored. Do not cancel out the x’s! 5x3x reduces to 3 , but x+3 does not because
5 x+5
of the addition sign. To prove this, we will plug in a number for x to and show that the fraction does not reduce to 35.
If x = 2, then 2+3
2+5 = 7 =
5
/ 35 .
Example A
2x3
Simplify 4x2—6x
.
Solution: The numerator factors to be 2x3 = 2 ·x ·x ·x and the denominator is 4x2 —6x = 2x(2x —3).
2x3 = /2·/x·x·x = x2
4x2—6x /2·/x·(2x—3) 2x—3

261
Example B
Simplify 6x2—7x—3 .
2x3—3x2
Solution: If you need to review factoring, see the Factoring Quadratics when the Leading Coefficient is 1 concept
and the Factoring Quadratics when the Leading Coefficient is not 1 concept. Otherwise, factor the numerator and
find the GCF of the denominator and cancel out the like terms.
c ( 3x+1)
c 3)
(2xc —
6x2—7x—3
= c x2 (2x— c
3x+1
= x2
2x3—3x2 c c c 3)
Example C
Simplify x2—6x+27 .
2x2—19x+9
Solution: Factor both the top and bottom and see if there are any common factors.
c ( x+3)
c(xc—c9)
x2 —6x+27
2x —19x+9
2 = c
c(xc—9)( 2x—1)
= 2x—1
x+3

Special Note: Not every polynomial in a rational function will be factorable. Sometimes there are no common
factors. When this happens, write “not factorable.”
Guided Practice
If possible, simplify the following rational functions.
1. 3x2—x
3x2
2. x2+6x+8
x2+6x+9

3. 2x2+x—10
6x2+17x+5
x3—4x
4. x5+4x3—32x
Answers
1. 3x2—x = /x(3x—1) = 3x—1
3x2 3·/x·x 3x
(x+4)(x+2)
2. x2+6x+8
x2+6x+9
= (x+3)(x+3)
There are no common factors, so this is reduced.
c ( x—2)
(2xc +c 5)
3. 2x2+x—10
6x2+17x+5
= c(2 x+c5) c = x—2
cc (3x+1) 3x+1

4. In this problem, the denominator will factor like a quadratic once an x is pulled out of each term.
,+ ,
, 2)
—4) ,x(x, —
, 2,)(x
2
x3—4x
= x(x 4x(x = x(x—2)(x+2)
= ,,, 2 = x21+8
x5 +4x3 —32x +4x2 —32) x(x 2 —4)(x 2 +8) x, (x,— ,2,)(x + 2)(x +8)
Vocabulary

Rational Expression
A fraction with polynomials in the numerator and denominator.

Problem Set
Simplify the following Rational Expressions.

4x3
1. 2x2+3x
x3+x2—2x
2. x4+4x3—5x2
3. 2x2—5x—3
2x2—7x—4
5x2+37x+14
4. 5x3—33x2—14x
8x2—60x—32
5. —4x2+26x+48
6. 6x3—24x2+30x—120
9x4+36x2—45

262
 7. 6x2+5x—4
6x2—x—1
x4+8x
8. x4—2x3+4x2
9. 6x4—3x3—63x2
12x2—84x
x5—3x3—4x
10. x4+2x3+x2+2x
11. —3x2+25x—8
x3—8x2+x—8
—x3+3x2+13x—15
12. —2x3+7x2+20x—25

Multiplying Rational Expressions

Objective
To multiply together two or more rational expressions and simplify.
Guidance
We take the previous concept one step further in this one and multiply two rational expressions together. When
multiplying rational expressions, it is just like multiplying fractions. However, it is much, much easier to factor the
rational expressions before multiplying because factors could cancel out.
Example A
x2 —4x ·x 2+8x+15
Multiply x3—9x x2—2x—8
Solution: Rather than multiply together each numerator and denominator to get very complicated polynomials, it is
much easier to first factor and then cancel out any common factors.
x2 —4x
·xx2+8x+15 x(x—4)
·(x+3)(x+5)
2
x3—9x —2x—8
= x(x—3)(x+3) (x+2)(x—4)
At this point, we see there are common factors between the fractions.
c c—
x(c c( xc+c3c) ( x+5)
/ c 4
x/(x—3)c(xc+)c3)c ·(x+2)c(x—
x+5
c 4)c c = (x—3)(x+2)
At this point, the answer is in factored form and simplified. You do not need to multiply out the base.
Example B
4x2 y5 z 15y4
Multiply 6xyz6
·35x4

Solution: These rational expressions are monomials with more than one variable. Here, we need to remember
the laws of exponents from earlier concepts. Remember to add the exponents when multiplying and subtract the
exponents when dividing. The easiest way to solve this type of problem is to multiply the two fractions together first
and then subtract common exponents.
4x2y5z 15y4 60x2y9z 2y8
6xyz6 ·35x4 = 210x5yz6 = 7x3z5
You can reverse the order and cancel any common exponents first and then multiply, but sometimes that can get
confusing.
Example C
4x2 +4x+1 —25
·(3x —2)· 6xx2—x—2
2
Multiply 2x2—9x—5
Solution: Because the middle term is a linear expression, rewrite it over 1 to make it a fraction.
c(2cx+c 1c 2cx+c 1c c3xcc2
4x2+4x+1
·(3x —2)· x2—25
= c )c( ) · — · c(xc—c5)c( x+5) c = x +5
c
c +c 1 )c(xc—c5) c (2cx +
c 2) c 1)
2x —9x—5
2 6x —x—2
2
c(2x 1 c(3cx — c
Guided Practice
Multiply the following expressions.

263
 4x2 —8x
·15xx—2—5x
2
1. 10x3
x2 +6x—7
·2xx 2—
2 2x—24
2. x2—36 +8x—42
4x2y7 2
3.
32x4y3
·16x
8y6
Answers
c cc2· xc/5(x
/x— 2 ) 2(3x—1)
(3x—1)
4x2—8x
=/ /
2—5x
1. ·15xx—2 · cx— cc2 =
10x3 /2·/5/x·/x·x x

(
c c ccx + 7)(x— c
c
) c(x—6 ) (x+ 4)
c (x—1)(x+4)
2. x +6x—7
2
·2xx —2x—24
2
2 +8x—42 = c
x2—36 1(xc—c6)c( x+6) ·2c(xc+ c7)c(x—3 ) = 2(x—3)(x+6)
3. 4x2y7 2 64x4 y7
32x4y3
·16x
8y6
= 256x4y9
= 4y12
Problem Set
Multiply the following expressions. Simplify your answers.

8x2 y3 15xy 8
1. ·
5x3y 2x3y5
11x3 y9 6x7 y2
2. 2x4
·33xy3
18x y 39x12 y5
3 6
3. 13x8y2
· 9x2y9
3x+3 y2 —y—6
4. y—3 · 2x+2
4x2 +4x—3
2x+3 · 3x+3
6
5.
6+x x2 +5x—3
6. ·
2x—1 x2+5x—6
3x—21 —x 2 +x+6
7. x—3
·x2—5x—14
6x +5x+1 4x2 +28x—30
2
8. 8x2—2x—3
· 6x2—7x—3
x2 +9x—36
·—xx2+8x+15
2
9. x2—9 +11x+12
2x2 +x—21 2 —9x—18
10. x2+2x—48
·(4 — x) ·2x
2x2—x—28
8x2—10x—3
·5x+ 3 ·x 5x+3x
3 2 —x—3
11. 4x3+x2—36x—9 x—1 2+8x+3

Dividing Rational Expressions

Objective
To divide two or more rational expressions.
Guidance
Dividing rational expressions has one additional step than multiply them. Recall that when you divide fractions, you
need to flip the second fraction and change the problem to multiplication. The same rule applies to dividing rational
expressions.
Example A
5a3 b4 15b 6
Divide 12ab8
÷ 8a6
.
Solution: Flip the second fraction, change the ÷ sign to multiplication and solve.
5a3b4 15b6 5a3b4 8a6 40a9b4 2a8
12ab8 ÷ 8a6 = 12ab8 ·15b6 = 180ab14 = 9b10
Example B
x4 —3x2 —4 x3 —3x2 +x—3
Divide 2x2+x—10
÷ x—2
Solution: Flip the second fraction, change the ÷ sign to multiplication and solve.

264
 x4 —3x2 —4 x3 —3x2 + x —3 = x4 —3x2 —4 x —2
÷ ·3
2x + x —10
2 x —2 2x + x —10 x —3x2 + x —3
2

= (x —4)(x + 1) · x —2
2 2

(2x —5)(x + 2) (x2 + 1)(x —3)

c xc
(x —2)c(x c+ c2)( cc
c 2 + 1) x —2
= c c
· 2 cc
(2x —5)c(x + 2)
c c(x + 1)(x —3)
c
(x —2) 2
=
(2x —5)(x —3)

Review the Factoring by Grouping concept to factor the blue polynomial and the Factoring in Quadratic Form
concept to factor the red polynomial.
Example C
x2 +x—12
Perform the indicated operations: x3—8
x2—6x+9
÷ (x 2+ 3x —10)· x2+11x+30
Solution: Flip the second term, factor, and cancel. The blue polynomial is a difference of cubes. Review the Sum
and Difference of Cubes concept for how to factor this polynomial.

x3 —8 x2 + x —12 x3 —8 1 x2 + 2x —15
÷ (x 2
+ 3x —10)· = · ·
x2 —6x + 9 x2 + 11x + 30 x2 —6x + 9 x2 + 3x —10 x2 + 11x + 30
c(xc—c2)(x
c + 2x + 4) 1 c(xc+ c5)(x
cc c—c3)c
= 2 · ·
c(xc—c3)(x
c —3 ) c(xc—c2)(x
cc + c c ( x + 5)(x + 6)
c 5)
x2 + 2x + 4
=
(x —3)(x + 5)(x + 6)

Guided Practice
Perform the indicated operations.
a5 b3 c 2a7 b11
1. 6a2c9
÷ 24c2
x2 +12x—45 x2 +17x+30
2. x2—5x+6
÷ x4—16
x2 +11x+24 x2 —6x—16
3. (x 3 + 2x2 —9x —18) ÷ x2—11x—24
÷ x2+5x—24
Answers
1. a5 b3 c
÷ 2a7 b11 = a5 b3 c ·2a24c
2
7b11
= 24a5b3c3 = a4b28c6
6a2c9 24c2 6a2c9 12a9b11c9
2.
x2 + 12x —45 x2 + 17x + 30 x2 + 12x —45 x4 —16
÷ = ·
x2 —5x + 6 x4 —16 x2 —5x + 6 x2 + 17x + 30
cc(xc—c3)
c(xc+ c15) c (x 2 + 4)(x c—c2)cc(x c+ c2)c
c
= c c ·
c
c(x —3)(cx —2)
c c c c(xc+ 15c)cx(c+c2c)
c
= x2 + 4

3.
x2 + 11x + 24 x2 —6x —16 x3 + 2x2 —9x —18 x2 —11x + 24 x2 + 5x —24
(x 3 + 2x2 —9x —18) ÷ ÷ = ·2
x2 —11x + 24 x2 + 5x —24 1 x + 11x + 24 ·x2 —6x —16
(x —3)c(x c+ c3)(
ccxc+c2)
c c( xc—c8)(x —3) c(xc+ c8)(x
c —3)
= c ·(xc+c8c c c · c c
1 c )(x c c+ c
c + 3)c (x —8)(x 2)
= (x —3)2

265
Problem Set
Divide the following expressions. Simplify your answer.

6a4 b3 5
1. 8a3b6
÷ 4a3a3b4
12x5 y 3 y6
2. xy4
÷ 18x3x2y3
16x3 y9 z3 42xy7 z2
3. 15x5y2z
÷ 45x 2yz5
x2 +2x—3 x2 +3x
4. x2—3x+2
÷ 4x—8
x2 —2x—3 4x—12
5. x2+6x+5
÷ x2+8x+15
x +6x+2
2 6x2 —13x—5
6. 12—3x ÷ x2—4x
x2 —5x x2—2x—15
7. x2+x—6
÷ x3+3x2—4x—12
3x3 —3x2 —6x
÷ 6x2x2+18x—60
2
8. 2x2+15x—8 +9x—5
x3+27 x2 —x—12
9. x2+5x—14
÷ 2x2+2x—40
÷ x—21
x2 +2x—15
÷ (5x + 3) ÷ 5x21—10x+x
2
10. 2x3+7x2—4x 3+23x2+12x

266
 5.4 Adding & Subtracting Rational Expres-
sions and Complex Fractions
Objective
To add and subtract two or more rational expressions.
Review Queue
Add or subtract the following fractions.
1. 1+3
2 4
2. 7 —1
8 3
3. 4 —4
5 15
4. 7 + 11
18 24

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with Like Denominators

Objective
To add and subtract rational expressions with like denominators.
Guidance
Recall, that when you add or subtract fractions, the denominators must be the same. The same is true of adding and
subtracting rational expressions. The denominators must be the same expression and then you can add or subtract
the numerators.
Example A
Add x
x —6
+ 7 .
x—6
Solution: In this concept, the denominators will always be the same. Therefore, all you will need to do is add the
numerators and simplify if needed.
x
x—6 + x—6
7
= x+7
x—6
Example B
x2 —4
Subtract x—3 —2x—1
x—3 .
Solution: You need to be a little more careful with subtraction. The entire expression in the second numerator is
being subtracted. Think of the minus sign like distributing -1 to that numerator.

x2 —4 2x —1 x2 —4 —(2x + 1)
x —3 — x —3 = x —3
x —4 —2x —1
2
=
x —3
x2 —2x —3
=
x —3

At this point, factor the numerator if possible.

267
x2—2x—3 c(xc—c3)cc(x+1)
x—3 = cx—c3 = x+1
Example C
Add x+7
2x2 +14x+20
+ 2x2 +14x+20
x+1
.
Solution: Add the numerators and simplify the denominator.

x+7 x+1 2x + 8
+ =
2x2 + 14x + 20 2x2 + 14x + 20 2x2 + 14x + 20
2/ (x + 4)
=
2/ (x + 5)(x + 2)
(x + 4)
=
(x + 5)(x + 2)

Guided Practice
Add or subtract the following rational expressions.
1. 3
x2 —9
—xx+7
2—9

2. 5x—6 + x—12
2x+3 2x+3
x2+2 —2x+1
2
3. 4x2—4x—3
—4xx 2—4x—3
Answers
3 3—(x+7) — x—4
1. x2 —9
—xx+7
2—9 = x2—9
= 3—x—7
x2 —9
= 2x
—9
We did not bother to factor the denominator because we know that the factors of -9 are 3 and -3 and will not cancel
with —x —4,.
2. 5x—6 + x—12 = 6x—18 = 6(x—3)
2x+3 2x+3 2x+3 2x+3
3.
x2 + 2 x2 —2x + 1 x2 + 2 —(x2 —2x + 1)
— =
4x2 —4x —3 4x2 —4x —3 4x214x —3
x + 2 —x2 + 2x —1
2
=
4x2 —4x —3
2x + 1
=
4x2 —4x —3

At this point, we will factor the denominator to see if any factors cancel with the numerator.
c
2x+1 = c2xc+
c 1 = 2x—3
1
4x —4x—3
2 c
c(2cx+ 1)( 2x—3)
Problem Set
Add or subtract the following rational expressions.

1. 3 + x+1
x x
2. 5 + x—4
x+1 x+1
3. x+15
x—2 — 10
x—2
4x—3 + 15
4. x+3 x+3
x2—4x—5 + x 2—4x—5
5. 3x+8 2x+3
5x+3 2x+9
6. x2—4 —x2—4
3x +x
2 2 —x
7. x3—8
+ x3—8 4
—2xx3—8

268
 8. 4x+3
x2+1
—xx+2
2+1 + x2+1
1—x

18x2—7x+2 2+13x—4 5x —13

—8x33x + 8x3+4x
2
9. 8x3+4x2—18x—9 +4x2—18x—9 2—18x—9
2x2+3x 2—13 4x +9x+11
+ x3+2x5x2—16x—32 —x3+2x
2
10. x3+2x2—16x—32 2—16x—32

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions where One Denominator is the LCD

Objective
To add and subtract rational expressions where one denominator is the Lowest Common Denominator (LCD).
Guidance
Recall when two fractions do not have the same denominator. You have to multiply one or both fractions by a
number to create equivalent fractions in order to combine them.
1 +3
2 4
Here, 2 goes into 4 twice. So, we will multiply the first fraction by 2
2 to get a denominator of 4. Then, the two
fractions can be added.
2 1 3 2 3 5
2·
2 +4 = 4 +4 = 4
Once the denominators are the same, the fractions can be combined. We will apply this idea to rational expressions
in order to add or subtract ones without like denominators.
Example A
2
—6
Subtract 3x—5
2x+8 —xx+4 .
Solution: Factoring the denominator of the first fraction, we have 2(x + 4). The second fraction needs to be
multiplied by 22 in order to make the denominators the same.

3x —5 x2 —6 3x —5 x2 —6 2
— =
2x + 8 x + 4 2(x + 4) — x + 4 ·2
=
3x —5 2x2 —12
—
2(x + 4) 2(x + 4)

Now that the denominators are the same, subtract the second rational expression just like in the previous concept.

3x —5 —(2x2 —12)
=
2(x + 4)
3x —5 —2x2 + 12
=
2(x + 4)
—2x + 3x + 7
2
=
2(x + 4)

The numerator is not factorable, so we are done.

Example B
Add 2x—3 + x2+1
x+5 x2—2x—35

269
Solution: Factoring the second denominator, we have x2 —2x —35 = (x + 5)(x —7). So, we need to multiply the
first fraction by x—7
x—7 .

__________________
FOIL_
_________________
¸ x` ˛
(x —7) (2x —3) x2 + 1 2x2 —17x + 21 x2 + 1
· + = +
(x —7) (x + 5) (x —7)(x + 5) (x —7)(x + 5) (x —7)(x + 5)
3x2 —17x + 22
=
(x —7)(x + 5)

Example C
Subtract 7x+2
2x2 +18x+40
—x+5
6
.
Solution: Factoring the first denominator, we have 2x2 + 18x + 40 = 2(x2 + 9x + 20) = 2(x + 4)(x + 5). This is the
Lowest Common Denominator, or LCD. The second fraction needs the 2 and the (x + 4).

7x + 2 6 —x 7x + 2 6 —x 2(x + 4)
— = — ·
2x2 + 18x + 40 x + 5 2(x + 5)(x + 4) x + 5 2(x + 4)
7x + 2 2(6 —x)(x + 4)
= —
2(x + 5)(x + 4) 2(x + 5)(x + 4)
=
7x + 2 48 + 4x —2x2
—
2(x + 5)(x + 4) 2(x + 5)(x + 4)
7x + 2 —(48 + 4x —2x2)
=
2(x + 5)(x + 4)
7x + 2 —48 —4x + 2x2
=
2(x + 5)(x + 4)
=
2x + 3x —46
2

2(x + 5)(x + 4)

Guided Practice
Perform the indicated operation.

x+1 —3x+3
1. 2 x

x—10 + x+3
2. x2 +4x—24 x+6

3. 3x2—5 + x+8
3x2—12 3x+6
Answers
1. The LCD is 3x + 3 or 3(x + 1). Multiply the first fraction by 33.

2 x 3 2 x
x + 1 —3x + 3 = 3 ·x + 1 —3(x + 1)
6 x
= —
3(x + 1) 3(x + 1)
6 —x
=
3(x + 1)

2. Here, the LCD x2 + 4x —24 or (x + 6)(x —4 ). Multiply the second fraction by x—4
x—4 .

270
 x —10 x+3 x —10 x + 3 x —4
+ = + ·
x2 + 4x —24 x + 6 (x + 6)(x —4) x + 6 x —4
x —10 x2 —x —12
= +
(x + 6)(x —4) (x + 6)(x —4)
x —10 + x2 —x —12
=
(x + 6)(x —4)
x2 —22
=
(x + 6)(x —4)

3. The LCD is 3x2 —12 = 3(x —2)(x + 2). The second fraction’s denominator factors to be 3x + 6 = 3(x + 2), so it
needs to be multiplied by x—2
x—2
.

3x2 —5 + x + 8 = 3x2 —5 +
x + 8 x —2
3x —12 3x + 6 3(x —2)(x + 2) 3(x + 2) ·x —2
2

=
3x2 —5 +
x2 + 6x —16
3(x —2)(x + 2) 3(x —2)(x + 2)
3x2 —5 + x2 + 6x —16
=
3(x —2)(x + 2)
=
4x + 6x —21
2

3(x —2)(x + 2)

Problem Set
Perform the indicated operations.

1. 3 —5
x 4x
2. x+2 + x—1
x+3 x2+3x
3. x
x—7 — 2x+7
3x—21
x2 +3x—10
4. x2 —4
—x+x 2
5. 5x+14
2x2 —7x—15
—x—5 3

6.
x—3 + 3
3x2 +x—10 x +2
2
7. x+1 + x —7x
6x+2 12x2—14x—6
8. —3x2—10x+15 + x+4
10x2—x—3 2x+1
8 — x+5
9. 2x—5 2x +x—15
2

10. 2
x+2
+ 3x+16
x —x—6
2 —x—3 2

6x2+4x+8
11. x3+3x2—x—3
+ xx—4
2—1 —x2+2x—3
3x

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with Unlike Denominators

Objective
To add and subtract rational expressions with unlike denominators.
Guidance

271
In the previous two concepts we have eased our way up to this one. Now we will add two rational expressions where
were you will have to multiply both fractions by a constant in order to get the Lowest Common Denominator or
LCD. Recall how to add fractions where the denominators are not the same.
4 + 5
15 18
Find the LCD. 15 = 3 ·5 and 18 = 3 ·6. So, they have a common factor of 3. Anytime two denominators have a
common factor, it only needs to be listed once in the LCD. The LCD is therefore 3 ·5 ·6 = 90.

4 5 4 5
15 + 18 = 3 ·5 + 3 ·6
6 4 5 5
= · +
6 3 ·5 3 ·6 ·5
24 25
=
90 + 90
49
=
90

We multiplied the first fraction by 66 to obtain 90 in the denominator. Recall that a number over itself is 6 ÷ 6 = 1.
Therefore, we haven’t changed the value of the fraction. We multiplied the second fraction by 55. We will now apply
this idea to rational expressions.
Example A
Add x+5 + 3 .
x2—3x x2+2x
Solution: First factor each denominator to find the LCD. The first denominator, factored, is x2 —3x = x(x —3). The
second denominator is x2 + 2x = x(x + 2). Both denominators have and x, so we only need to list it once. The LCD
is x(x —3)(x + 2).
x+5 + 3 = x+5 + 3
x2—3x x2+2x x(x—3) x(x+2)

Looking at the two denominators factored, we see that the first fraction needs to be multiplied by x+2
x+2
and the second
fraction needs to be multiplied by x+3
x+3
.

x+2 x + 5 3 x —3
= · + ·
x + 2 x(x —3) x(x + 2) x —3
(x + 2)(x + 5) + 3(x —3)
=
x(x + 2)(x —3)

At this point, we need to FOIL the first expression and distribute the 3 to the second. Lastly we need to combine like
terms.

x2 + 7x + 10 + 3x —9
=
x(x + 2)(x —3)
x2 + 10x + 1
=
x(x + 2)(x —3)

The quadratic in the numerator is not factorable, so we are done.

Example B
Add 4
x +6
+ x—2 .
3x+1

272
Solution: The denominators have no common factors, so the LCD will be (x + 6)(3x + 1).

4 x —2 3x + 1 4 x —2 x + 6
+ = · + ·
x + 6 3x + 1 3x + 1 x + 6 3x + 1 x + 6
4(3x + 1) (x —2)(x + 6)
= +
(3x + 1)(x + 6) (3x + 1)(x + 6)
12x + 4 + x2 + 4x —12
=
(3x + 1)(x + 6)
x2 + 16x —8
=
(3x + 1)(x + 6)

Example C
Subtract x—1
x2 +5x+4
—2x2 +13x+20
x+2
.
Solution: To find the LCD, we need to factor the denominators.

x2 + 5x + 4 = (x + 1)(x + 4)
2x2 + 13x + 20 = (2x + 5)(x + 4)
LCD = (x + 1)(2x + 5)(x + 4)

x —1 x+2 x —1 x+2
— = —
x2 + 5x + 4 2x2 + 13x + 20 (x + 1)(x + 4) (2x + 5)(x + 4)
2x + 5 x —1 x+2 x+1
= · — ·
2x + 5 (x + 1)(x + 4) (2x + 5)(x + 4) x + 1
(2x + 5)(x —1)— (x + 2)(x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(2x + 5)(x + 4)
2x + 3x —5 —(x2 + 3x + 2)
2
=
(x + 1)(2x + 5)(x + 4)
2x2 + 3x —5 —x2 —3x —2
=
(x + 1)(2x + 5)(x + 4)
x2 —7
=
(x + 1)(2x + 5)(x + 4)

Guided Practice
Perform the indicated operation.
1. 3
x2—6x + 5—x
2x—12

2. x
x2 +4x+4 —x2 +5x+6
x—5

3. 2x + x2—9
x2—x—20 x2—1
Answers
1. The LCD is 3x(x —6).

273
 3 5 —x 2 3 5 —x x
+ = · + ·
x2 —6x 2x —12 2 x(x —6) 2(x —6) x
6 + x(5 —x)
=
2x(x —6)
6 + 5x —x2
=
2x(x —6)
—1(x2 —5x —6)
=
2x(x —6)

We pulled a -1 out of the numerator so we can factor it.

z z—6 )(x + 1)
—1(x z
= z z—6 )
2x(x z
=
—x — 1
2x

2. The LCD is (x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 3).

x x —5 x+3 x x —5 x+2
— = · — ·
x2 + 4x + 4 x2 + 5x + 6 x + 3 (x + 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x + 3) x + 2
x(x + 3)— (x —5)(x + 2)
=
(x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 3)
x + 3x —(x2 —3x —10)
2
=
(x + 2)2(x + 3)
x2 + 3x —x2 + 3x + 10
=
(x + 2)2(x + 3)
6x + 10
=
(x + 2)2(x + 3)
2(3x + 5)
=
(x + 2)2(x + 3)

3. The LCD is (x —5)(x + 4)(x + 1)(x —1).

2x +x —9 =(x + 1)(x —1) · 2x + x —9 (x

· —5)(x + 4)
2 2

x2 —x —20 x2 —1 (x + 1)(x —1) (x —5)(x + 4) (x + 1)(x —1) (x —5)(x + 4)

2x(x + 1)(x —1) + (x2 —9)(x —5)(x + 4)
=
(x —5)(x + 4)(x + 1)(x —1)
2x —2x + x4 —x3 —29x2 + 9x + 180
3
=
(x —5)(x + 4)(x + 1)(x —1)
x + x3 —29x2 + 7x + 180
4
=
(x —5)(x + 4)(x + 1)(x —1)

Problem Set
Perform the indicated operation.

274
 1. 5 +x
3x 2
2. x+1
x 2 — 5
7x
3. x—5 + 3
4x x+2
4. 5 + 2 x—2
2x+6 x +2x—3
5. 4x+3
2x2 +11x—6
—2x 3x—1
2 —x

6. 2
x
3x +x—2 — 2
15 x—10
7. 3x
x —3x—10
2 + x+1
x2 —2x—15
—x2 +5x+6
2
7+x
8. x2 —2x
—3xx—62+5 x —3x2 —x—10
x+4

9. 3x+2
x2—1
—5x 2+5x + x—1
10x—7 3

2x—1 + 3x+2 — x
x+6 2x 5
10.

Complex Fractions

Objective
To simplify complex fractions.
Guidance
A complex fraction is a fraction that has fractions in the numerator and/or denominator. To simplify a complex
fraction, you will need to combine all that you have learned in the previous five concepts.
Example A
9x
Simplify x+2
3 .
x2—4

Solution: This complex fraction is a fraction divided by another fraction. Rewrite the complex fraction as a division
problem.

9x
x+2 = 9x ÷ 3
3
x2—4
x + 2 x2 —4
.
Now, this is just like a problem from the Dividing Rational Expressions concept. Flip the second fraction, change
the problem to multiplication and simplify.

3
9x 3 9x x2 —4 9x c( xc+c2c)(x — 2)
÷ 2 = · = \c · = 3x( x —2)
x + 2 x —4 x + 2 3 cx+c2 3\

Example B
1+ 1
Simplify x x+1
4—1x
.
Solution: To simplify this complex fraction, we first need to add the fractions in the numerator and subtract the two
in the denominator. The LCD of the numerator is x(x + 1) and the denominator is just x.

x+1 x 2x+1
1
x
+ x+1
1 x+1
·1x + x+1
1
·xx x(x+1) + x(x+ 1) x(x+1)
x+1
= = =
4 —1x x
x
·4 —1x 4x
x
—1x 4x—1
x

275
This fraction is now just like Example A. Divide and simplify if possible.

2x+1
x(x+1)
= 2x + 1 ÷ 4x —1 = 2x + 1 · /x = 2x + 1
4x—1
x
x(x + 1) x /x(x + 1) 4x —1 (x + 1)(4x —1)

Example C
5—x + x
Simplify x2 +6x+8 x+4
6 2x+3 .
x+2 —x2—3x—10

Solution: First, add the fractions in the numerator and subtract the ones in the denominator.

5—x + x 5—x+x(x+2) x2+x+5

x2 +6x+8
5—x
(x+4)(x+2)
+ x+4
x
·x+2
x+2 (x+4)(x+2) (x+4)(x+2)
x+4
= x—5 · 6 — 2x+3 = = 4x—36
6
— 2
2x+3
x —3x—10 (x+2)(x—5)
6(x—5)—(2x+3)
(x+2)(x—5)
x+2 x—5 x+2 (x+2)(x—5)

Now, rewrite as a division problem, flip, multiply, and simplify.

x2+x+5 c —5)
(x+4)(x+2) x2 + x + 5 4x —36 x2 + x + 5 c(xc+ 2)(x (x 2 + x + 5)(x —5)
= ÷ = · =
4x—36
(x+2)(x—5)
(x + 4)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x —5) (x + 4)c(xc+c2)c 4(x —9) 4(x + 4)(x —9)

Guided Practice
Simplify the complex fractions.
1. 5x— 20
x2
x— 4
x
2. 1— x — 2
x x 1

—
1+ 1x
3 + x
3. 2x2 +12x+18 x 2 —9
6x 3
3x—9 —x—3

Answers
1. Rewrite the fraction as a division problem and simplify.
5x—20
5cc c4
x(c
—
· /xcc4 = x
5x—20 x—4 5
x2
= ÷ =
x— 4
x x2 x) cx— x/2
2. Add the fractions in the numerator and denominator together.
1—x — 2 x—1 ·1—x — 2 ·x (x—1)(1—x)—2x —x2+1
x x—1 = x—1 x x—1 x
x ·1+1 = x(x—1)
x+1 = x(x—1)
x+1
1+ 1x x x x x

Now, rewrite the fraction as a division problem and simplify.

—x2 + 1 x + 1 —(x2 —1) x

=
x(x —1) ÷ x x(x —1) ·x + 1
—c(xc—c1)(x
cc c+ c1)c /x
= c c · cc
/xc(x —1)
c cx+ 1
= —1

3. Add the numerator and subtract the denominator of this complex fraction.

276
 2(x+3)
3 + 2x x—3
x—3
·2(x+3)(x+3)
3
+ (x—3)(x+3)
x
·2(x+3)
2x2 +12x+18 x —9
6x 3
= 6x 3
3x—9 —x—3 3(x—3) —x—3 ·33
3(x—3)+2x(x+3)
2(x+3)(x+3)(x—3)
=
6x—9
3(x—3)
2x2+3x—9
2(x+3)(x+3)(x—3)
=
\3(2x—3)
\3(x—3)

Now, flip and multiply.

2x2 + 3x —9 2x —3 c(xc+ c3)cc(2x

c— c
c 3) cx—cc3
÷ = ·
2(x + 3)(x + 3 )(x —3) x —3 cc
2c(xc+ 3)(x + 3)c(x — c 3 ) c2xc—c3
cc
1
=
2(x + 3)

Vocabulary

Complex Fraction
A fraction with rational expression(s) in the numerator and denominator.

Problem Set
Simplify the complex fractions.
4
1. x 2—9
6x
x+3
7x3
2. x2+5x+6
35x2
x+2
24x+3
3. 3x+1
16x+2
6x2—13x—5
4 1
x—1 +x
4. 1 —5
x
3x 1
x+4 —x
5. 3x—4
x2+6x+8
8—x+5 3x
6. 10 + 5
x+5 x+1
x 4
x+3 —2x+1
7. 3 + 6
2x+1 x2—9
x+3 + 2x
8. 3
x 5—x
4x
2x — x—5
2 x 1
5x2 —13x—6 + x—3
9. 4 5x
5x+2 —5x2—3x—2
3x + x+4
10. x2 —4 x2 +3x+2
x+1 2x
x2—x—2 —x2+2x+1

277
 5.5 Solving Rational Equations

Objective
To solve equations involving rational expressions.
Review Queue
Solve the following equations.
1. x2 + 9x + 14 = 0
2. 3x+2 = 9
3. x = 10
3 15
4. 12 =30
x 75
5. 42x—1 = 10
6. log(x —3)2 = 4

Using Cross-Multiplication

Objective
To use cross-multiplication to solve rational equations.
Guidance
A rational equation is an equation where there are rational expressions on both sides of the equal sign. One way
to solve rational equations is to use cross-multiplication. #4 from the Review Queue above is an example of a
proportion and we can solve it using cross-multiplication.

If you need more of a review of cross-multiplication, see the Proportion Properties concept in the Geometry
FlexBook® textbook. Otherwise, we will start solving rational equations using cross-multiplication.
Example A
Solve x
2x—3
= 3x .
x+11
Solution: Use cross-multiplication to solve the problem. You can use the example above as a guideline.

278
Check your answers. It is possible to get extraneous solutions with rational expressions.

0 3 ·0 4 3 ·4
= =
2 ·0 —3 0 + 11 2 ·4 —3 4 + 11
0 0 4 12
= G = G
—3 11 5 15
4 4
0=0 =
5 5
Example B
Solve x+1
4 = x—3
3 .

Solution: Cross-multiply and solve.

x+1 3
=
4 x —3
12 = x2 —2x —3
0 = x2 —2x —15
0 = (x —5)(x + 3)
x = 5 and —3

6 —3+1 3 —2 3
Check your answers. 5+1
4
= 3
5—3
→ 4
= 23 G and 4
= —3—3
→ 4
=— 6 G
Example C
Solve x2 = x+8 .
2x—5 2
Solution: Cross-multiply.

= x+8
x2
2x —5 2
2x2 + 11x —40 = 2x2
11x —40 = 0
11x = 40
x=
40
11

279
 ( 4011)2 40 +8
Check the answer: 80
= 11
2 → 1600 ÷ 25 = 128 ÷2 → 64
= 128 G
—5 121 11 11 11 22
11

Guided Practice
Solve the following rational equations.
x —1=
1. —x x—8
3

2. x2—1 = 2x—1
x+2 2

3. 9—x
x2
= 4
3x
Answers
1.
—x = x —8
x —1 3
x —9x + 8 = —3x
2

x2 —6x + 8 = 0
(x —4)(x —2) = 0
x = 4 and 2

—4 4 —8 —2 2 —8
Check : x = 4 → = G x=2→ = G
4 —1 3 2 —1 3
—4 = —4 —2 = —6
3 3 1 3

2.

x2 —1 2x —1
x+2 = 2
2x2 + 3x —2 = 2x2 —2
3x = 0
x=0

2 (0)— 1
Check : 0 —1 =
2
G
0+2 2
—1 = —1
2 2

3.
9 —x = 4
x2 —3x
4x2 = —27x + 3x2
x2 + 27x = 0
x(x + 27) = 0
x = 0 and —27

280
 9 —0 4 9 + 27 4
Check : x = 0 → = x = —27 → =
02 —3 (0) (—27)2 —3 (—27)
36 4
und = und = G
729 81
4 4
=
81 81

x = 0 is not actually a solution because it is a vertical asymptote for each rational expression, if graphed. Because
zero is not part of the domain, it cannot be a solution, and is extraneous.
Vocabulary

Rational Equation
An equation where there are rational expressions on both sides of the equal sign.

Problem Set
Solve the following rational equations.

x+3 = x
1. 2x 8

2. 4 = x+2
x+1 3
x2 = x+3
3. x+2 2
2x—1 = x
4. 3x 2x+1

x—3 = 3x—2
x+2 x
5.
x+3 = 2x+6
6. —3 x—3
x—1 = x—4
2x+5 2
7.
6x —1
8. = 3
4x2 2x+5
9. 5x2+1 = x3—8
10 2x
10. x2—4 = 2x—1
x+4 3

Using the LCD

Objective
Using the LCD of the expressions in a rational equation in order to solve for x.
Guidance
In addition to using cross-multiplication to solve a rational equation, we can also use the LCD of all the rational
expressions within the equation and eliminate the fraction. To demonstrate, we will walk through a few examples.
Example A
Solve 52 + 1x = 3.
Solution: The LCD for 2 and x is 2x. Multiply each term by 2x, so that the denominators are eliminated. We will
put the 2x over 1, when multiplying it by the fractions, so that it is easier to line up and cross-cancel.

281
 5 1
+ =3
2 x
2/ x 5 2/x 1
1 2
· + 1 ·x = 2x ·3
/ /
5x + 2 = 6x
2=x

Checking the answer, we have 52 + 12 = 3 → 6

2
=3 G
Example B
Solve 5x = 7 + 10 .
x—2 x—2
Solution: Because the denominators are the same, we need to multiply all three terms by x —2.

5x 10
= 7+
x —2 x —2
5x c 10
c(xc—c2c)· c c = (x —2)· 7 +c
(xc—c2) · cc
cx —2 cx—2
5x = 7x —14 + 10
—2x = —4
x=2

Checking our answer, we have: 2—2 5·2

= 7 + 2—2
10 → 10 = 7 + 10 . Because the solution is the vertical asymptote of two
0 0
of the expressions, x = 2 is an extraneous solution. Therefore, there is no solution to this problem.
Example C
Solve 3x + 54 = x—2
6 .

Solution: Determine the LCD for 5, x, and x —2. It would be the three numbers multiplied together: 5x(x —2).
Multiply each term by the LCD.

3 4 6
+ =
x 5 x —2
5/x(x —2) 3 5/ x (x —2) 4 5xc(xc—c2)c 6
·x+ ·5 = ·
1 / 1 / 1 cx—
cc2
15(x —2) + 4x(x —2) = 30x

Multiplying each term by the entire LCD cancels out each denominator, so that we have an equation that we have
learned how to solve in previous concepts. Distribute the 15 and 4x, combine like terms and solve.

15x —30 + 4x2 —8x = 30x

4x2 —23x —30 = 0

This polynomial is not factorable. Let’s use the Quadratic Formula to find the solutions.
q
23± (—23) 2 —4 ·4 ·(—30) √
x= 2·4 = 23± 1009
8

282
 √ √
Approximately, the solutions are 23+ 81009 ≈ 6.85 and 23— 81009 ≈ —1.096. It is harder to check these solutions.
The easiest thing to do is to graph 3x + 45 in Y 1 and x—2
6 in Y 2 (using your graphing calculator).

The x-values of the points of intersection (purple points in the graph) are approximately the same as the solutions
we found.

Guided Practice
Solve the following equations.
1. 2x = 2+ 3x
x—3 x2—9

2. 4
x—3 + 5 = x+2
9

3. 3 1 = 2
+ x+2
x2 +4x+4 x2 —4
Answers
1. The LCD is x2 —9. Multiply each term by its factored form to cross-cancel.

2x 3x
= 2+ 2
x —3 x —9
c(xc—c3)c (x + 3) ,+, 3,),
2x
·xc— = (x —3)(x + 3)·2 + ,(x,—3)
, (x
· 23cxc
c c3 x —9
c
1 1
2x(x + 3) = 2(x2 —9) + 3x
2x2 + 6x = 2x2 —18 + 3x
3x = —18
x = —6

2(—6) 3(—6) —12

Checking our answer, we have: —6—3 = 2+ → —9 = 2 + —2718 → 4
3
= 2 — 23 G
(—6)2—9

283
2. The LCD is (x —3)(x + 2). Multiply each term by the LCD.

4 9
+5 =
x —3 x+2
4 9
c(xc—c3)(x
c + 2)· + (x —3)(x + 2)· 5 = (x —3) c 2c c) ·
c(x +
cx—cc3 cx+cc2
4(x + 2) + 5(x —3)(x + 2) = 9(x —3)
4x + 8 + 5x2 —5x —30 = 9x —27
5x2 —10x + 5 = 0
5(x2 —2x + 1) = 0

This polynomial factors to be 5(x —1)(x —1) = 0, so x = 1 is a repeated solution. Checking our answer, we have
1—3 + 5 = 1+2 → —2 + 5 = 3 G
4 9

3. The LCD is (x + 2)(x + 2)(x —2).

3 1 2
+ = 2
x2 + 4x + 4 x + 2 x —4
2
, , , , 3 c + 2)(x —2)· 1 = (x + 2)( x,+,2)(x
(xc+c2)(x , ,—,2)·
,
,( x,+,2)(x + 2)(x —2)· (x,+,2),(x+, 2), , + c cx+cc2 , , , , ,
, ,( x,—,2) (x + 2)
3(x —2) + (x —2)(x + 2) = 2(x + 2)
3x —6 + x2 —4 = 2x + 4
x2 + x —14 = 0

This quadratic is not factorable, so we need to use the Quadratic Formula to solve for x.
√ √
—1± 1 —4 (—14) —1± 57 ≈ 3.27 and —4.27
x= 2
= 2
Using your graphing calculator, you can check the answer. The x-values of points of intersection of y = 3 + 1
x2 +4x+4 x +2
and y = x22 are
—4
the same as the values above.
Problem Set
Solve the following equations.

1. x +2 + 1 = x
6 5

2. 5 — 2 = 4
3x x+1 x
12 = 8x — 2
3. x —9
2 x—3 x+3
6x + 2 = 3x
4. x —1
2 x+1 x—1
5. 5x—3
4x — x+1
x+2 = 1
x2 +2x
6. 4x
x2 +6x+9
—x+2 3 = x23—9
= x + 23x
x2
7. x2—8x+16 x—4 x —16
8. 5x + x+1 = 6x2+x+12
2x—3 x 2x2—3x
9. 2
3x
x +2x—8
= x+1 + 2x+1
x2+4x x2—2x
10. x+1 + x+2 = x
x2+7x x2—3x x2+4x—21

284
 CHAPTER
6 Conic Sections
Chapter Outline
1. PARABOLAS
2. C IRCLES
3. E LLIPSES
4. H YPERBOLAS
5. G ENERAL CONIC EQUATIONS AND SOLVING N ON -LINEAR S YSTEMS

Conic sections are four shapes; parabolas, circles, ellipses, and hyperbolas, created from the intersection of a plane
with a cone or two cones.

In this chapter, we will study these four conic sections and place them in the x —y plane. For each shape, we will
analyze the parts, find the equation and graph. Lastly, we will introduce the general conic section equation and solve
systems with conics and lines.

285
 6.1 Parabolas

Objective
To analyze a parabola: find the vertex, focus, directrix, and graph.
Review Queue

1. Graph y = 2x2. Find the vertex, axis of symmetry and any intercepts.
2. Graph y = x2 + 10x —24. Find the axis of symmetry and the vertex.
3. What are the intercepts of y = x2 —7x —18?

Parabolas with Vertex at (0, 0)

Objective
To write and graph the equation of a parabola, with vertex (0, 0), and find the focus, directrix, and vertex.
Guidance
You already know that the graph of a parabola has the parent graph y = x2, with a vertex of (0, 0) and an axis of
symmetry of x = 0. A parabola can also be defined in a different way. It has a property such that any point on it is
equidistant from another point, called the focus, and a line called the directrix.
The focus is one the axis of symmetry and the vertex is halfway between it and the directrix. The directrix is
perpendicular to the axis of symmetry.

Until now, we have been used to seeing the equation of a parabola like y = ax2. In this concept, we will rewrite the
equation to look like x2 = 4py where p is used to find the focus and directrix. We will also draw the parabola with a
horizontal orientation, such that the equation will be y2 = 4px.

286
Notice, that when the parabola opens to the left or right, the y is squared. In this concept, the vertex will be (0, 0).
Example A
Analyze the equation y2 = —12x. Find the focus, directrix, and determine if the function opens up, down, to the left
or right. Then graph the parabola.
Solution: To find the focus and directrix, we need to find p. We can set —12 = 4p and solve for p.

—12 = 4p
—3 = p

Because y is squared, we know that the parabola opens to the left or right. Because p is negative, we know it is
going to open to the left, towards the negative side of the x-axis. Using the pictures above, this parabola is like the
second one under y2 = 4px. Therefore, the focus is (—3, 0) and the directrix is x = 3. To graph the parabola, plot
the vertex, focus, directrix, and sketch the curve. Find at least one or two points on the curve to make sure your
sketch is accurate. For example, because (—3, 6) is on the parabola, then (—3, —6) is also on the parabola because it
is symmetrical.
Notice that the points (—3, 6) and (—3, —6) are equidistant from the focus and the directrix. They are both 6 units
from each.

287
Example B
The focus of a parabola is 0, 12 . Find the equation of the parabola.
Solution: Because the p value is the y-value and positive, this parabola is going to open up. So, the general equation
is x2 = 4py. Plugging in 12 for p, we have x2 = 4 ·12 y or x 2 = 2y.
Example C
Find the equation of the parabola below.

Solution: The equation of the directrix is y = 5, which means that p = —5 and the general equation will be x2 = 4py.
Plugging in -5 for p, we have x2 = —20y.
Guided Practice

288
1. Determine if the parabola x2 = —2y opens up, down, left or right.
2. Find the focus and directrix of y2 = 6x. Then, graph the parabola.
3. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix x = —8 . 3

Answers
1. Down; p is negative and x is squared.
2. Solving for p, we have 4p = 6 → p = 32. Because y is squared and p is positive, the parabola will open to the
right. The focus is 32 ,0 and the directrix is x = —32 .

3. If the directrix is negative and vertical (x =), we know that the equation is going to be y2 = 4px and the parabola
will open to the right, making p positive; p = 38 . Therefore, the equation will be y2 = 4 ·38 ·x → y 2 = 32x.
Vocabulary

Parabola
The set of points that are equidistant from a fixed point on the interior of the curve, called the focus, and a line
on the exterior, called the directrix. The directrix is vertical or horizontal, depending on the orientation of the
parabola.

Problem Set
Determine if the parabola opens to the left, right, up or down.

1. x2 = 4y
2. y2 = —21 x
3. x2 = —y

Find the focus and directrix of the following parabolas.

4. x2 = —2y
5. y2 = 41 x

289
 6. y2 = —5x

Graph the following parabolas. Identify the focus and directrix as well.

7. x2 = 8y
8. y2 = 21 x
9. x2 = —3y

Find the equation of the parabola given that the vertex is (0, 0) and the focus or directrix.

10. focus: (4, 0)

11. directrix: x = 10
12. focus: 0, 72
13. In the Quadratics chapter, the basic parabolic equation was y = ax2. Now, we write x2 = 4py. Rewrite p in
terms of a and determine how they affect each
q other.
14. Challenge Use the distance formula, d = (x2 —x1 ) 2 —( y2 —y1 ) 2, to prove that the point (4, 2) is on the
parabola x2 = 8y.
15. Real World Application A satellite dish is a 3-dimensional parabola used to retrieve sound, TV, or other waves.
Assuming the vertex is (0, 0), where would the focus have to be on a satellite dish that is 4 feet wide and 9
inches deep? You may assume the parabola has a vertical orientation (opens up).

Parabolas with Vertex at (h, k)

Objective
To write and graph the equation of a parabola with vertex (h, k) and find the focus, directrix, and vertex.
Guidance
You learned in the Quadratics chapter that parabolas don’t always have their vertex at (0, 0). In this concept, we will
address parabolas where the vertex is (h, k), learn how to find the focus, directrix and graph.
Recall from the previous concept that the equation of a parabola is x2 = 4py or y2 = 4px and the vertex is on the
origin. In the Quadratics chapter, we learned that the vertex form of a parabola is y = a(x —h)2 + k. Combining the
two, we can find the vertex form for conics.

290
 y = a(x —h)2 + k and x2 = 4py Solve the first for (x —h)2.
1 1
(x —h) 2 = a(y —k) From #13 in the previous concept, we found that 4p = a.
(x —h)2 = 4p(y —k)

If the parabola is horizontal, then the equation will be (y —k)2 = 4p(x —h). Notice, that even though the orientation
is changed, the h and k values remain with the x and y values, respectively.
Finding the focus and directrix are a little more complicated. Use the extended table (from the previous concept)
below to help you find these values.

Notice that the way we find the focus and directrix does not change whether p is positive or negative.
Example A
Analyze the equation (y —1)2 = 8(x + 3). Find the vertex, axis of symmetry, focus, and directrix. Then determine if
the function opens up, down, left or right.
Solution: First, because y is squared, we know that the parabola will open to the left or right. We can conclude that
the parabola will open to the right because 8 is positive, meaning that p is positive. Next, find the vertex. Using the
general equation, (y —k)2 = 4p(x —h), the vertex is (—3, 1) and the axis of symmetry is y = 1. Setting 4p = 8, we
have that p = 2. Adding p to the x-value of the vertex, we get the focus, (—1, 1). Subtracting p from the x-value of
the vertex, we get the directrix, x = —5.
Example B
Graph the parabola from Example A. Plot the vertex, axis of symmetry, focus, and directrix.

291
Solution: First, plot all the critical values we found from Example A. Then, determine a set of symmetrical points
that are on the parabola to make sure your curve is correct. If x = 5, then y is either -7 or 9. This means that the
points (5, —7) and (5, 9) are both on the parabola.

It is important to note that parabolas with a horizontal orientation are not functions because they do not pass the
vertical line test.
Example C
The vertex of a parabola is (—2, 4) and the directrix is y = 7. Find the equation of the parabola.
Solution: First, let’s determine the orientation of this parabola. Because the directrix is horizontal, we know that
the parabola will open up or down (see table/pictures above). We also know that the directrix is above the vertex,
making the parabola open down and p will be negative (plot this on an x —y plane if you are unsure).
To find p, we can use the vertex, (h, k) and the equation for a horizontal directrix, y = k —p.

7 = 4 —p
3 = —p Remember, p is negative because of the downward orientation of the parabola.
—3 = p

Now, using the general form, (x —h)2 = 4p(y —k), we can find the equation of this parabola.

(x —(—2))2 = 4(—3)(y —4)

(x + 2)2 = —12(y —4)

Guided Practice
1. Find the vertex, focus, axis of symmetry and directrix of (x + 5)2 = 2(y + 2).
2. Graph the parabola from #1.

292
3. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (—5, —1) and focus (—8, —1).
Answers
1. The vertex is (—5, —2) and the parabola opens up because p is positive and x is squared. 4p = 2, making p = 2.
The focus is (—5, —2 + 2) or (—5, 0), the axis of symmetry is x = —5, and the directrix is y = —2 —2 or y = —4.
2.

3. The vertex is (—5, —1), so h = —5 and k = —1. The focus is (—8, —1), meaning that that parabola will be
horizontal. We know this because the y-values of the vertex and focus are both -1. Therefore, p is added or subtracted
to h.
(h + p, k) → (—8, —1) we can infer that h + p = —8 → —5 + p = —8 and p = —3
Therefore, the equation is (y —(—1))2 = 4(—3)(x —(—5)) → (y + 1)2 = —12(x + 5).
Vocabulary

Standard Form (of a Parabola)

(x —h)2 = 4p(y —k) or (y —k)2 = 4p(x —h) where (h, k) is the vertex.

Problem Set
Find the vertex, focus, axis of symmetry, and directrix of the parabolas below.

1. (x + 1)2 = —3(y —6)

2. (x —3)2 = y —7
3. (y + 2)2 = 8(x + 1)
4. y2 = —10(x —3)
5. (x + 6)2 = 4(y + 8)
6. (y —5) 2 = —12 x
7. Graph the parabola from #1.
8. Graph the parabola from #2.
9. Graph the parabola from #4.
10. Graph the parabola from #5.

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Find the equation of the parabola given the vertex and either the focus or directrix.

11. vertex: (2, —1), focus: (2, —4)

12. vertex: (—3, 6), directrix: x = 2
13. vertex: (6, 10), directrix: y = 9.5
14. Challenge focus: (—1, —2), directrix: x = 3
15. Extension Rewrite the equation of the parabola, x 2 —8x + 2y + 22 = 0, in standard form by completing the
square. Then, find the vertex. (For a review, see the Completing the Square when a = 1 concept.)

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 6.2 Circles

Objective
To identify the parts of and graph a circle, centered on the origin or not.
Review Queue

1. Given that 6 and 8 are the legs of a right triangle, what is the hypotenuse?
2. Given that 5 is one leg of a right triangle and 13 is the hypotenuse, what is the length of the other leg?
3. What is the area and circumference of a circle with radius 4?
4. What is the area of circle with circumference 20π?

Circles Centered at the Origin

Objective
To find the radius and graph a circle centered at the origin.
Guidance
Until now, your only reference to circles was from geometry. A circle is the set of points that are equidistant (the
radius) from a given point (the center). A line segment that passes through the center and has endpoints on the
circle is a diameter.
Now, we will take a circle and place it on the x —y plane to see if we can find its equation. In this concept, we are
going to place the center of the circle on the origin.
Investigation: Finding the Equation of a Circle
1. On a piece of graph paper, draw an x —y plane. Using a compass, draw a circle, centered at the origin that has a
radius of 5. Find the point (3, 4) on the circle and draw a right triangle with the radius as the hypotenuse.

295
2. Using the length of each side of the right triangle, show that the Pythagorean Theorem is true.
3. Now, instead of using (3, 4), change the point to (x, y) so that it represents any point on the circle. Using r to
represent the radius, rewrite the Pythagorean Theorem.
The equation of a circle, centered at the origin, is x2 + y2 = r2, where r is the radius and (x, y) is any point on the
circle.
Example A
Find the radius of x2 + y2 = 16 and graph.
Solution: To find the radius, we can set 16 = r2, making r = 4. r is not -4 because it is a distance and distances are
always positive. To graph the circle, start at the origin and go out 4 units in each direction and connect.

296
Example B
Find the equation of the circle with center at the origin and passes through (—7, —7).
Solution: Using the equation of the circle, we have: (—7)2 + (—7)2 = r2. Solve for r2.

(—7)2 + (—7)2 = r2
49 + 49 = r2
98 = r2

√ √
So, the equation is x2 + y2 = 98. The radius of the circle is r = 98 = 7 2.
Example C
Determine if the point (9, —11) is on the circle x2 + y2 = 225.
Solution: Substitute the point in for x and y and see if it equals 225.

92 + (—11)2 = 225
?
81 + 121 = 225 The point is not on the circle.
202 /
= 225

Guided Practice
1. Graph and find the radius of x2 + y2 = 4.
√
2. Find the equation of the circle with a radius of 6 5.
3. Find the equation of the circle that passes through (5, 8).
4. Determine if (—10, 7) in on the circle x2 + y2 = 149.
Answers
√
1. r = 4 = 2

297
 √
2. Plug in 6 5 for r in x2 + y2 = r2

√ 2
x2 + y2 = 6 5
√ 2
x2 + y2 = 62 · 5
x2 + y2 = 36 ·5
x2 + y2 = 180

3. Plug in (5, 8) for x and y, respectively.

52 + 82 = r2
25 + 64 = r2
89 = r2

The equation is x2 + y2 = 89
4. Plug in (—10, 7) to see if it is a valid equation.

(—10)2 + 72 = 149
100 + 49 = 149

Yes, the point is on the circle.

Vocabulary

Circle
The set of points that are a given distance, the radius, from a given point, the center.

Diameter
A line segment with its endpoints on the circle that passes through the center.

Equation of a Circle
If (x, y) is on the circle, then x2 + y2 = r2 is its equation, where r is the radius.

Problem Set
Graph the following circles and find the radius.

1. x2 + y2 = 9
2. x2 + y2 = 64
3. x2 + y2 = 8
4. x2 + y2 = 50
5. 2x2 + 2y2 = 162
6. 5x2 + 5y2 = 150

Write the equation of the circle with the given radius and centered at the origin.

298
 7. 14
8. 6 √
9. 9 2

Write the equation of the circle that passes through the given point and is centered at the origin.

10. (7, —24)

11. (2, 2)
12. (—9, —10)

Determine if the following points are on the circle, x2 + y2 = 74.

13. (—8, 0)
14. (7, —5)
15. (6, —6)

Challenge In Geometry, you learned about tangent lines to a circle. Recall that the tangent line touches a circle at
one point and is perpendicular to the radius at that point, called the point of tangency.

16. The equation of a circle is x2 + y2 = 10 with point of tangency (—3, 1).

a. Find the slope of the radius from the center to (—3, 1).
b. Find the perpendicular slope to (a). This is the slope of the tangent line.
c. Use the slope from (b) and the given point to find the equation of the tangent line.

17. Repeat the steps in #16 to find the equation of the tangent line to x2 + y2 = 34 with a point of tangency of
(3, 5).

Circles Centered at (h, k)

Objective
To find the equation of and graph circles with a center of (h, k).
Guidance
When a circle is centered at the origin (as in the last concept), the equation is x2 + y2 = r2. If we rewrite this equation,
using the center, it would look like (x —0)2 + (y —0)2 = r2. Extending this idea to any point as the center, we would
have (x —h)2 + (y —k)2 = r2, where (h, k) is the center.
Example A
Find the center and radius of (x + 1)2 + (y —3)2 = 16 and graph.
√
Solution: Using the general equation above, the center would be (—1, 3) and the radius is 16 or 4. To graph, plot
the center and then go out 4 units up, down, to the left, and to the right.

299
Example B
Find the equation of the circle with center (2, 4) and radius 5.
Solution: Plug in the center and radius to the equation and simplify.

(x —2)2 + (y —4)2 = 52
(x —2)2 + (y —4)2 = 25

Example C
Find the equation of the circle with center (6, —1) and (5, 2) is on the circle.
Solution: In this example, we are not given the radius. To find the radius, we must use the distance formula,
q
d = ( x 2 —x1)2 + (y2 —y1)2.

q
r= ( 5 —6)2 + (2 —(—1))2
q
= (—1) 2 + 32
√
= 1 +9
√
= 10

√ 2
Therefore, the equation of this circle is (x —6)2 + (y —(—1))2 = 10 or (x —6)2 + (y + 1)2 = 10.
Guided Practice
1. Graph (x + 4)2 + (y + 3)2 = 25 and find the center and radius.
2. Find the equation of the circle with center (—8, 3) and (2, —5) is on the circle.
3. The endpoints of a diameter of a circle are (—3, 1) and (9, 6). Find the equation.
Answers

300
1. The center is (—4, —3) and the radius is 5.

2. Use the distance formula to find the radius.

q
r= ( 2 —(—8))2 + (—5 —3)2
q
= 102 + (—8) 2
√
= 100 + 64
√
= 164

The equation of this circle is (x + 8)2 + (y —3)2 = 164.

3. In this problem, we are not given the center or radius. We can find the length of the diameter using the distance
formula and then divide it by 2.

q
d= ( 9 —(—3))2 + (6 —1)2
√ 13
= 122 + 52 The radius is 13 ÷ 2 = .
√ 2
= 144 + 25
√
= 169 = 13

Now, we need to find the center. Use the midpoint formula with the endpoints.

—3 + 9 1 + 6
c= ,
2 2

= 3, 7
2

301
 2
Therefore, the equation is ( x —3) 2 + y —72 = 169 .
4
Vocabulary

Standard Form (of a Circle)

(x —h)2 + (y —k)2 = r2, where (h, k) is the center and r is the radius.

Problem Set
For questions 1-4, match the equation with the graph.

1. (x —8)2 + (y + 2)2 = 4
2. x2 + (y —6)2 = 9
3. (x + 2)2 + (y —3)2 = 36
4. (x —4)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25

Graph the following circles. Find the center and radius.

5. (x —2)2 + (y —5)2 = 16
6. (x + 4)2 + (y + 3)2 = 18
7. (x + 7)2 + (y —1)2 = 8

Find the equation of the circle, given the information below.

8. center: (—3, —3) radius:√7

9. center: (—7, 6) radius: 15
10. center: (8, —1) point on circle: (0, 14)
11. center: (—2, —5) point on circle: (3, 2)
12. diameter endpoints: (—4, 1) and (6, 3)
13. diameter endpoints: (5, —8) and (11, 2)
14. Is (—9, 12) on the circle (x + 5)2 + (y —6)2 = 54? How do you know?
15. Challenge Using the steps from #16 in the previous concept, find the equation of the tangent line to the circle
with center (3, —4) and the point of tangency is (—1, 8).

302
16. Extension Rewrite the equation of the circle, x2 + y2 + 4x —8y + 11 = 0 in standard form by completing the
square for both the x and y terms. Then, find the center and radius.

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 6.3 Ellipses

Objective
To discover the parts of and graph ellipses.
Review Queue

1. Where have you seen an ellipse in real life?

2. What is the equation of the circle with center (—9, 2) and a radius of 11.
3. Find the equation of the line that passes through (3, 7) and (—6, 1).

Ellipses Centered at the Origin

Objective
To analyze ellipses centered at the origin.
Guidance
The third conic section is an ellipse. Recall that a circle is when a plane sliced through a cone and that plane is
parallel to the base of the cone. An ellipse is formed when that plane is not parallel to the base. Therefore, a circle
is actually a more specific version of an ellipse.

By definition, an ellipse is the set of all points such that the sum of the distances from two fixed points, called foci
(the plural of focus), is constant.
Investigation: Drawing an Ellipse
In this investigation we will use the definition to draw an ellipse.
1. On a piece of graph paper, draw a set of axes and plot (—2, 0) and (2, 0). These will be the foci.
2. From the definition, we can conclude a point (x, y) is on an ellipse if the sum of the distances is always constant.
In the picture, d1 + d2 = r and g1 + g2 = r.
3. Determine how far apart the foci are. Then, find d1 and d2.
4. Determine if the point (—2, 3) is on the ellipse.

304
Extension: Check out the website, http://schools.spsd.sk.ca/mountroyal/hoffman/MathC30/Ellipse/Ellipse.MOV to
see an animation of (x, y) moving around the ellipse, showing that d1 + d2 remains constant.
In this concept, the center of an ellipse will be (0, 0). An ellipse can have either a vertical or horizontal orientation
(see below). There are always two foci and they are on the major axis. The major axis is the longer of the two axes
that pass through the center of an ellipse. Also on the major axis are the vertices, which its endpoints and are the
furthest two points away from each other on an ellipse. The shorter axis that passes through the center is called the
minor axis, with endpoints called co-vertices. The midpoint of both axes is the center.

305
 TABLE 10.1: Equation of an Ellipse, Centered at the Origin

+ by2 = 1
2
x2 HORIZONTAL
a2
major axis is the x-axis with length 2a.
minor axis is the y-axis with length 2b.
+ ay2 = 1
2
x2 VERTICAL
b2
major axis is the y-axis with length 2a.
minor axis is the x-axis with length 2b.

Other Important Facts

• a is ALWAYS greater than b. If they are equal, we have a circle.

• The foci, vertices, and co-vertices relate through a version of the Pythagorean Theorem: c2 = a2 —b2

Example A
+ 25
y = 1. Then, graph the ellipse.
2
Find the vertices, co-vertices, and foci of x2
64
Solution: First, we need to determine if this is a horizontal√or vertical ellipse. Because 64 > 25, √ we know that the
ellipse will be horizontal. Therefore, a2 = 64 making a = 64 = 8 and b2 = 25, making b = 25 = 5. Using the
pictures above, the vertices will be (8, 0) and (—8, 0) and the co-vertices will be (0, 5) and (0, —5).
To find the foci, we need to use the equation c2 = a2 —b2 and solve for c.

c2 = 64 —25 = 39
√
c = 39

√ √
The foci are 39, 0 and — 39, 0 .

306
To graph the ellipse, plot the vertices and co-vertices and connect the four points to make the closed curve.

Example B
Graph 49x2 + 9y2 = 441. Identify the foci.
Solution: This equation is not in standard form. To rewrite it in standard form, the right side of the equation must
be 1. Divide everything by 441.

49x2 9y2 441

441 + 441 = 441
x2 y2
9
+ 49 = 1

Now, we can see that this is a vertical ellipse, where b = 3 and a = 7.

307
To find the foci, use c2 = a2 —b2.

c2 = 49 —9 = 40
√ √
c = 40 = 2 10

√ √
The foci are 0, 2 10 and 0, —2 10 .
Example C
Write an equation for the ellipse with the given characteristics below and centered at the origin.
a) vertex: (—6, 0), co-vertex: (0, 4)
b) vertex: (0, 9), focus: (0, —5)
Solution: In either part, you may wish to draw the ellipse to help with orientation.
For part a, we can conclude that a = 6 and b = 4. The ellipse is horizontal, because the larger value, a, is the x-value
x2 + y2 = 1.
of the vertex. The equation is 36 16
For part b, we know that a = 9 and c = 5 and that the ellipse is vertical. Solve for b using c2 = a2 —b2

52 = 92 —b2
25 = 81 —b2
√
b2 = 56 → b = 2 14

+ 81
y =1
2
The equation is x2
56
Guided Practice
1. Find the vertices, co-vertices, and foci of x2 + y2 = 1. Then, graph the equation.
4 36
2. Graph 49x2 + 64y2 = 3136 and find the foci.

308
3. Find the equation of the ellipse with co-vertex (0, —7), focus (15, 0) and centered at the origin.
Answers
1. Because the larger number is under y2, the ellipse is vertical. Therefore, a = 6 and b2. Use c2 = a2 —b2 to find c.

c2 = 62 —22 = 36 —4 = 32
√ √
c = 32 = 4 2

vertices: (0, 6) and (0, —6)

co-vertices: (2, 0) and (—2, 0)
√ √
foci: 0, 4 2 and 0, —4 2

2. Rewrite 49x2 + 64y2 = 3136 in standard form.

49x2 64y2 3136

3136 + 3136 = 3136
x2 y2
64 + 49 = 1

309
This ellipse is horizontal with a = 8 and b = 7. Find c.

c2 = 64 —49 = 15
√
c = 15

√ √
The foci are — 15, 0 and 15, 0 .
3. Because the co-vertex is (0, —7), b = 7 and the ellipse is horizontal. From the foci, we know that c = 15. Find a.

152 = a2 —72
2 2
a2 = 225 + 49 = 274 The equation is x + y = 1.
274 49
√
a = 274

Vocabulary

Ellipse
The set of all points such that the sum of the distances from two fixed points, called foci, is constant.

Major Axis
The longer of the two axes that pass through the center of an ellipse.

Minor Axis
The shorter of the two axes that pass through the center of an ellipse.

Vertices
The endpoints of the major axis.

310
Co-vertices
The endpoints of the minor axis.

Problem Set
Find the vertices, co-vertices, and foci of each ellipse below. Then, graph.

1. x92 + y16 = 1
2

2. 4x2 + 25y2 = 100

x2 + y2 = 1
3. 64
4. 81x2 + 100y2 = 8100
x2 + y2 = 1
5. 49 16
6. 121x2 + 9y2 = 1089

Find the equation of the ellipse, centered at the origin, with the given information.

7. vertex: (—3, 0) co-vertex: (0, 1)

8. co-vertex: (7, 0) major axis: 18 units
9. vertex: (0, 5) minor axis: 4 units
10. vertex: (4, 0) focus: (—3, 0)
11. co-vertex: (—6, 0) focus: (0, 5)
12. focus: (0, —9) minor axis: 16 units
13. Real Life Application A portion of the backyard of the White House is called The Ellipse. The major axis is
1058 feet and the minor axis is 903 feet. Find the equation of the horizontal ellipse, assuming it is centered at
the origin.

Ellipses Centered at (h, k)

Objective
To graph and find the equation of ellipses that are not centered at the origin.
Guidance
Just like in the previous lessons, an ellipse does not always have to be placed with its center at the origin. If the
center is (h, k) the entire ellipse will be shifted h units to the left or right and k units up or down. The equation
2 2
becomes (x—h) + (y—k) = 1. We will address how the vertices, co-vertices, and foci change in the next example.
a2 b2
Example A
(x—3)2 2
Graph + (y+1) = 1. Then, find the vertices, co-vertices, and foci.
16 4

311
Solution: First, we know this is a horizontal ellipse because 16 > 4. Therefore, the center is (3, —1) and a = 4 and
b = 2. Use this information to graph the ellipse.
To graph, plot the center and then go out 4 units to the right and left and then up and down two units. This is also
how you can find the vertices and co-vertices. The vertices are (3 ± 4, —1) or (7, —1) and (—1, —1). The co-vertices
are (3, —1 ± 2) or (3, 1) and (3, —3).

To find the foci, we need to find c using c2 = a2 —b2.

c2 = 16 —4 = 12
√
c=2 3

√
Therefore, the foci are 3 ± 2 3, —1 .
From this example, we can create formulas for finding the vertices, co-vertices, and foci of an ellipse with center
(h, k). Also, when graphing an ellipse, not centered at the origin, make sure to plot the center.

TABLE 10.2:
Orientation Equation Vertices Co-Vertices Foci
(x—h)2 + (y—k)2 = 1
Horizontal a2 b2 (h ± a, k) (h, k ± b) (h ± c, k)
2 2
(x—h) + (y—k) =1
Vertical b2 a2 (h, k ± a) (h ± b, k) (h, k ± c)

Example B
Find the equation of the ellipse with vertices (—3, 2) and (7, 2) and co-vertex (2, —1).
Solution: These two vertices create a horizontal major axis, making the ellipse horizontal. If you are unsure, plot
the given information on a set of axes. To find the center, use the midpoint formula with the vertices.
—3+7 2+2
2 , 2
= 4,4
2 2
= (2, 2)

312
The distance from one of the vertices to the center is a, |7 —2| = 5. The distance from the co-vertex to the center is
2 2
(y—2) 2 2
b, |—1 —2| = 3. Therefore, the equation is (x—2)
52 + 32 = 1 or (x—2)
25
+ (y—2)
9
= 1.
Example C
Graph 49(x —5)2 + 25(y + 2)2 = 1225 and find the foci.
Solution: First we have to get this into standard form, like the equations above. To make the right side 1, we need
to divide everything by 1225.

49 (x —5)2 25 (y + 2)2 1225

+ =
1225 1225 1225
(x —5)2 (y + 2)2
+ =1
25 49

Now, we know that the ellipse will be vertical because 25 < 49. a = 7, b = 5 and the center is (5, —2).

To find the foci, we first need to find c by using c2 = a2 —b2.

c2 = 49 —25 = 24
√ √
c = 24 = 2 6

√
The foci are 5, —2 ± 2 6 or (5, —6.9) and (5, 2.9).
Guided Practice
(x+4)2 2
1. Find the center, vertices, co-vertices and foci of 81
+ (y—7)
16
= 1.
2. Graph 25(x —3)2 + 4(y —1)2 = 100 and find the foci.
3. Find the equation of the ellipse with co-vertices (—3, —6) and (5, —6) and focus (1, —2).
Answers

313
 √ √
1. The center is (—4, 7), a = 81 = 9 and b = 16 = 4, making the ellipse horizontal. The vertices are (—4 ± 9, 7)
or (—13, 7) and (5, 7). The co-vertices are (—4, 7 ± 4) or (—4, 3) and (—4, 11). Use c2 = a2 —b2 to find c.

c2 = 81 —16 = 65
√
c = 65

√ √
The foci are —4 — 65, 7 and —4 + 65, 7 .
2. Change this equation to standard form in order to graph.

25 (x —3)2 4 (y —1)2 100

+ =
100 100 100
(x —3)2 (y —1)2
+ =1
4 25

center: (3, 1), b = 2, a = 5

Find the foci.

c2 = 25 —4 = 21
√
c = 21

√ √
The foci are 3, 1 + 21 and 3, 1 — 21 .
3. The co-vertices (—3, —6) and (5, —6) are the endpoints of the minor axis. It is |—3 —5| = 8 units long, making
b = 4. The midpoint between the co-vertices is the center.
—3+5
2
,—6 = 2 ,—6
2
= (1, —6)

314
The focus is (1, —1) and the distance between it and the center is 4 units, or c. Find a.

16 = a2 —16
32 = a2
√ √
a = 32 = 4 2

(x—1)2 2
The equation of the ellipse is + (y+6) = 1.
16 32
Vocabulary

Standard Form (of an Ellipse)

(x—h)2 2 2 2
+ (y—k) = 1 or (x—h) + (y—k) = 1 where (h, k) is the center.
a2 b2 b2 a2

Problem Set
Find the center, vertices, co-vertices, and foci of each ellipse below.

1. (x+5) + (y+1)
2 2
25 36 =1
2. (x + 2) 2 + 16 (y —6) 2 = 16
3. (x—2) + (y—3) = 1
2 2

9 49
4. 25x2 + 64(y —6)2 = 1600
2
5. (x —8)2 + (y—4)
9
=1
6. 81(x + 4) 2 + 4(y + 5) 2 = 324
7. Graph the ellipse in #1.
8. Graph the ellipse in #2.
9. Graph the ellipse in #4.
10. Graph the ellipse in #5.

Using the information below, find the equation of each ellipse.

11. vertices: (—2, —3) and (8, —3) co-vertex: (3, —5)
12. vertices: (5, 6) and (5, —12) focus: (5, —7)
13. co-vertices: (0, 4) and (14, 4) focus: (7, 1)
14. foci: (—11, —4) and (1, —4) vertex: (—12, —4)
15. Extension Rewrite the equation of the ellipse, 36x2 + 25y 2 —72x + 200y —464 = 0 in standard form, by
completing the square for both the x and y terms. Then, find the center, vertices, co-vertices, and foci.

315
 6.4 Hyperbolas

Objective
To identify parts of and graph hyperbolas centered at the origin or not.
Review Queue

1. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola: (y + 5)2 = —8(x —1).
2. Find the center and radius of the circle: (x —2)2 + (y —6)2 = 25.
3. Find the center, vertices, co-vertices, and foci of the ellipse: (x+7) + (y—3) = 1.
2 2

9 64

Graphing Hyperbolas Centered at the Origin

Objective
To analyze hyperbolas centered at the origin.
Guidance
From the Rational Functions chapter, we know that the resulting graph of a rational function is a hyperbola with two
branches. A hyperbola is also a conic section. To create a hyperbola, you would slice a plane through two inverted
cones, such that the plane is perpendicular to the bases of the cones.

By the conic definition, a hyperbola is the set of all points such that the of the differences of the distances from the
foci is constant.

316
Using the picture, any point, (x, y) on a hyperbola has the property, d1 —d2 = P, where P is a constant.
Comparing this to the ellipse, where d1 + d2 = P and the equation was x2 2
+ by2 = 1 or x2 2
+ ay2 = 1.
a2 b2
2 2 2 2
For a hyperbola, then, the equation will be ax2 —by2 = 1 or ay2 —bx2 = 1. Notice in the vertical orientation of a hyperbola,
the y2 term in first. Just like with an ellipse, there are two vertices, on the hyperbola. Here, they are the two points
that are closest to each other on the graph. The line through the vertices and foci is called the transverse axis. Its
midpoint is the center of the hyperbola. In this concept, the center will be the origin. There will always be two
branches for any hyperbola and two asymptotes.

317
Example A
2
Graph x2 y
—25 = 1. Then, find the vertices, foci, and asymptotes.
64
Solution: First, this hyperbola has a horizontal transverse axis because the x2 term is first. Also, with hyperbolas,
the a and b term stay in place, but the x and y terms switch. a is not always greater than b.
√ √
Therefore, a = 64 = 8 and b = 25 = 5. To graph this hyperbola, go out 8 units to the left and right of the center
and 5 units up and down to make a rectangle. The diagonals of this rectangle are the asymptotes.
Draw the hyperbola branches with the vertices on the transverse axis and the rectangle. Sketch the branches to get
close to the asymptotes, but not touch them.

The vertices are ( ±8, 0) and the asymptotes are y = ± x58 (see pictures above. To find the foci, we use the Pythagorean

318
Theorem, c2 = a2 + b2 because the foci are further away from the center than the vertices.

c2 = 64 + 25 = 89
√
c = 89

√
The foci are ± 89, 0 .
Example B
Graph 36y2 —9x2 = 324. Identify the foci.
Solution: This equation is not in standard form. To rewrite it in standard form, the right side of the equation must
be 1. Divide everything by 324.

36y2 9x2 324

324 —324 = 324
y2 x2
9
—36 = 1

Now, we can see that this is a vertical hyperbola, where a = 3 and b = 6. Draw the rectangle, asymptotes, and plot
the vertices on the y-axis.

To find the foci, use c2 = a2 + b2.

c2 = 36 + 9 = 45
√ √
c = 45 = 3 5

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 √ √
The foci are 0, 3 5 and 0, —3 5 .
Example C
2
Graph x2 —y4 = 1. Identify the asymptotes.
4
√
Solution: This will be a horizontal hyperbola, because the x-term is first. a and b will both be 2 because 4 = 2.
Draw the square and diagonals to form the asymptotes.

The asymptotes are y = ± 22x or y = x and y = —x.

Important Note: The asymptotes and square are not a part of the function. They are included in graphing a
hyperbola because it makes it easier to do so.
Also, when graphing hyperbolas, we are sketching each branch. We did not make a table of values to find certain
points and then connect. You can do this, but using the square or rectangle with the asymptotes produces a pretty
accurate graph and is much simpler.
Guided Practice
2
1. Find the vertices, foci, and asymptotes of y2 — 25
x = 1.

2. Graph #1.
3. Graph 9x2 —49y2 = 411.
Answers
2 2
1. First, let’s rewrite the equation like this: y1 — 25
x = 1. We know that the transverse axis is vertical because the

y-term is first, making a = 1 and b = 5. Therefore, the vertices are ( 0, —1) and (0, 1). The asymptotes are y = 15 x
and y = —15 x. Lastly, let’s find the foci using c2 = a2 + b 2.

c2 = 1 + 25 = 26
√
c = 26

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 √ √
The foci are 0, — 26 and 0, 26 .
2.

3. Rewrite the equation so that the right side is equal to 1. Divide everything by 441.

9x2 49y2 441

— =
441 441 441
x2 y2
— =1
49 9

a = 9 and b = 6 with a horizontal transverse axis.

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Vocabulary

Hyperbola
The set of all points such that the difference of the distances from two fixed points, called foci, is constant.

Branch
Half of a hyperbola.

Transverse Axis
The axis that passes through the vertices of the hyperbola.

Vertices
The two closest points on the branches of a hyperbola.

Asymptotes
The boundary lines of a hyperbola.

Problem Set
Find the vertices, asymptotes, and foci of each hyperbola below. Then, graph.
2
1. x2 — y16 = 1
9
2
2. 4y —25x2 = 100
3. x2 — y2 = 1
81 64
4. x2 —y2 = 16
5. y2 — x2 = 1
49 25
6. 121y2 —9x2 = 1089
7. y2 —x2 = 1
8. x2 —y2 = 1
64 4

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 2 2
9. y4 —64x =1

10. Writing Compare the hyperbolas from #8 and #9. How are they the same? How are they different? What do
you know about the asymptotes and foci?
x2 —y2 = 1 and x2 + y2 = 1. Graph them on the same axes and find
11. Critical Thinking Compare the equations 25 9 25 9
their foci.

Writing the Equation of a Hyperbola, Centered at the Origin

Objective
To write the equation of a hyperbola given the foci, vertices, and/or the asymptotes.
Guidance
In the previous concept, we graphed hyperbolas, given the equation. In this concept, we are going to work backwards
and find the equation, given certain pieces of information. For this entire concept, the hyperbola will be centered at
the origin.
Example A
Find the equation of the hyperbola, centered at the origin, with a vertex of (—4, 0) and focus of (—6, 0).
Solution: Because the vertex and focus are on the x-axis, we know that the transverse axis is horizontal. Therefore,
2 2
the equation will be ax2 —by2 = 1. From the vertex, we know that a = 4 and c = 6. Let’s solve for b 2 using c 2 = a 2+ b 2.

62 = 42 + b2
36 = 16 + b2 → b2 = 20

2
The equation of the hyperbola is x2 y
—20 = 1.
16
Example B
Find the equation of the hyperbola, centered at the origin, with an asymptote of y = 2 x and vertex of (0, 12). 3
Solution: We know that a = 12, making the transverse axis is vertical and the general equation of the asymptote
y = ab x. Therefore, 23 = 12 y2 — x2 = 1.
, making b = 18. Therefore, the equation of the hyperbola is 144
b 324
In this example, we showed that the slope of the asymptote can be reduced to something that is not always ab, but
c mn = ba , where c is some constant that we can reduce the fraction by.
Example C
Find the equations of two hyperbolas with an asymptote of y = —59 x.
Solution: This asymptote can be for either a vertical or horizontal hyperbola. —59 can also be a reduced fraction of
a
b
, like in the previous example. For example, the asymptote y = —1018
x reduces to y = —95 x.
If the hyperbola is horizontal, then the equation of the asymptote is y = —bax and that would make a = 9 and b = 5
and the equation would be x2 —25
2
y = 1. If the equation is vertical, then the asymptote is y = —ax and a = 5 and b = 9.
81 b
2 2
The equation would be y2 —81
x = 1. If the slope is reduced from a larger fraction, we could also have x2 —100
y =1
25 324
y2 2
or 100
—324
x = 1 as a possible answer.

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There are infinitely many hyperbolic equations with this asymptote.
Guided Practice
Find the equation of the hyperbolas, centered at the origin, with the given information.
1. vertex: (0, 2)
focus: (0, 5)
2. asymptote: y = x
vertex: (4, 0)
3. Find the equations of two hyperbolas, centered at the origin, with different a and b values and an asymptote of
y = 34 x.
Answers
1. The vertex is on the y-axis, so this is a vertical hyperbola with a = 2. c = 5, so we need to find b2.

c2 = a2 + b2
25 = 4 + b2 → b2 = 21

y2 2
The equation of the hyperbola is 4
—21
x = 1.

2. Rewriting the slope of y = x, we get y = 1 x. So, we know

1 that a and b are in a ratio of 1:1. Because the vertex is
(4, 0), we know that a = 4 and that the hyperbola is horizontal. Because a and b are in a ratio of 1:1, b has to equal
x2 — y2 = 1.
4 as well. The equation of the hyperbola is 16 16
2
3. One possibility is that b = 3 and a = 4 making the equation x2 —y9 = 1. A second possibility could be that a and
16
b are a multiply of the ratio 4:3. So, a = 8 and b = 6, making the equation x2 2
—36
y = 1.
64
Problem Set

324
Find the equation of the hyperbola, centered at the origin, given the information below.

1. vertex: (—2, 0) focus: (—5, 0)

2. b = 6 focus: (0, 11)
3. vertex: (0, 5) asymptote: y = x
4. asymptote: y = —12 x vertex: (6, 0)
5. asymptote: y = 3x b = 9
√
6. vertex: (0, 8) focus: 0, 6 2
7. Find the equation of two hyperbolas such that:

a. They have the same a and b values.

b. The equation of an asymptote is y = 45x.
c. They are centered at the origin.

8. Find the equation of two hyperbolas such that:

a. They have different a and b values and both horizontal.

b. The equation of an asymptote is y = —3 x. 2

c. They are centered at the origin.

9. Find the equation of two hyperbolas such that:

a. They have different a and b values and both vertical.

b. The equation of an asymptote is y = 6x.
c. They are centered at the origin.

10. Find the equation of two hyperbolas such that:

a. They have the same a and b values.

b. The equation of an asymptote is y = — 7 x. 10

c. They are centered at the origin.

Hyperbolas Centered at (h, k)

Objective
To graph and find the equation of hyperbolas that are centered at the origin.
Guidance
Just like in the previous lessons, a hyperbola does not always have to be placed with its center at the origin. If the
center is (h, k) the entire ellipse will be shifted h units to the left or right and k units up or down. The equation
becomes (x—h) (y—k) 2
2
a2 — b2 = 1. We will address how the vertices, co-vertices, and foci change in the next example.
Example A
(x—2) 2
—(y+1)
2
Graph 16 9
= 1. Then, find the vertices, foci, and asymptotes.
Solution: First, we know this is a horizontal hyperbola because the x term is first. Therefore, the center is (2, —1)
and a = 4 and b = 3. Use this information to graph the hyperbola.
To graph, plot the center and then go out 4 units to the right and left and then up and down 3 units. Draw the box
and asymptotes.

325
This is also how you can find the vertices. The vertices are (2 ± 4, —1) or (6, —1) and (—2, —1).
To find the foci, we need to find c using c2 = a2 + b2.

c2 = 16 + 9 = 25
c=5

Therefore, the foci are (2 ± 5, —1) or (7, —1) and (—3, —1).
To find the asymptotes, we have to do a little work to find the y-intercepts. We know that the slope is ± baor ± 34and
they pass through the center. Let’s write each asymptote in point-slope form using the center and each slope.
y —1 = 34 (x + 2) and y —1 = —34 (x + 2)
Simplifying each equation, the asymptotes are y = 34 x — 25 and y = —43 x + 21 .
From this example, we can create formulas for finding the vertices, foci, and asymptotes of a hyperbola with center
(h, k). Also, when graphing a hyperbola, not centered at the origin, make sure to plot the center.

TABLE 10.3:
Orientation Equation Vertices Foci Asymptotes
(x—h) 2 (y—k) 2
Horizontal a2 2 — b2 2 = 1 (h ± a, k) (h ± c, k) y —k = ± ba( x —h)
(y—k) + (x—h) = 1
Vertical a2 b2 (h, k ± a) (h, k ± c) y —k = ± ab( x —h)

Example B
Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices (—3, 2) and (7, 2) and focus (—5, 2).
Solution: These two vertices create a horizontal transverse axis, making the hyperbola horizontal. If you are unsure,
plot the given information on a set of axes. To find the center, use the midpoint formula with the vertices.

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 —3+7 2+2
2 , 2
= 4,4
2 2
= (2, 2)
The distance from one of the vertices to the center is a, |7 —2|= 5. The distance from the center to the given focus
is c, |—5 —2|= 7. Use a and c to solve for b.

72 = 52 + b2
√
b2 = 24 → b = 2 6

(x—2) 2
—(y—2)
2
Therefore, the equation is 25 24
= 1.
Example C
Graph 49(y —3)2 —25(x + 4)2 = 1225 and find the foci.
Solution: First we have to get the equation into standard form, like the equations above. To make the right side 1,
we need to divide everything by 1225.

49(y —3)2 25(x + 4)2 1225

— =
1225 1225 1225
(y —3)2 (x + 4)2
— =1
25 49

Now, we know that the hyperbola will be vertical because the y-term is first. a = 5, b = 7 and the center is (—4, 3).

To find the foci, we first need to find c by using c2 = a2 + b2.

c2 = 49 + 25 = 74
√
c = 74

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 √
The foci are —4, 3 ± 74 or (—4, 11.6) and (—4, —5.6).
Guided Practice
(y—1) 2
—(x+5)
2
1. Find the center, vertices, foci, and asymptotes of 81 16
= 1.
2. Graph 25(x —3)2 —4(y —1)2 = 100 and find the foci.
3. Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices (—6, —3) and (—6, 5) and focus (—6, 7).
Answers
√ √
1. The center is (—5, 1), a = 81 = 9 and b = 16 = 4, and the hyperbola is horizontal because the y-term is first.
The vertices are (—5, 1 ± 9) or (—5, 10) and (—5, —8). Use c2 = a2 + b2 to find c.

c2 = 81 + 16 = 97
√
c = 97

√ √
The foci are —5, 1 + 97 and —5, 1 — 97 .
The asymptotes are y —1 = ± 94( x + 5) or y = 94 x + 12 41 and y = —94 x —10 14 .
2. Change this equation to standard form in order to graph.

25(x —3)2 4(y —1)2 100

— =
100 100 100
(x —3)2 (y —1)2
— =1
4 25

center: (3, 1), a = 2, b = 5

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Find the foci.

c2 = 25 + 4 = 29
√
c = 29

√ √
The foci are 3, 1 + 29 and 3, 1 — 29 .
3. The vertices are (—6, —3) and (—6, 5) and the focus is (—6, 7). The transverse axis is going to be vertical because
the x-value does not change between these three points. The distance between the vertices is |—3 —5|= 8 units,
making a = 4. The midpoint between the vertices is the center.
—6, —3+5
2
= —6, 22 = (—6, 1)
The focus is (—6, 7) and the distance between it and the center is 6 units, or c. Find b.

36 = b2 + 16
20 = b2
√ √
b = 20 = 2 5

(y—1) 2
—(x+6)
2
The equation of the hyperbola is 16 20
= 1.
Vocabulary

Standard Form (of a Hyperbola)

(x—h) 2 (y—k) 2
= 1 or (y—h) (x—k) 2
2
a2 — b2 a2 — b2 = 1 where (h, k) is the center.

Problem Set
Find the center, vertices, co-vertices, foci, and asymptotes of each hyperbola below.

1. (x+5) —(y+1) = 1
2 2
25 36
2. (y + 2) 2 —16 (x —6) 2 = 16
3. (y—2) —(x—3)
2 2
9 49
=1
4. 25x2 —64(y —6) 2 = 1600
2
5. (x —8)2 —(y—4)
9 =1
6. 81(y + 4) —4(x + 5) 2 = 324
2

7. Graph the hyperbola in #1.

8. Graph the hyperbola in #2.
9. Graph the hyperbola in #5.
10. Graph the hyperbola in #6.

Using the information below, find the equation of each hyperbola.

11. vertices: (—2, —3) and (8, —3)b = 7

12. vertices: (5, 6) and (5, —12) focus: (5, —15)
13. asymptote: y + 3 = 94 (x + 1) horizontal transverse axis
14. foci: (—11, —4) and (1, —4) vertex: (—8, —4)
15. Extension Rewrite the equation of the hyperbola, 49x2 —4y2 + 490x —16y + 1013 = 0 in standard form, by
completing the square for both the x and y terms. Then, find the center, vertices, asymptotes, and foci.

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 6.5 General Conic Equations and Solving Non-
Linear Systems
Objective
To become familiar with the general conic equation, classify conics, and solve systems of equations with conics,
quadratics, and lines.
Review Queue

1. Solve the quadratic equation by completing the square: x2 —6x + 10 = 4

2. Solve the quadratic equation by completing the square: 3x2 + 12x —20 = 0
3. Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (—5, —2) and directrix y = 1.
4. Find the equation of the ellipse with vertices (2, 7) and (2, —5) and focus (2, 5).

General Conic Equation

Objective
To change the general second-degree equation into the standard form of a parabola, ellipse, circle, or hyperbola.
Guidance
The equation of any conic section can be written in the form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, which is the
general second-degree equation in terms of x and y. For all the conic sections we studied in this chapter, B = 0
because all axes were either horizontal or vertical. When a conic is in this form, you have to complete the square to
get it into standard form.
Standard Form of Conic Sections with Center (h, k)

TABLE 10.4:
Horizontal Axis Vertical Axis
Circle (x —h)2 + (y —k)2 = r2
Parabola (y —k)2 = 4p(x —h) (x —h)2 = 4p(y —k)
(x—h)2 + (y—k)2 = 1 (x—h)2 + (y—k)2 = 1
Ellipse a2 b2 b2 a2
2 2 2 2
(x—h) (y—k) + (x—h)
Hyperbola a2 —(y—k)
b2 =1 a2 b2
=1

Example A
Determine the type of conic section x2 + y2 —6x + 10y —6 = 0 is and rewrite the equation in standard form.
Solution: Start by rewriting the equation with the x terms and y terms next to each other and moving the constant to
the other side of the equation.

x2 + y2 —6x + 10y —6 = 0
(x2 —6x) + (y2 + 10y) = 6

b 2
Now, complete the square for both the x and y terms. To complete the square, you need to add 2 to both sides of
the equation.

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 (x2 —6x + 9) + (y2 + 10y + 25) = 6 + 9 + 25
(x —3)2 + (y + 5)2 = 40

By looking at the standard forms above, we can see that this is a circle. Another clue as to what type of conic it is,
is that A and C are equal in the general second-degree equation.
Example B
Determine the type of conic section 25x2 —20y2 —100x + 240y + 320 = 0 is and rewrite the equation in standard
form.
Solution: Using the logic from the previous example, we can conclude that this conic is not a circle. It is also not
a parabola because it has both the x2 and y2 terms. Rewrite the equation, grouping the x terms together, y terms
together, and moving the constant over to the other side. Then, pull out the GCF of each set of terms.

25x2 —20y2 —100x + 240y + 320 = 0

25x2 —100x —20y2 + 240y = —320
25(x2 —4x)— 20(y2 —12y) = —320

Now, complete the square for the x and y terms. When determining what constant will “complete the square” for
each grouping, don’t forget to multiply the constant by the number outside the parenthesis before adding it to the
other side.

25(x2 —4x)— 20(y2 —12y) = —320

25(x2 —4x + 4)— 20(y2 —12y + 36) = —320 + 100 + 720
25(x —2)2 20(y —6)2 500
— =
500 500 500
(x —2)2 (y —6)2
— =1
20 25

We now see that this conic is a hyperbola. Going back the original equation, C is negative. In order for a general
second-degree equation to be a hyperbola, A or C (not both) must be negative. If A and C are both positive or negative
and not equal, the equation represents an ellipse.
Example C
Write the equation of the conic below.

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Solution: Just by looking at the graph, we know this is a horizontal ellipse. The standard equation for this ellipse
is (x—h) + (y—k)
2 2
a2 b2 = 1. The center is (—3, 6), the major axis is 14 units long, making a = 7, and the minor axis is 6
(x—(—3))2
+ (y—6) (x+3)2
+ (y—6)
2 2
units long, making b = 3. The equation is therefore 72 32 = 1 or 49 4
= 1.
Guided Practice
Determine the conic and rewrite each equation in standard form.
1. 9x2 + 16y2 + 18x —135 = 0
2. y2 —3x —8y + 10 = 0
3. Write the equation of the conic below.

332
Answers
1. Complete the square. Ellipse.

9x2 + 16y2 + 18x —135 = 0

9x2 + 18x + 16y2 = 135
9(x2 + 2x + 1) + 16y2 = 135 + 9
9(x + 1)2 + 16y2 = 144
(x + 1)2 y2
+ 9 =1
16
2. Complete the square. Parabola.

y2 —3x —8y + 10 = 0
y2 —8y —3x = —10
y2 —8y + 16 = 3x —10 + 16
(y —4)2 = 3x + 6
(y —4)2 = 3(x + 2)

3. This is a circle because the distance around the center is the same. The center is (0, —4) and the radius is 5. The
equation is x2 + (y + 4)2 = 25.
Vocabulary

General Second-Degree Equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0. For the conic sections in this chapter, B = 0.

333
Problem Set
Find the equation of each conic section below.

1.

2.

334
 3.

4.

Rewrite each equation in standard form, classify the conic, and find the center. If the conic is a parabola, find the
vertex.

5. 3x2 + 3y2 —6x + 9y —14 = 0

6. 6x2 + 12x —y + 15 = 0
7. x2 + 2y2 + 4x + 2y —27 = 0
8. x2 —y2 + 3x —2y —43 = 0
9. y2 —8x —6y + 49 = 0
10. —64x2 + 225y2 —256x —3150y —3631 = 0

335
Classifying Conic Sections

Objective
To classify conic sections using the discriminant.
Guidance
Another way to classify a conic section when it is in the general form is to use the discriminant, like from the
Quadratic Formula. The discriminant is what is underneath the radical, b2 —4ac, and we can use this to determine
if the conic is a parabola, circle, ellipse, or hyperbola. If the general form of the equation is Ax2 + Bxy +Cy2 + Dx +
Ey + F = 0, where B = 0, then the discriminant will be B2 —4AC.
Use the table below:
TABLE 10.5:
B2 —4AC = 0 and A = 0 or C = 0 Parabola
B2 —4AC < 0 and A = C Circle
B2 —4AC < 0 and A /
=C Ellipse
B2 —4AC > 0 Hyperbola

Example A
Use the discriminant to determine the type conic: x2 —4y2 + 5x —8y + 16 = 0.
Solution: A = 1, B = 0, and C = —4
02 —4(1)(—4) = 16 This is a hyperbola.
Example B
Use the discriminant to determine the type of conic: 3x2 + 3y2 —9x —12y —20 = 0
Solution: A = 3, B = 0, C = 3
02 —4(3)(3) = —36 Because A = C and the discriminant is less than zero, this is a circle.
Guided Practice
Use the discriminant to determine the type of conic.
1. 2x2 + 5y2 —8x + 25y + 115 = 0
2. 5y2 —9x —10y —14 = 0
3. Use the discriminant to determine the type of conic. Then, change the equation into standard form to verify your
answer. Find the center or vertex, if it is a parabola.
—4x2 + 3y2 —8x + 24y + 32 = 0
Answers
1. 02 —4(2)(5) = —40, this is an ellipse.
2. 02 —4(0)(5) = 0, this is a parabola.
3. 02 —4(—4)(3) = 48, this is a hyperbola. Changing it to standard form, we have:

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 (—4x2 —8x) + (3y2 + 24y) = —32
2 2
—4(x + 2x + 1) + 3(y + 8y + 16) = —32 + 48 —4
2 2
—4(x + 1) + 3(y + 4) = 12
—(x + 1)2 (y + 4)2
+ =1
3 4

(y+4) 2
—(x+1)
2
Usually, we write the negative term second, so the equation is 4 3
= 1. The center is (—4, —1).
Vocabulary

Discriminant
When referring to the general second-degree equation, Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, the discriminant
is B2 —4AC and it determines the type of conic the equation represents.

Problem Set
Use the discriminant to determine the type of conic each equation represents.

1. 2x2 + 2y2 + 16x —8y + 25 = 0

2. x2 —y2 —2x + 5y —12 = 0
3. 6x2 + y2 —12x + 7y + 35 = 0
4. 3x2 —15x + 9y —18 = 0
5. 10y2 + 6x —40y + 253 = 0
6. 4x2 + 4y2 + 32x + 48y + 465 = 0

Match the equation with the correct graph.

7. x2 + 10x + 4y + 41 = 0

337
 8. 4y2 + x + 56y + 188 = 0
9. x2 + y2 + 10x —14y + 65 = 0
10. 25x2 + y2 —200x —10y + 400 = 0

Use the discriminant to determine the type of conic. Then, change the equation into standard form to verify your
answer. Find the center or vertex, if it is a parabola.

11. x2 —12x + 6y + 66 = 0
12. x2 + y2 + 2x + 2y —2 = 0
13. x2 —y2 —10x —10y —10 = 0
14. y2 —10x + 8y + 46 = 0
15. Find the Area of an Ellipse Graph x2 + y2 = 36 and find is area.

a. Then, graph 36x2 + y = 1 and x2 + y = 1 on the same axes.

2 2
25 25 36
b. Do these ellipses have the same area? Why or why not?
c. If the equation of the area of a circle is A = πr2, what do you think the area of an ellipse is? Use a and b
as in the standard form, ax22 + by2 = 1.
2

d. Find the areas of the ellipses from part a. Are the areas more or less than the area of the circle? Why or
why not?

Solving Systems of Lines, Quadratics and Conics

Objective
To solve systems of equations with lines, parabolas, circles, or ellipses by graphing and substitution.
Guidance
In the Solving Systems of Equations chapter, we solved a system involving two lines or three planes, by using
graphing, substitution, and linear combinations. In this concept, we will add circles, parabolas, and ellipses to
systems of equations. Because both x and y can be squared in these equations, there will often be more than one
answer.
Example A
Estimate the solutions for the system of equations below.

338
Solution: These two ellipses intersect in four places. They look to be the following points:
(0, 7), (4.7, 5.5), (4.9, 4.3), and (—1, 2.9)
Keep in mind these are only estimates. In the next example, we will show how to find the exact answers.
Example B
Solve

x2 + y2 = 25
3x + 2y = 6

Solution: Let’s solve this system by graphing. The first equation is a circle, centered at the origin, with a radius of
5. The second equation is a line. In slope intercept form, it is y = —23 x + 3.

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Now, let’s estimate where the line and circle intersect. In the second quadrant, it looks like (—1.2, 4.8) and in the
fourth quadrant it looks like (4, —3). These are our estimated answers.
To find the exact value of these points of intersection, we need to use substitution. Substitute in the linear equation
in for y into the circle equation and solve for x.

3 2
x2 + —2x + 3 = 25
9
x2 + x2 —9x + 9 = 25
4
13 2
x —9x —16 = 0
4
13x2 —36x —64 = 0

Use the Quadratic Formula:

√
36 ± 362 —4(13)(—64)
x=
2(13)
√
36 ± 4624
=
26
36 ± 68
=
26

The solutions, for x, are 36+68

26
= 4 and 36—68
26
= —1 13
3 . Plug these into either equation to solve for y.

y = —32 ( 4) + 3 = —3 and y = —32 —16

13
+ 3 = 4 11
13
The points are (4, —3) and —1 313 ,4 11
13 .

340
The technique used in this example is how it is recommended you approach each problem. First, graph the system
so that you have an idea of how many solutions there are and where they are located. Then, use substitution to solve
for the exact answers.
Example C
Solve

x2 y2
+ =1
16 9
4
y2 = — (x —6)
3

Solution: Graphing the two equations, we have four points of intersection below. The second equation is solved for
y2, so substitute that into the first equation.

x2 4(x —6)
— =1
16 3 ·9
x2 4x —24
=1
16 — 27
27x2 —16(4x —24) = 432
27x2 —64x —48 = 0

Now, use the Quadratic Formula to solve for x.

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 √
64 ± (—64) 2 —4(27)(—48)
x=
2(27)
√
64 ± 9280
=
54
√
32 ± 4 145
=
27
√ √
Plugging these into the calculator we get x = 32+4 27 145 ≈ 2.97 and x = 32—4 27 145 ≈ —0.6. Looking at the graph,
we know that there will be two different y-values for each x-value to give four points of intersection. Using the
estimations, solve for y. You can choose either equation.

4 4
y2 = — (2.97 —6) y2 = — (—0.6 —6)
3 3
y2 = 4.04 and y2 = 8.8
y = ±2.01 y = ±2.97

The points are (2.97, 2.01), (2.97, —2.01), (—0.6, 2.97), and (—0.6, —2.97).
Guided Practice
1. Estimate the solutions to the system below.

Find the solutions to the systems below.

2.

x2 + (y —1)2 = 36
x2 = 2(y + 9)

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3.

x2 = y + 8
4x + 5y = 12

Answers
1. (3, —0.1) and (4.5, —6)
2. This is a circle and a parabola that intersects in four places.

Using substitution for x2, we have:

2(y + 9) + (y —1)2 = 36
2y + 18 + y2 —2y + 1 = 36
y2 = 17
√
y = ± 17 ≈ ±4.12

The corresponding x-values are:

x2 = 2(4.12 + 9) x2 = 2(—4.12 + 9)
x2 = 26.25 and x2 = 9.76
x = ±5.12 x = ±3.12

The solutions are: (4.12, 5.12), (4.12, —5.12), (—4.12, 3.12) and (—4.12, —3.12).
3. This is a line and a parabola that intersect in two points.

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Solve the first equation for y and substitute into the second.

4x + 5(x2 —8) = 12
4x + 5x2 —40 = 12
5x2 + 4x —52 = 0
√
—4 ± 42 —4(5)(—52)
x=
2(5)
√
—4 ± 1056
x= ≈ 3.65, 2.85
10

Using the first equation, y = 3.652 —8 = 5.32 and y = 2.852 —8 = 0.12. The points are (3.65, 5.32) and (2.85, 0.12).
Problem Set
Estimate the solutions for each system of equations below.

344
1.

2.

345
 3.

4.
5. How many different ways can a circle and a parabola intersect? Draw each possibility.
6. How many different ways can a circle and an ellipse intersect? Draw each possibility.

Solve each system of equations below.

7.

5x2 + 3y = 17
x —y = 1

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 8.

x2 + y2 = 7.5
x + 2y = 6

9.

x2 = y + 4
x2
4
+ (y + 2)2 = 1

10.

(x —1)2 + (y —3)2 = 25
x2 = —2(y —10)

11.

x2 + y2 = 16
4x —3y = 18

12.

(x + 4)2 + (y + 1)2 = 36
(x + 1)2 (y —2)2
+ =1
4 25

13. Challenge Find the solutions for the system

x2 + y2 = r2
y = mx

Leave your answers in terms of m and r.

14. Challenge Determine if the system of three equations below have one common solution.

x2 + 3y2 = 16
3x2 + y2 = 16
y=x

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 CHAPTER
7 Sequences and Series
Chapter Outline
1. G ENERAL S EQUENCES
2. A RITHMETIC S EQUENCES AND S ERIES
3. G EOMETRIC S EQUENCES AND S ERIES
4. INFINITE S ERIES

This chapter of Algebra II explores sequences of numbers that follow a particular pattern. Students will begin by
recognizing patterns, describing patterns in words and continuing the patterns. Commonly known sequences such as
the Fibonacci sequence will be investigated. Students will analyze arithmetic and geometric sequences to determine
recursive and general rules for sequences. Students will use formulas and the graphing calculator to find the sums of
arithmetic and geometric series.

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 7.1 General Sequences

Objective
Recognize patterns in sequences of numbers, describe the pattern and determine additional terms in the sequence.
Review Queue
Find the domain and range of the functions below.

1. y = 3x —4
2. y = x2 —2
3. y = x(x—1)
2

Finding the Next Term in a Sequence

Objective
Observe and continue the pattern apparent in a sequence, or arrangement of numerical values.
Guidance
When looking at a sequence of numbers, consider the following possibilities.
1. There could be a common difference (the same value is added or subtracted) to progress from each term to the
next.
Example: 5, 8, 11, 14,... (add 3)
2. There could be a common ratio (factor by which each term is multiplied) to progress from one term to the next.
1
Example: 9, 3, 1, 13 ...( multiply by 3
3. If the terms are fractions, perhaps there is a pattern in the numerator and a different pattern in the denominators.
Example: 19, 38, 57, 76,... (numerator (+2), denominator (-1))
4. If the terms are growing rapidly, perhaps the difference between the term values is increasing by some constant
factor.
Example: 2, 5, 9, 14,... (add 3, add 4, add 5, ...)
5. The terms may represent a particular type of number such as prime numbers, perfect squares, cubes, etc.
Example: 2, 3, 5, 7, ... (prime numbers)
6. Consider whether each term is the result of performing an operation on the two prior terms.
Example: 2, 5, 7, 12, 19,... (add the previous two terms)
7. Consider the possibility that the value is connected to the term number:
Example: 0, 2, 6, 12,...
In this example (0 × 1) = 0, (1 × 2) = 2, (2 × 3) = 6, (3 × 4) = 12,...
This list is not intended to be a comprehensive list of all possible patterns that may be present in a sequence but they
are a good place to start when looking for a pattern.

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Example A
Find the next two terms in the sequence: 160, 80, 40, 20, ,
Solution: Each term is the result of multiplying the previous term by 12. Therefore, the next terms are:
1 (20) = 10 and 1 (10) = 5
2 2
Example B
Find the next two terms in the sequence: 0, 3, 7, 12, 18, ,
Solution: The difference between the first two terms (3 —0) is 3, the difference between the second and third terms
(7 —3) is 4, the difference between the third and fourth terms (12 —7) is 5 and the difference between the fourth
and fifth terms (18 —12) is 6. Each time we add one more to get the next term. The next difference will be 7, so
18 + 7 = 25 for the sixth term. To get the seventh term, we add 8, so 25 + 8 = 33.
Example C
Find the next two terms in the sequence: 9, 5, 4, 1, 3, ,
Solution: This sequence requires that we look at the previous two terms. To get the third term, the second term was
subtracted from the first: 9 —5 = 4. To get the fourth term, the third term is subtracted from the second: 5 —4 = 1.
Similarly: 4 —1 = 3. Now, to get the next terms, continue the pattern:
1 —3 = —2 and 3 —(—2) = 5
Guided Practice
Find the next two terms in each of the following sequences:
1. —5, —1, 3, 7, ,
2. 31 , 23, 79, 56 ,
3. 1, 4, 9, 16, ,
Answers
1. Each term is the previous term plus 4. Therefore, the next two terms are 11 and 15.
2. The pattern here is somewhat hidden because some of the fractions have been reduced. If we “unreduced” the
second and fourth terms we get the sequence: 31 , 46, 79, 1012, , . Now the pattern can be observed to be that the
numerator and denominator each increase by 3. So the next two terms are 1315 and 18 . Reducing the last term gives
16

us the final answer of 15 and 9 .

13 8

3. This sequence is the set of perfect squares or the term number squared. Therefore the 5th and 6th terms will be
52 = 25 and 62 = 36.
Vocabulary

Sequence
An arrangement of numbers which follows a pattern.

Common Difference
The constant value which is repeatedly added to each term in an arithmetic sequence to obtain the next term.

Common Ratio
The constant value which is multiplied by each term in a geometric sequence to obtain the next term.

Problem Set
Find the next three terms in each sequence.

350
 1. 15, 21, 27, 33, , ,
2. —4, 12, —36, 108, , ,
3. 51, 47, 43, 39, , ,
4. 100, 10, 1, 0.1, , ,
5. 1, 2, 4, 8, , ,
6. 7, 5, 3, 1, , ,
2 3 4 5

Find the missing terms in the sequences.

7. 1, 4, ,16, 25,
8. 2, 3, , 56 ,
3 4
9. 0, 2, ,9, 14,
10. 1, ,27, 64, 125,
11. 5, ,11, 17, 28, ,73
12. 3, 8, ,24, ,48

Describing the Pattern and Writing a Recursive Rule for a Sequence

Objective
Recognize and describe the pattern and write a recursive rule for a sequence.
Guidance
A recursive rule for a sequence is a formula which tells us how to progress from one term to the next in a sequence.
Generally, the variable n is used to represent the term number. In other words, n takes on the values 1 (first term), 2
(second term), 3 (third term), etc. The variable, an represents the nth term and an—1 represents the term preceding an.
Example sequence: 4, 7, 11, 16,..., an—1, an
In the above sequence, a1 = 4, a2 = 7, a3 = 11 and a4 = 16.
Example A
Describe the pattern and write a recursive rule for the sequence: 9, 11, 13, 15,...
Solution: First we need to determine what the pattern is in the sequence. It appears that 2 is added to each term to
obtain the following term in the sequence. We can use an—1 and an to write a recursive rule as follows: an = an—1 + 2
Example B
Write a recursive rule for the sequence: 3, 9, 27, 81,...
Solution: In this sequence, each term is multiplied by 3 to get the next term. We can write a recursive rule:
an = 3an—1
Example C
Write a recursive rule for the sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...
Solution: This is a special sequence called the Fibonacci sequence. In this sequence each term is the sum of the
previous two terms. We can write the recursive rule for this sequence as follows: an = an—2 + an—1.
Guided Practice
Write the recursive rules for the following sequences.
1. 1, 2, 4, 8, . ..
2. 1, —2, —5, —8,...

351
3. 1, 2, 4, 7, ...
Answers
1. In this sequence each term is double the previous term so the recursive rule is: an = 2an—1
2. This time three is subtracted each time to get the next term: an = an—1 —3.
3. This one is a little trickier to express. Try looking at each term as shown below:

a1 = 1
a2 = a1 + 1
a3 = a2 + 2
a4 = a3 + 3

..
an = an—1 + (n —1)

Vocabulary

Recursive Rule
A rule that can be used to calculate a term in a sequence given the previous term(s).

Problem Set
Describe the pattern and write a recursive rule for the following sequences.

1. 1 ,—1 ,1,—2 ...

4 2
2. 5, 11, 17, 23,...
3. 33, 28, 23, 18,...
4. 1, 4, 16, 64,...
5. 21, 30, 39, 48,...
6. 100, 75, 50, 25,...
7. 243, 162, 108, 72,...
8. 128, 96, 72, 54,...
9. 1, 5, 10, 16, 23,...
10. 0, 2, 2, 4, 6, . ..
11. 3, 5, 8, 12,...
12. 0, 2, 6, 12,...

Using and Writing N[U+1D57]h Term Rules for Sequences

Objective
Use an nth term rule or general rule for a sequence to find terms and write a general rule for a given sequence.
Guidance
In the previous concept we wrote a recursive rule to find the next term in a sequence. Recursive rules can help us
generate multiple sequential terms in a sequence but are not helpful in determining a particular single term. Consider
the sequence: 3, 5, 7, . . . , an. The recursive rule for this sequence is an = an—1 + 2. What if we want to find the 100th
term? The recursive rule only allows us to find a term in the sequence if we know the previous term. An nth term or
general rule, however, will allow us to find the 100th term by replacing n in the formula with 100.

352
Example A
Write the first three terms, the 15th term and the 40th term of the sequence with the general rule: an = n2 —1.
Solution: We can find each of these terms by replacing n with the appropriate term number:

a1 = (1)2 —1 = 0
a2 = (2)2 —1 = 3
a3 = (3)2 —1 = 8
a15 = (15)2 —1 = 224
a40 = (40)2 —1 = 1599

Calculator: These terms can also be found using a graphing calculator. First press 2nd STAT (to get to the List
menu). Arrow over to OPS, select option 5: seq( and type in (expression, variable, begin, end). For this particular
problem, the calculator yields the following:
seq x2 —1, x, 1, 3 = {0 3 8} for the first three terms
seq x2 —1, x, 15, 15 = {224} for the 15th term
seq x2 —1, x, 40, 40 = {1599} for the 40 th term
Example B
Write a general rule for the sequence: 5, 10, 15, 20,...
Solution: The previous example illustrates how a general rule maps a term number directly to the term value.
Another way to say this is that the general rule expresses the nth term as a function of n. Let’s put the terms in the
above sequence in a table with their term numbers to help identify the rule.
Looking at the terms and term numbers together helps us to see that each term is the result of multiplying the term
number by 5. The general rule is an = 5n

TABLE 11.1:
n 1 2 3 4
a 5 10 15 20

Example C
Find the nth term rule for the sequence: 0, 2, 6, 12,...
Solution: Let’s make the table again to begin to analyze the relationship between the term number and the term
value.
TABLE 11.2:
n 1 2 3 4
an 0 2 6 12
n(?) (1)(0) (2)(1) (3)(2) (4)(3)

This time the pattern is not so obvious. To start, write each term as a product of the term number and a second factor.
Then it can be observed that the second factor is always one less that the term number and the general rule can be
written as an = n(n —1)
Guided Practice

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1. Given the general rule: an = 3n —13, write the first five terms, 25th term and the 200th term of the sequence.
2. Write the general rule for the sequence: 4, 5, 6, 7, ...
3. Write the general rule and find the 35th term of the sequence: —1, 0, 3, 8, 15,...
Answers
1. Plug in the term numbers as shown:

a1 = 3(1)— 13 = —10
a2 = 3(2)— 13 = —7
a3 = 3(3)— 13 = —4
a4 = 3(4)— 13 = —1
a5 = 3(5)— 13 = 2
a25 = 3(25)— 13 = 62
a200 = 3(200)— 13 = 587

2. Put the values in a table with the term numbers and see if there is a way to write the term as a function of the term
number.
TABLE 11.3:
n 1 2 3 4
an 4 5 6 7
n ± (?) (1) + 3 (2) + 3 (3) + 3 (4) + 3

Each term appears to be the result of adding three to the term number. Thus, the general rule is an = n + 3
3. Put the values in a table with the term numbers and see if there is a way to write the term as a function of the term
number.
TABLE 11.4:
n 1 2 3 4 5
an -1 10 3 8 15
n(?) (1)(—1) (2)(0) (3)(1) (4)(2) (5)(3)

Each term appears to be the result of multiplying the term number by two less than the term number. Thus, the
general rule is an = n(n —2)
Vocabulary

Nth term or general rule

A formula which relates the term to the term number and thus can be used to calculate any term in a sequence
whether or not any terms are known.

Problem Set
Use the nth term rule to generate the indicated terms in each sequence.

1. 2n + 7, terms 1 —5 and the 10th term.

2. —5n —1, terms 1 —3 and the 50th term.
3. 2n —1, terms 1 —3 and the 10th term.
n
4. 12 , terms 1 —3 and the 8th term.

354
 n(n+1)
5. 2
, terms 1 —4 and the 20th term.

Use your calculator to generate the first 5 terms in each sequence. Use MATH >FRAC, on your calculator to convert
decimals to fractions.

6. 4n —3
7. —12 n + 5
n
8. 23 + 1
9. 2n(n —1)
10. n(n+1)(2n+1)
6

Write the nth term rule for the following sequences.

11. 3, 5, 7, 9, . ..
12. 1, 7, 25, 79,...
13. 6, 14, 24, 36,...
14. 6, 5, 4, 3, . ..
15. 2, 5, 9, 14,...

Series and Summation Notation

Objective
Write the terms of a series and find the sum of a finite series.
Guidance
A series is the sum of the terms in a sequence. A series is often expresses in summation notation(also called sigma
5
notation) which uses the capital Greek letter ∑, sigma. Example: ∑ n = 1 +2 +3 +4 +5 = 15. Beneath the sigma
n=1
is the index (in this case n) which tells us what value to plug in first. Above the sigma is the upper limit which tells
us the upper limit to plug into the rule.
Example A
6
Write the terms and find the sum of the series: ∑ 4n +1
n=1
Solution: Begin by replacing n with the values 1 through 6 to find the terms in the series and then add them together.

(4(1)— 1) + (4(2)— 1) + (4(3)— 1) + (4(4)— 1) + (4(5)— 1) + (4(6)— 1)

3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + 19 + 23
= 78

Calculator: The graphing calculator can also be used to evaluate this sum. We will use a compound function in
which we will sum a sequence. Go to 2nd STAT (to get to the List menu) and arrow over to MATH. Select option
5: sum( then return to the List menu, arrow over to OPS and select option 5: seq( to get sum(seq( on your screen.
Next, enter in (expression, variable, begin, end)just as we did in the previous topic to list the terms in a sequence. By
including the sum( command, the calculator will sum the terms in the sequence for us. For this particular problem
the expression and result on the calculator are:

355
 sum(seq(4x —1, x, 1, 6)) = 78

To obtain a list of the terms, just use seq (4x —1, x, 1, 6) = {3 7 11 15 19 23}.
Example B
11 n(n+1)
Write the terms and find the sum of the series: ∑ 2
n=9
Solution: Replace n with the values 9, 10 and 11 and sum the resulting series.

9(9 —1) + 10(10 —1) + 11(11 —1)

2 2 2
36 + 45 + 55
136

Using the calculator: sum(seq(x(x —1)/2, x, 9, 11)) = 136.

More Guidance
There are a few special series which are used in more advanced math classes, such as calculus. In these series, we
will use the variable, i, to represent the index and n to represent the upper bound (the total number of terms) for the
sum.
n
∑ 1 =n
i=1
5
Let n = 5, now we have the series ∑ 1 = 1 +1 +1 +1 +1 = 5. Basically, in the series we are adding 1 to itself n
i=1
times (or calculating n × 1) so the resulting sum will always be n.
n
n(n+1)
∑ i= 2
i=1
n
5(5+1)
If we let n = 5 again we get ∑ i = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 = 2 . This one is a little harder to derive but can be
i=1
illustrated using different values of n. This rule is closely related to the rule for the sum of an arithmetic series and
will be used to prove the sum formula later in the chapter.
n
n(n+1)(2n+1)
∑ i= 6
i=1

Let n = 5 once more. Using the rule, the sum is 5(5+1)(2(5)+1)

6
=
5(6)(11)
6
= 55
If we write the terms in the series and find their sum we get 1 + 2 + 3 + 42 + 52
2 2 2 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 = 55.
The derivation of this rule is beyond the scope of this course.
Example C
15
Use one of the rules above to evaluate ∑ i .2
i=1
n n(n+1)(2n+1) 15(15+1 )(2(15)+1) 15(16)(31)
Solution: Using the rule ∑ i2 = 6
, we get 6
= 6
= 1240
i=1
Guided Practice
Evaluate the following. First without a calculator, then use the calculator to check your result.
7
1. ∑ 2(n —3)
n=3

356
 7
2. ∑ 21 n + 1
n=1
4
3. ∑ 3n2 —5
n=1
Answers
1.
7
∑ 2(n —3) = 2(3 —3) + 2(4 —3) + 2(5 —3) + 2(6 —3) + 2(7 —3)
n=3
= 2(0) + 2(1) + 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(4)
= 0+2+4+6+8
= 20

sum(seq(2(x —3), x, 3, 7) = 20
2.
7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ 2 n + 1 = 2(1) + 1 + 2(2) + 1 + 2(3) + 1 + 2(4) + 1 + 2(5) + 1 + 2(6) + 1 + 2(7) + 1
n=1
1 3 5 7
= 2 +1+1+1+ 2 +1+2+1+ 2 +1+3+1+ 2 +1
16
= 2 + 13
= 8 + 13
= 21

sum(seq(1/2x + 1, x, 1, 7) = 21
3.
4
∑ 3n2 —5 = 3(1)2 —5 + 3(2)2 —5 + 3(3)2 —5 + 3(4)2 —5
n=1
= 3 —5 + 12 —5 + 27 —5 + 48 —5
= 90 —20
= 70

sum(seq(3x2 —5, x, 1, 4) = 70
Vocabulary

Series
The sum of the terms in a sequence.

Problem Set
Write out the terms and find the sum of the following series.
5
1. ∑ 2n
n=1
8
2. ∑ n +3
n=5

357
 15
3. ∑ n(n —3)
n = 10
7
4. ∑ n(n—1)
2
n=3
6
5. ∑ 2n—1 +3
n=1

Use your calculator to find the following sums.

15
6. ∑ 1n + 3
2
n=10
50
7. ∑ n —25
n=0
5
1 n—5
8. ∑ 2
n=1
12 n(2n+1)
9. ∑ 2
n=5
100
10. ∑ 21 n
n—1

In problems 11 and 12, write out the terms in each of the series (a and b) and explain why the sums are equal.

5
1. ∑ 2n +3
n=1
5
2. 3(5) + ∑ 2n
n=1

5
n(n+1)
1. ∑ 2
n=1
2. 1 5 ∑ n(n + 1)
2
n=1

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 7.2 Arithmetic Sequences and Series

Objective
Identify arithmetic sequences, find the nth term rule for an arithmetic sequence and find the sum of a finite arithmetic
sequence.
Review Queue
Describe the pattern in each sequence below.

1. 3, 5, 7, 9, . ..
2. 1, 4, 8, 13,...
5
3. Find ∑ 7n +3
n=1

Arithmetic Sequences and Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given the Common
Difference and a Term

Objective
Identify an arithmetic sequence and its common difference and write an nth term rule given the common difference
and a term.
Guidance
In this concept we will begin looking at a specific type of sequence called an arithmetic sequence. In an arithmetic
sequence the difference between any two consecutive terms is constant. This constant difference is called the
common difference. For example, question one in the Review Queue above is an arithmetic sequence. The
difference between the first and second terms is (5 —3) = 2, the difference between the second and third terms
is (7 —5) = 2 and so on. We can generalize this in the equation below:
an —an—1 = d, where an—1 and an represent two consecutive terms and d represents the common difference.
Since the same value, the common difference, d, is added to get each successive term in an arithmetic sequence we
can determine the value of any term from the first term and how many time we need to add d to get to the desired
term as illustrated below:
Given the sequence: 22, 19, 16, 13,... in which a1 = 22 and d = —3

a1 = 22 or 22 + (1 —1)(—3) = 22 + 0 = 22
a2 = 19 or 22 + (2 —1)(—3) = 22 + (—3) = 19
a3 = 16 or 22 + (3 —1)(—3) = 22 + (—6) = 16
a4 = 13 or 22 + (4 —1)(—3) = 22 + (—9) = 13
..
an = 22 + (n —1)(—3)
an = 22 —3n + 3
an = —3n + 25

359
Now we can generalize this into a rule for the nth term of any arithmetic sequence:

an = a1 + (n —1)d

Example A
Find the common difference and nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence: 2, 5, 8, 11 ...
Solution: To find the common difference we subtract consecutive terms.

5 —2 = 3
8 —5 = 3 ,thus the common difference is 3.
11 —8 = 3

Now we can put our first term and common difference into the nth term rule discovered above and simplify the
expression.

an = 2 + (n —1)(3)
= 2 + 3n —3 ,so an = 3n —1.
= 3n —1

Example B
Find the nth term rule and thus the 100th term for the arithmetic sequence in which a1 = —9 and d = 2.
Solution: We have what we need to plug into the rule:

an = —9 + (n —1)(2)
= —9 + 2n —2 ,thus the nth term rule is an = 2n —11.
= 2n —11

Now to find the 100th term we can use our rule and replace n with 100: a100 = 2(100)— 11 = 200 —11 = 189.
Example C
Find the nth term rule and thus the 100th term for the arithmetic sequence in which a3 = 8 and d = 7.
Solution: This one is a little less straightforward as we will have to first determine the first term from the term we
are given. To do this, we will replace an with a3 = 8 and use 3 for n in the formula to determine the unknown first
term as shown:

a1 + (3 —1)(7) = 8
a1 + 2(7) = 8
a1 + 14 = 8
a1 = —6

Now that we have the first term and the common difference we can follow the same process used in the previous
example to complete the problem.

360
 an = —6 + (n —1)(7)
= —6 + 7n —7 ,thus an = 7n —13.
= 7n —13

Now we can find the 100th term: a100 = 7(100)— 13 = 687.

Guided Practice
1. Find the common difference and the nth term rule for the sequence: 5, —3, —11,...
2. Write the nth term rule and find the 45th term for the arithmetic sequence with a10 = 1 and d = —6.
3. Find the 62 nd term for the arithmetic sequence with a1 = —7 and d = 32 .
Answers
1. The common difference is —3 —5 = —8. Now an = 5 + (n —1)(—8) = 5 —8n + 8 = —8n + 13.
2. To find the first term:

a1 + (10 —1)(—6) = 1
a1 —54 = 1
a1 = 55

Find the nth term rule: an = 55 + (n —1)(—6) = 55 —6n + 6 = —6n + 61.

Finally, the 45th term: a45 = —6(45) + 61 = —209.
3. This time we will not simplify the nth term rule, we will just use the formula to find the 62rd term: a62 =
—7 + (62 —1) 32 = —7 + 61 32 = —14 2
+ 183
2
= 169
2
.
Vocabulary

Arithmetic Sequence
A sequence in which the difference between any two consecutive terms is constant.

Common Difference
The value of the constant difference between any two consecutive terms in an arithmetic sequence.

Problem Set
Identify which of the following sequences is arithmetic. If the sequence is arithmetic find the nth term rule.

1. 2, 3, 4, 5, . ..
2. 6, 2, —1, —3,...
3. 5, 0, —5, —10,...
4. 1, 2, 4, 8, . ..
5. 0, 3, 6, 9, . ..
6. 13, 12, 11, 10,...

Write the nth term rule for each arithmetic sequence with the given term and common difference.

7. a1 = 15 and d = —8

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 8. a1 = —10 and d = 12
9. a3 = 24 and d = —2
10. a5 = —3 and d = 3
11. a10 = —15 and d = —11
12. a7 = 32 and d = 7

Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given Two Terms

Objective
Write an nth term rule for an arithmetic sequence given any two terms in the sequence.
Guidance
In the last concept we were given the common difference directly or two consecutive terms from which we could
determine the common difference. In this concept we will find the common difference and write nth term rule given
any two terms in the sequence.
Example A
Find the common difference, first term and nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence in which a7 = 17 and a20 = 82.
Solution: We will start by using the nth term rule for an arithmetic sequence to create two equations in two variables:
a7 = 17, so a1 + (7 —1)d = 17 or more simply: a1 + 6d = 17
a 2 0 = 82, so a 1 + (20 — 1)d = 82 or more simply: a 1 + 19d = 82
Solve the resulting system:

a1 + 6d = 17 a/ 1 + 6d = 17
—1(a1 + 19d = 82) ⇒ —a/ 1 —19d = —82
—13d = —65
d =5

, replacing d with 5 in one of the equations we get

a1 + 6(5) = 7
a1 + 30 = 17
a1 = —13

.
Using these values we can find the nth term rule:

an = —13 + (n —1)(5)
an = —13 + 5n —5
an = 5n —18

Example B
Find the common difference, first term and nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence in which a11 = —13 and
a40 = —71.

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Solution: Though this is exactly the same type of problem as Example A, we are going to use a different approach.
We discovered in the last concept that the nth term rule is really just using the first term and adding d to it n —1 times
to find the nth term. We are going to use that idea to find the common difference. To get from the 11th term to the
40th term, the common difference is added 40 —11 or 29 times. The difference in the term values is —71 —(—13)
or -58. What must be added 29 times to create a difference of -58? We can subtract the terms and divide by the
difference in term number to determine the common difference.

—71 —(—13) —71 + 13 —58

= = = —2. So d = —2.
40 —11 29 29

Now we can use the common difference and one of the terms to find the first term as we did previously.

a1 + (11 —1)(—2) = —13

a1 + (—20) = —13
a1 = 7

Writing the nth term rule we get: an = 7 + (n —1)(—2) = 7 —2n + 2 = —2n + 9.

More Guidance
Before we look at the final example for this concept, we are going to connect the nth term rule for an arithmetic
sequence to the equation of a line. Have you noticed that the simplified nth term rule, an = pn + q, where p and q
represent constants, looks a little like y = mx + b, the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line? Let’s explore
why this is the case using the arithmetic sequence 1, 4, 7, 10,... If we create points by letting the x –coordinate be
the term number and the y –coordinate be the term, we get the following points and can plot them in the coordinate
plane as shown below,

The points are: (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 7), (4, 10)
Notice, that all of these points lie on the same line. This happens because for each increase of one in the term number
(x), the term value (y) increases by 3. This common difference is actually the slope of the line.

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We can find the equation of this line using the slope, 3, and the point (1, 1) in the equation y = mx + b as follows:

1 = 3(1) + b
1 = 2 + b ,so the equation of the line is y = 3x —1
—1 = b

The nth term rule for the sequence is thus: an = 3n —1.

Example C
Find the common difference, first term and nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence in which a10 = —50 and
a32 = —182.
Solution: This time we will use the concept that the terms in an arithmetic sequence are actually points on a line to
write an equation. In this case our points are (10, —50) and (32, —182). We can find the slope and the equation as
shown.

—182 —(—50) —132

m= = = —6
32 —10 22
Use the point (10, —50) so find the y-intercept:
—50 = —6(10) + b
—50 = —60 + b
10 = b
, so y = —6x + 10 and an = —6n + 10.
Guided Practice
1. Use the method in Example A to find the nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence with a6 = —13 and a15 = —40.
2. Use the method in Example B to find the nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence with a6 = 13 and a22 = 77.
3. Use the method in Example C to find the nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence with a7 = —75 and a25 = —273.
Answers
1. From a6 = —13 we get the equation a1 + (6 —1)d = a1 + 5d = —13.
From a15 = —40 we get the equation a1 + (15 —1)d = a1 + 14d = —40.
Use the two equations to solve for a1 and d:

a1 + 5d = —13 a1 + 5(—3) = —13

—a1 —14d = 40 Use d to find a1 ⇒ a1 —15 = —13.
—9d = 27 a1 = 2
d = —3

Find the nth term rule: an = 2 + (n —1)(—3) = 2 —3n + 3 = —3n + 5.

2. The common difference is 77—13
22—6 = 64 = 4.
16 The first term can be found using a6 = 13:
a1 + (6 —1)(4) = 13
a1 + 20 = 13
a1 = —7

364
. Thus an = —7 + (n —1)(4) = —7 + 4n —4 = 4n —11.
3. From a7 = —75 we get the point (7, —75). From a25 = —273 we get the point (25, —273). The slope between
these points is —273—(—75)
25—7 = —18
198
= —11. The y-intercept can be found next using the point (7, —75):

—75 = —11(7) + b
—75 = —77 + b
2=b

The final equation is y = —11x + 2 and the nth term rule is an = —11n + 2.
Problem Set
Use the two given terms to find an nth term rule for the sequence.

1. a7 = —17 and a25 = —71

2. a11 = 23 and a42 = 85
3. a3 = —6 and a12 = —3
4. a8 = 24 and a2 = 9
5. a6 = —27 and a10 = —47
6. a4 = 37 and a12 = 85
7. a13 = —20 and a30 = —54
8. a3 = 23 and a9 = 65
9. a30 = —31 and a45 = —46
10. a5 = 25 and a11 = 73
11. a10 = —2 and a25 = —14
12. a16 = 14 and a28 = 23

Finding the Sum of a Finite Arithmetic Series

Objective
Find the sum of an arithmetic series using the formula and the calculator.
Guidance
In the concept Series and Summation Notation we explored how to use the calculator to evaluate the sum of a
series. This method can be used to find the sum of an arithmetic series as well. However, in this concept we will
explore an algebraic method unique to arithmetic series. As we discussed earlier in the unit a series is simply the
sum of a sequence so an arithmetic series is a sum of an arithmetic sequence. Let’s look at an example to illustrate
this and develop a formula to find the sum of a finite arithmetic series.
Example A
Find the sum of the arithmetic series: 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + ... + 35 + 37 + 39
Solution: Now, while we could just add up all of the terms to get the sum, if we had to sum a large number of
terms that would be very time consuming. A famous German mathematician, Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss, used the
method described here to determine the sum of the first 100 integers in grade school. First, we can write out all the
numbers twice, in ascending and descending order, and observe that the sum of each pair of numbers is the same:

365
 1 3 5 7 9 11 .. . 35 37 39
39 37 35 33 31 29 .. . 5 3 1
..
40 40 40 40 40 40 ... 40 40 40

Notice that the sum of the corresponding terms in reverse order is always equal to 40, which is the sum of the first
and last terms in the sequence.
What Gauss realized was that this sum can be multiplied by the number of terms and then divided by two (since we
are actually summing the series twice here) to get the sum of the terms in the original sequence. For the problem he
was given in school, finding the sum of the first 100 integers, he was able to just use the first term, a1 = 1 , the last
term, an = 100, and the total number of terms, n = 100, in the following formula:

n (a1 + an) = 100 (1 + 100) = 5050

2 2

In our example we know the first and last terms but how many terms are there? We need to find n to use the formula
to find the sum of the series. We can use the first and last terms and the nth term to do this.

an = a1 + d(n —1)
39 = 1 + 2(n —1)
38 = 2(n —1)
19 = n —1
20 = n

Now the sum is 20(1+39)

2
= 400.
More Guidance-Proof of the Arithmetic Sum Formula
The rule for finding the nth term of an arithmetic sequence and properties of summations that were explored in the
problem set in the concept Series and Summation Notation can be used to prove the formula algebraically. First,
we will start with the nth term rule an = a1 + (n —1)d. We need to find the sum of numerous nth terms (n of them to
be exact) so we will use the index, i, in a summation as shown below:
n
∑ [a1 +(i —1)d] Keep in mind that a 1and d are constants in this expression.
i=1
n n
We can separate this into two separate summations as shown: ∑ a +
1 ∑ (i —1)d
i=1 i=1
n
Expanding the first summation, ∑ a1 = a1 + a1 + a1 + ...+ a1 such that a1 is added to itself n times. We can simplify
i=1
this expression to a1n.
In the second summation, d can be brought out in front of the summation and the difference inside can be split up
n n
as we did with the addition to get: d ∑ i — ∑ 1 . Using rules from the concept Series and Summation Notation,
i=1 i=1
n n
1
∑ i= 2 n( n +1) and ∑ 1 = n. Putting it all together, we can write an expression without any summation symbols
i=1 i=1
and simplify.

366
 1
a1 n + d n(n + 1)— n
2
1
= a1n + 2 dn(n + 1)— dn Distribute d
1 1
= 2n [2a1 + d(n + 1)— 2d] Factor out 2n
1
= 2n [2a1 + dn + d —2d]
1
= 2n [2a1 + dn —d]
1
= n [2a1 + d(n —1)] ← This version of the equation is very useful if you don’t know the nth term.
2
1
= 2n [a1 + (a1 + d(n —1))]
1
= 2n(a1 + an)

Example B
Find the sum of the first 40 terms in the arithmetic series 35 + 31 + 27 + 23 + ...
Solution: For this particular series we know the first term and the common difference, so let’s use the rule that
doesn’t require the nth term: 12 n [2a1 + d(n —1)], where n = 40 ,d = —4 and a1 = 35.

1
2
(40)[2(35) + (—4)(40 —1)] = 20 [70 —156] = —1720

We could also find the nth term and use the rule 12 n (a 1 + a n), where a n = a 1 + d( n —1).
a40 = 35 + (—4)(40 —1) = 35 —156 = —121, so the sum is 12 (40 )(35 —121) = 20(—86) = —1720.
Example C
Given that in an arithmetic series a21 = 165 and a35 = 277, find the sum of terms 21 to 35.
Solution: This time we have the “first” and “last” terms of the series, but not the number of terms or the common
difference. Since our series starts with the 21st term and ends with the 35th term, there are 15 terms in this series.
Now we can use the rule to find the sum as shown.

1
2
(15)(165 + 277) = 3315

Example D
8
Find the sum of the arithmetic series ∑ (12 —3i)
i=1
Solution: From the summation notation, we know that we need to sum 8 terms. We can use the expression 12 —3i
to find the first and last terms as and the use the rule to find the sum.
First term: 12 —3(1) = 9
Last term: 12 —3(8) = —12
8
∑ (12 —3i) = 12(8 )(9 —12) = 4(—3) = —12.
i=1

367
We could use the calculator in this problem as well: sum(seq(12 —3x, x, 1, 8)) = —12
Guided Practice
1. Find the sum of the series 87 + 79 + 71 + 63 + ... + —105.
50
2.Find ∑ (3i —90).
i=10
3. Find the sum of the first 30 terms in the series 1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ...
Answers
1. d = 8, so

—105 = 87 + (—8)(n —1)

—192 = —8n + 8
—200 = —8n
n = 25

and then use the rule to find the sum is 12 (25 )(87 —105) = —225
2. 10th term is 3(10)— 90 = —60, 50th term is 3(50)— 90 = 60 and n = 50 —10 + 1 = 41 (add 1 to include the 10th
term). The sum of the series is 12 (41)(—60 + 60) = 0. Note that the calculator is a great option for this problem:
sum(seq(3x —90, x, 10, 50)) = 0.
3. d = 5, use the sum formula, 12 n (2a 1 + d(n —1)), to get 12 (30)[2(1) + 5(30 —1)] = 15 [2 + 145] = 2205
Problem Set
Find the sums of the following arithmetic series.

1. —6 + —1 + 4 + ... + 119
2. 72 + 60 + 48 + ... + —84
3. 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + 99
4. 25 + 21 + 17 + ... + —23
5. Find the sum of the first 25 terms of the series 215 + 200 + 185 + ...
6. Find the sum of the first 14 terms in the series 3 + 12 + 21 + ...
7. Find the sum of the first 32 terms in the series —70 + —65 + —60 + ...
8. Find the sum of the first 200 terms in —50 + —49 + —48 + ...

Evaluate the following summations.

10
9. ∑ (5i —22)
i=4
25
10. ∑ (—3i + 37)
i=2
48
11. ∑ (i —20)
i=11
40
12. (50 —2i)
i=5
∑
Find the sum of the series bounded by the terms given. Include these terms in the sum.

13. a7 = 39 and a23 = 103

14. a8 = 1 and a30 = —43
15. a4 = —15 and a17 = 24

368
16. How many cans are needed to make a triangular arrangement of cans if the bottom row has 35 cans and
successive row has one less can than the row below it?
17. Thomas gets a weekly allowance. The first week it is one dollar, the second week it is two dollars, the third
week it is three dollars and so on. If Thomas puts all of his allowance in the bank, how much will he have at
the end of one year?

369
 7.3 Geometric Sequences and Series

Objective
Identify geometric sequences, find the nth term rule for a geometric sequence and find the sum of a finite geometric
sequence.
Review Queue

1. Find the nth term rule for the arithmetic sequence with a8 = 1 and a32 = 13.
15
2. Find i=1
∑ (2i +7).
3. Find the sum of the series 9 + 7 + 5 + 3 + ... + —37 + —39.

Geometric Sequences and Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given the Common
Ratio and the First Term

Objective
Identify a geometric sequence and its common ratio and write an nth term rule given the common ratio and a term.
Guidance
A geometric sequence is a sequence in which the ratio between any two consecutive terms, an—1 an , is constant. This

constant value is called the common ratio. Another way to think of this is that each term is multiplied by the same
value, the common ratio, to get the next term.
Example A
Consider the sequence 2, 6, 18, 54,...
Is this sequence geometric? If so, what is the common difference?
Solution: If we look at each pair of successive terms and evaluate the ratios, we get 62 = 186 = 54
18
= 3 which indicates
that the sequence is geometric and that the common ratio is 3.
More Guidance
Now let’s see if we can develop a general rule (nth term) for this sequence. Since we know that each term is multiplied
by 3 to get the next term, let’s rewrite each term as a product and see if there is a pattern.

a1 = 2
a2 = a1(3) = 2(3) = 2(3)1
a3 = a2(3) = 2(3)(3) = 2(3)2
a4 = a3(3) = 2(3)(3)(3) = 2(3)3

This illustrates that the general rule is an = a1(r)n—1, where r is the common ratio. This even works for the first term
since a1 = 2(3)0 = 2(1) = 2.
Example B

370
Write a general rule for the geometric sequence 64, 32, 16, 8, ...
Solution: From the general rule above we can see that we need to know two things: the first term and the common
ratio to write the general rule. The first term is 64 and we can find the common ratio by dividing a pair of successive
n—1
terms, 32
64
= 12 . The nth term rule is thus an = 64 12 .
Example C
Find the nth term rule for the sequence 81, 54, 36, 24,... and hence find the 12th term.
Solution: The first term here is 81 and the common ratio, r, is 54 = 23 . The nth term rule is an = 81 2 n—1 . Now
81 3
we can find the term a12 = 81
12th 2 12—1
= 81 =2 11 2048 .
Use the graphing calculator for the last step and
3 3 2187
MATH >Frac your answer to get the fraction. We could also use the calculator and the general rule to generate
terms seq(81(2/3)A(x —1), x, 12, 12). Reminder: the seq( ) function can be found in the LIST ( 2nd STAT) Menu
under OPS. Be careful to make sure that the entire exponent is enclosed in parenthesis.
Example D
Randall deposits $1000 in a savings account which earns 3% interest per year. What is the value of his investment
after 15 years?
Solution: This is actually a geometric sequence. The value of the investment at the end of each year is the terms in the
sequence which corresponds to that year. Our common difference will be 1.03 (103%) because we are maintaining
the original amount (100%) and adding another 3%. Let’s look at the terms:

Year 1 2 3 .. . 14 15
Value 1000(1.03) 1000(1.03)2 1000(1.03)3 .. . 1000(1.03)14 1000(1.03)15

The general rule for the terms in this sequence (i.e. the value of the investment after a prescribed number of years)
is an = 1000(1.03)n. Note that since we are looking at the value at the end of a certain number of years and we will
get interest for all of those years, the exponent is n rather than (n —1). The value at the end of five years can be
calculated using a15 = 1000(1.03)15 = 1557.967417 ≈ $1557.97
Guided Practice
1. Identify which of the following are geometric sequences. If the sequence is geometric, find the common ratio.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20,...
b. 1, 2, 4, 8, . ..
c. 243, 49, 7, 1, . . .
2. Find the general rule and the 20th term for the sequence 3, 6, 12, 24,...
3. Find the nth term rule and list terms 5 thru 11 using your calculator for the sequence —1024, 768, —432, —324,...
4. Find the value of a 10 year old car if the purchase price was $22,000 and it depreciates at a rate of 9% per year.
Answers
1. a. arithmetic
b. geometric, r = 2
c. geometric, r = 1
7
2. The first term is 3 and the common ratio is r = 6
3
= 2 so an = 3(2)n—1.
The 20th term is a20 = 3(2)19 = 1, 572, 864.
768 n—1
3. The first term is -1024 and the common ratio is r = —1024
= —34 so an = —1024 —34 .

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Using the calculator sequence function to find the terms and MATH >Frac,
729 2187 6561 19683 59049 }
seq (—1024(—3/4)A(x —1), x, 5, 11) = —324 243 — 4 16 — 256 256 — 1024
4. The first term (value of the car after 0 years) is $22,000. The common ratio is 1 —.09 or 0.91. The value of the car
after n years can be determined by an = 22, 000(0.91)n. For 10 years we get a10 = 22, 000(0.91)10 = 8567.154599 ≈
$8567.
Vocabulary

Geometric Sequence
A sequence in which the ratio of any two consecutive terms is constant.

Common Ratio
The value of the constant ratio between any two consecutive terms in a geometric sequence. Also, the value
by which you multiply a term in the sequence to get the next term.

Problem Set
Identify which of the following sequences are arithmetic, geometric or neither.

1. 2, 4, 6, 8, ...
2. 2 , 2, 2, 2,...
1 3 9 27

3. 1, 2, 4, 7, ...
4. 24, —16, 32 3
,—64
9
,. ..
5. 10, 5, 0, —5,...
6. 3, 4, 7, 11,...

Given the first term and common ratio, write the nth term rule and use the calculator to generate the first five terms
in each sequence.

7. a1 = 32 and r = 32
8. a1 = —81 and r = —13
9. a1 = 7 and r = 2
10. 8 and r = —5
a1 = 125 2

Find the nth term rule for each of the following geometric sequences.

11. 162, 108, 72,...

.
2
1 —625, —375, —225,...
9
13. 4
,—23 ,1,...
14. 3, 15, 75,...
15. 5, 10, 20,...
16. 1 ,—2
2 ,8, ...

Use a geometric sequence to solve the following word problems.

17. Rebecca inherited some land worth $50,000 that has increased in value by an average of 5% per year for the
last 5 years. If this rate of appreciation continues, about how much will the land be worth in another 10 years?
18. A farmer buys a new tractor for $75,000. If the tractor depreciates in value by about 6% per year, how much
will it be worth after 15 years?

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Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given the Common Ratio and any Term or Two
Terms

Objective
Write an nth term rule for a geometric sequence given the common ratio and any term or any two terms in the
sequence.
Guidance
We will be using the general rule for the nth term in a geometric sequence and the given term(s) to determine the
first term and write a general rule to find any other term.
Example A
Consider the geometric sequence in which the common ratio is —45 and a 5 = 1280. Find the first term in the sequence
and write the general rule for the sequence.
Solution: We will start by using the term we know, the common ratio and the general rule, an = a1rn—1. By plugging
in the values we know, we can then solve for the first term, a1.

4
4
a5 = a1 —5
4
4
1280 = a1 —5
1280
4 4 = a1
—5
3125 = a1

n—1
Now, the nth term rule is a n = 3125 —45 .
Example B
Find the nth term rule for a sequence in which a1 = 16 and a7 = 1
4
Solution: Since a7 = 1
4
and we know the first term, we can write the equation 1
4
= 16r6 and solve for the common
ratio:

1
= 16r6
4
1
= r6
64
r
6 1
√6
= r6
64
1
2
=r

The nth term rule is an = 16 1 n—1

2
Example C
Find the nth term rule for the geometric sequence in which a5 = 8 and a10 = 14.

373
Solution: Using the same method at the previous example, we can solve for r and a1. Then, write the general rule.
Equation 1: a5 = 8, so 8 = a1r4, solving for a1 we get a1 = r84 .
1
Equation 2: a10 = 14 , so 1
4
= a1r 9, solving for a1 we get a 1 = r9 .
4

1
8
= 4
r4 r9
8r9 = 1r4
4
1 r4
8r 9
= 4
8r 4 8r 4
r5 =
1
32
r
√
5 5 1
r5 =
32
r= 1
2

Thus, a1 = 8 = 8 = 81 ·16 = 128.

( 12 ) 4 1
16
1

The nth term rule is an = 3

8
( 2) n—1 .
∗Note: In solving the equation above for r we divided both sides by r4. In general it is not advisable to divide both
sides of an equation by the variable because we may lose a possible solution, r = 0. However, in this case, r / =0
since it is the common ratio in a geometric sequence.
Guided Practice
1. Find the first term and the nth term rule for the geometric sequence given that r = —12 and a 6 = 3.
2. Find the common ratio and the nth term rule for the geometric sequence given that a 1 = —625
16 and a = —5 .
6 2
3. Find the nth term rule for the geometric sequence in which a5 = 6 and a13 = 1536.
Answers
1. Use the known quantities in the general form for the nth term rule to find a1.

5
1
3 = a1 —2

32 1 32
— ·3 = a1 — · —
1 32 1
a1 = —96

n—1
Thus, an = —96 —12
2. Again, substitute in the known quantities to solve for r.

374
 5 16
— = — r5
2 625
5 625
—2 — = r5
16
3125
= r5
32
r
5 3125
√5
= r5
32
r= 5
2

So, an = —16 5 n—1

625 2
3. This time we have two unknowns, the first term and the common ratio. We will need to solve a system of equations
using both given terms.
Equation 1: a5 = 6, so 6 = a1r4, solving for a1 we get a1 = r64 .
Equation 2: a13 = 1536, so 1536 = a1r12, solving for a1 we get a1 = 1536 .
r12
Now that both equations are solved for a1 we can set them equal to each other and solve for r.

6 1536
r
=
4 r12
6r12 = 1536r4
6r12 1536r4
=
6r4 6r4
r = 256
8
√ √
r8 = 8 256
8

r=2

Now use r to find a1: a1 = 6

(24)
= 166 = 83 .

The nth term rule is an = 3

8
( 2) n—1 .
Problem Set
Use the given information to find the nth term rule for each geometric sequence.

1. r = 23 and a8 = 256
81
2. r = —34 and a5 = 4058
3. r = 65 and a4 = 3
4. r = —21 and a7 = 5
5. a1 = 11 8and a7 = 88
6. a1 = 24 and a4 = 81
7. a1 = 36 and a4 = 43
8. a1 = 343
216
and a5 = 76
9. a6 = 486 and a10 = 39366
10. a5 = 648 and a10 = 196834
11. a3 = 23 and a5 = 23
12. a5 = 43 and a9 = —128 3

375
Use a geometric sequence to solve the following word problems.

13. Ricardo’s parents want to have $100,000 saved up to pay for college by the time Ricardo graduates from high
school (16 years from now). If the investment vehicle they choose to invest in claims to yield 7% growth per
year, how much should they invest today? Give your answer to the nearest one thousand dollars.
14. If a piece of machinery depreciates (loses value) at a rate of 6% per year, what was its initial value if it is 10
years old and worth $50,000? Give your answer to the nearest one thousand dollars.

Finding the Sum of a Finite Geometric Series

Objective
Find the sum of a geometric series using the formula and the calculator.
Guidance
We have discussed in previous sections how to use the calculator to find the sum of any series provided we know the
nth term rule. For a geometric series, however, there is a specific rule that can be used to find the sum algebraically.
Let’s look at a finite geometric sequence and derive this rule.
Given an = a1rn—1
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence is: Sn = a1 + a1r + a1r2 + a1r3 + ... + a1rn—2 + a1rn—1
Now, factor out a1 to get a1 (1 + r2 + r3 + . . . + rn—2 + rn—1 ). If we isolate what is in the parenthesis and multiply this
sum by (1 —r) as shown below we can simplify the sum:

(1 —r)Sn = (1 —r)(1 + r + r2 + r3 + . . . + rn—2 + rn—1)

= (1 + r + r2 + r3 + ... + rn—2 + rn—1 —r —r2 —r3 —r4 —... —rn—1 —rn)
= (1 + r + r2 + r3 + ... + rn—2 + rn—1 —r —r2 —r3 —r4 —... —rn—1 —rn)
= (1 —r)n

By multiplying the sum by 1 —r we were able to cancel out all of the middle terms. However, we have changed the
sum by a factor of 1 —r, so what we really need to do is multiply our sum by 1—r
1—r , or 1.
a1 (1—r n)
a1 (1 + r 2 + r 3 + ... + r n—2 + rn—1 ) 1—r
1—r = 1—r , which is the sum of a finite geometric series.
a1 (1—r n)
So, Sn = 1—r
Example A
Find the sum of the first ten terms of the geometric sequence an = 1 ( —2) n—1 .
32
This could also be written as, “Find
10
32 (—2)
1 n—1 .”
∑
n=1

Solution: Using the formula, a1 = 1,

32
r = —2, and n = 10.

1
32 (1 —(—2) ) (1 —1024)
1 10 341
S10 = = 32 =—
1 —(—2) 3 32

We can also use the calculator as shown below.

376
 341
sum(seq(1/32(—2)x—1, x, 1, 10)) = —
32

Example B
Find the first term and the nth term rule for a geometric series in which the sum of the first 5 terms is 242 and the
common ratio is 3.
Solution: Plug in what we know to the formula for the sum and solve for the first term:

a1(1 —35)
242 =
1 —3
a1(—242)
242 =
—2
242 = 121a1
a1 = 2

The first term is 2 and an = 2(3)n—1.

Example C
Charlie deposits $1000 on the first of each year into his investment account. The account grows at a rate of 8% per
year. How much money is in the account on the first day on the 11th year.
Solution: First, consider what is happening here on the first day of each year. On the first day of the first year,
$1000 is deposited. On the first day of the second year $1000 is deposited and the previously deposited $1000 earns
8% interest or grows by a factor of 1.08 (108%). On the first day of the third year another $1000 is deposited, the
previous year’s deposit earns 8% interest and the original deposit earns 8% interest for two years (we multiply by
1.082):

Sum Year 1 : 1000

Sum Year 2 : 1000 + 1000(1.08)
Sum Year 3 : 1000 + 1000(1.08) + 1000(1.08)2
Sum Year 4 : 1000 + 1000(1.08) + 1000(1.08)2 + 1000(1.08)3
..
Sum Year 11 : 1000 + 1000(1.08) + 1000(1.08)2 + 1000(1.08)3 + ... + 1000(1.08)9 + 1000(1.08)10

∗There are 11 terms in this series because on the first day of the 11th year we make our final deposit and the original
deposit earns interest for 10 years.
This series is geometric. The first term is 1000, the common ratio is 1.08 and n = 11. Now we can calculate the sum
using the formula and determine the value of the investment account at the start of the 11th year.

1000 1 —1.0811
s11 = = 16645.48746 ≈ $16, 645.49
1 —1.08

Guided Practice
8
1. Evaluate ∑ 2(—3) n—1 .
n=3

377
2. If the sum of the first seven terms in a geometric series is 215
8
and r = —21 , find the first term and the nth term rule.
3. Sam deposits $50 on the first of each month into an account which earns 0.5% interest each month. To the nearest
dollar, how much is in the account right after Sam makes his last deposit on the first day of the fifth year (the 49th
month).
Answers
1. Since we are asked to find the sum of the 3rd through 8th terms, we will consider a3 as the first term. The third
term is a3 = 2(—3)2 = 2(9) = 18. Since we are starting with term three, we will be summing 6 terms, a3 + a4 + a5 +
a6 + a7 + a8, in total. We can use the rule for the sum of a geometric series now with a1 = 18, r = —3 and n = 6 to
find the sum:

8 18(1 —(—3)6)
∑ 2(—3) n—1 = 1 —(—3)
= —3276
n=3

2. We can substitute what we know into the formula for the sum of a geometric series and solve for a1.

7
215 a1 1 — —2
1
=
8 1 — —12
215 43
= a1
8 64
64 215
a1 = = 40
43 8

n—1
The nth term rule is an = 40 —12
3. The deposits that Sam make and the interest earned on each deposit generate a geometric series,

S49 = 50 + 50(1.005)1 + 50(1.005)2 + 50(1.005)3 + ... + 50(1.005)47 + 50(1.005)48,

↑ ↑
last deposit first deposit

Note that the first deposit earns interest for 48 months and the final deposit does not earn any interest. Now we can
find the sum using a1 = 50, r = 1.005 and n = 49.

50(1 —(1.005)49)
S49 = ≈ $2768
(1 —1.005)

Problem Set
Use the formula for the sum of a geometric series to find the sum of the first five terms in each series.

n—1
1. an = 36 23
2. an = 9(—2) n—1
3. an = 5(—1)n—1
n—1
4. an = 825 52

378
Find the indicated sums using the formula and then check your answers with the calculator.

4
1 n—1
5. ∑ ( —1) 2
n=1
8
1 n—1
6. ∑ (128) 4
n=2
7
125 4 n—1
7. ∑ 64 5
n=2
11
32 (—2)
1 n—1
8. ∑
n=5

Given the sum and the common ratio, find the nth term rule for the series.

6
9. ∑ an = —63 and r = —2
n=1
4
5
10. ∑ a = 671 and r = 6
n n=1
5
11. ∑ an = 122 and r = —3
n=1
7
12. ∑ an = —63
2
and r = —12
n=2

Solve the following word problems using the formula for the sum of a geometric series.

13. Sapna’s grandparents deposit $1200 into a college savings account on her 5th birthday. They continue to make
this birthday deposit each year until making the final deposit on her 18th birthday. If the account earns 5%
interest annually, how much is there after the final deposit?
14. Jeremy wants to have save $10,000 in five years. If he makes annual deposits on the first of each year and the
account earns 4.5% interest annually, how much should he deposit each year in order to have $10,000 in the
account after the final deposit on the first of the 6th year. Round your answer to the nearest $100.

379
 7.4 Infinite Series

Objective
Evaluate partial sums of infinite series and determine the sum of convergent infinite geometric series.
Review Queue
Evaluate the following sums.

8
1 n—1
1. ∑ 4 2
n=1
10
2. ∑ 5n —1
n=4
20
3. ∑ —2n + 50
n=12

Partial Sums

Objective
Determine partial sums of various types of series and observe the behavior of the sequences formed by these sums.
Guidance
An infinite series is a series with an infinite number of terms. In other words, the value of n increases without bound
as shown in the series below.

∞
∑ 3n + 1 = 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + ...
n=1
∞
∑ 4(2)n—1 = 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + ...
n=1
∞ n—1
1 1
∑8 2
= 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 2 + .. .
n=1

These sums continue forever and can increase without bound.

Since we cannot find the sums of these series by adding all the terms, we can analyze their behavior by observing
patterns within their partial sums. A partial sum is a sum of a finite number of terms in the series. We can look at a
series of these sums to observe the behavior of the infinite sum. Each of these partial sums is denoted by Sn where n
denotes the index of the last term in the sum. For example, S6 is the sum of the first 6 terms in an infinite series.
Example A
∞
Find the first five partial sums of ∑ 2n —1 and make an observation about the sum of the infinite series.
n=1
Solution: The first five partial sums are S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5. To find each of these sums we will need the first five
terms of the sequence: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. No we can find the partial sums as shown:

380
 S1 = a1 = 1
S2 = a1 + a2 = 1 + 3 = 4
S3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = 1 + 3 + 5 = 9
S4 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16
S5 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25

Notice that each sum can also be found by adding the nth term to the previous sum: Sn = Sn—1 + an.
For example: S5 = S4 + a4 = 16 + 9 = 25
The sequence of the first five partial sums is 1, 4, 9, 16, 25. This pattern will continue and the terms will continue to
grow without bound. In other words, the partial sums continue to grow and the infinite sum cannot be determined as
it is infinitely large.
Example B
∞
1 n—1
Find the first five partial sums of ∑ 2 and make an observation about the sum of the infinite series.
n=1

Solution: The first five terms of this sequence are: 1, 12, 14, 18, 116. The partial sums are thus:

S1 = 1
S2 = 1.5
S3 = 1.75
S4 = 1.875
S5 = 1.9375

Consider what happens with each subsequent term: We start with 1 and add 12 putting us halfway between 1 and 2.
Then we add 41 , putting us halfway between 1.5 and 2. Each time we add another term, we are cutting the distance
between our current sum and 2 in half. If this pattern is continued, we will get ever closer to 2 but never actually
reach two. Therefore, the sum is said to “converge to” or “approach” 2.
To support our conjecture further, we can use the calculator to find the 50th partial sum: S50 = 2. Eventually, if we
sum enough terms, the calculator will give us the value to which the sum approaches due to rounding.
Example C
∞
Find the first five partial sums of ∑ n1 , the “harmonic series” and make an observation about the sum of the infinite
n=1
series. (You may need to find addition partial sums to see the behavior of the infinite series.)
Solution: Use the calculator to find the following sums:

S1 = sum(seq(1/x, x, 1, 1)) = 1
S2 = sum(seq(1/x, x, 1, 2)) = 1.5
S3 = sum(seq(1/x, x, 1, 3)) = 1.833
S4 = sum(seq(1/x, x, 1, 4)) = 2.083
S5 = sum(seq(1/x, x, 1, 5)) = 2.283

In this series, the behavior is not quite as clear. Consider some additional partial sums:

381
 S50 = 4.499
S100 = 5.187
S500 = 6.793

In this case, the partial sums don’t seem to have a bound. They will continue to grow and therefore there is no finite
sum.
Guided Practice
Find the first five partial sums of the infinite series below and additional partial sums if needed to determine the
behavior of the infinite series. Use the calculator to find the partial sums as shown in Example C.
∞
3 n—1
1. ∑ 4 2
n=1
∞
2 n—1
2. ∑ 500 3
n=1
∞
5
3. ∑ 6n
n=1
Answers
1. S1 = 4; S2 = 10; S3 = 19; S4 = 32.5; S5 = 52.75; The partial sums are growing with increasing speed and thus
the infinite series will have no bound.
2. S1 = 500; S2 = 833.333; S3 = 1055.556; S4 = 1203.704; S5 = 1302.469; Here the sums seems to be growing by
smaller amounts each time. Look at the sum additional partial sums to see if there is an apparent upper limit to their
growth. S50 = 1499.9999 ... = 1500; S100 = 1500. The sum is clearly approaching 1500 and thus the infinite series
has a finite sum.
3. S1 = 0.833; S2 = 1.25; S3 = 1.528; S4 = 1.736; S5 = 1.903; This sequence of partial sums is growing slowly, but
will it approach a finite value or continue to grow? Look at additional partial sums: S50 = 3.749; S100 = 4.323; S500 =
5.661. In this case, the sums continue to grow without bound so the infinite series will have no bound.
Vocabulary

Infinite Series
A series in which the index increases without end. There are an infinite number of terms.

Partial Sum
The sum of a finite number of terms in an infinite series.

Problem Set
Find the first five partial sums and additional partial sums as needed to discuss the behavior of each infinite series.
Use your calculator to find the partial sums.
∞
1. ∑ 10(0.9) n—1
n=1
∞
2. ∑ 8(1.03) n—1
n=1
∞
3. ∑ 21 n
n=1
∞
4. ∑ 10
n
n=1

382
 ∞
1 3 n—1
5. ∑ 2 4
n=1
∞
6. ∑ n12
n=1
∞
7. ∑ 6(0.1) n—1
n=1
∞
8. ∑ 0.01n +5
n=1
∞
7 n—1
9. ∑ 2 8
n=1
10. Which of the series above are arithmetic? Do any of them have a finite sum? Can you explain why?
11. Which of the series above are geometric? Do any of them have a finite sum? Can you explain why?

Finding the Sum of an Infinite Geometric Series

Objective
Indentify infinite geometric series for which a sum can be determined and find the sum.
Guidance
In the previous concept we explored partial sums of various infinite series and observed their behavior as n became
large to see if the sum of the infinite series was finite. Now we will focus our attention on geometric series. Look at
the partial sums of the infinite geometric series below:

TABLE 11.5:
∞
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 1 n—1
3(1)n—1 3 n—1 6 n—1 2) n—1 ∑ 2 —3
Series ∑ ∑ 10 4 ∑5 5 ∑ (—
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
S5 15 30.508 37.208 11 1.506
S10 30 37.747 129.793 —341 1.5
S50 150 40 227485.954 —3.753 × 10 14 1.5
S100 300 40 2070449338 —4.226 × 1029 1.5

∞
3 n—1
From the table above, we can see that the two infinite geometric series which have a finite sum are ∑ 10 4 and
n=1
∞ n—1
∑ 2 —13 . The two series both have a common ratio, r, such that |r| < 1 or —1 < r < 1.
n=1

Take a look at the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series: Sn = a1 (1—r ) n
n
1—r . What happens to r if we let n get
very large for an r such that |r| < 1? Let’s take a look at some examples.

TABLE 11.6:
r values r5 r25 r50 .. . rn or r∞
5 0
6 4 0.40188 0.01048 0.00011
—5 —0.32768 —0.00378 0.00001 0
1.1 1.61051 10.83471 117.39085 keeps growing
—31 —0.00412 —1.18024 × 1.39296 × 10—24 0
10—12

This table shows that when |r| < 1, rn = 0, for large values of n. Therefore, for the sum of an infinite geometric
series in which |r| < 1, S∞ = a1(1—r = a1(1—0) = a1 .
n)
1—r 1—r 1—r

383
Example A
∞
8 n—1
Find the sum of the geometric series if possible. ∑ 100 9 .
n=1

Solution: Using the formula with a1 = 100, r = 89, we get S∞ = 100

1—89
= 100
1 = 900.
9

Example B
∞
4 n—1
Find the sum of the geometric series if possible. ∑ 9 3 .
n=1

Solution: In this case, |r| = 4

3
> 1, therefore the sum is infinite and cannot be determined.
Example C
∞
Find the sum of the geometric series if possible. ∑ 5 (0.99) n—1
n=1
Solution: In this case a1 = 5 and r = 0.99, so S∞ = 1
5 = 5 = 500.
—0.99 0.01
Guided Practice
Find the sums of the following infinite geometric series, if possible.
∞ n—1
1. 1 —32
n=1 9
∑
∞
7 n—1
2. ∑ 4 8
n=1
∞
3. ∑ 3(—1) n—1
n=1
Answers
1. |r| = —32 = 23 > 1 so the infinite sum does not exist.
2. a1 = 4 and r = 7
8
so S∞ = 1—
4 =
7
4
1 = 32.
8 8

3. |r| = |—1| = 1 ≥ 1, therefore the infinite sum does not converge. If we observe the behavior of the first few partial
sums we can see that they oscillate between 0 and 3.

S1 = 3
S2 = 0
S3 = 3
S4 = 0

This pattern will continue so there is no determinable sum for the infinite series.
Problem Set
Find the sums of the infinite geometric series, if possible.
∞
2 n—1
1. ∑ 5 3
n=1
∞ n—1
2. ∑ 1
10
—43
n=1
∞
1 n—1
3. ∑ 2 —3
n=1
∞
4. ∑ 8(1.1) n—1
n=1

384
 ∞
5. ∑ 6(0.4) n—1
n=1
∞
1 3 n—1
6. ∑ 2 7
n=1
∞
5 1 n—1
7. ∑ 3 6
n=1
∞
8. ∑ 51 (1.05) n—1
n=1
∞
4 6 n—1
9. ∑ 7 7
n=1
∞
11 n—1
10. ∑ 15 12
n=1
∞
3 n—1
11. ∑ 0.01 2
n=1
∞
1 n—1
12. ∑ 100 5
n=1

385
 CHAPTER
8 Introduction to Probability
Chapter Outline
1. THE FUNDAMENTAL C OUNTING P RINCIPLE
2. PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
3. THE B INOMIAL T HEOREM
4. I NTRODUCTION TO P ROBABILITY
5. VENN DIAGRAMS AND I NDEPENDENCE

This chapter introduces the concepts of probability. We will begin looking at sample spaces (the number of ways in
which multiple events can occur) using the fundamental counting principle, factorials, permutations, combinations
and binomial expansion. Next, we will learn how to calculate probability based on these sample spaces for singular
and multiple events. Finally, we will exam the difference between independent, mutually exclusive and dependent
events.

386
 8.1 The Fundamental Counting Principle

Objective
To develop an understanding of and use the Fundamental Counting Principle to determine the number of unique
arrangements that can be made of multiple items.
Review Queue
Write the nth term rules for the following sequences.
1. 21, 26, 31, 36, 41,...
2. —16, 8, —4, 2, —1,...
Find the sums of the following series.
6
3. ∑ (n +1) 2
n=1
∞
1 n—1
4. ∑ 5 2
n=1

Applying the Fundamental Counting Principle

Objective
Define and apply the Fundamental Counting Principle.
Guidance
Sometimes we want to know how many different combinations can be made of a variety of items. The fundamental
counting principle which states that the number of ways in which multiple events can occur can be determined by
multiplying the number of possible outcomes for each event together. In other words, if events A, B, and C have 5, 3
and 4 possible outcomes respectively, then the possible combinations of outcomes is 5 × 3 × 4 = 60.
The following examples will aid in developing an understanding of this concept and its application.
Example A
Sofia works in a clothing store. He has been given the task of setting up a mannequin with a skirt, a shirt and a pair
of shoes from a display of coordinating skirts, shirts and shoes. Since they all coordinate she can pick any shirt, any
skirt and any pair of shoes and the outfit will work. If there are 3 skirts, 5 shirts and 2 pairs of shoes, how many
ways can she dress the mannequin?
Solution: Let’s use a tree to help us visualize the possibilities. If we start with Shirt A, we get the following
possibilities for the remainder of the outfit:

So we could have the following 6 combinations with Shirt A:

387
Shirt A, Skirt A, Shoe A
S h i r t A , S k i r t A , S h o e B
S h i r t A , S k i r t B , S h o e A
S h i r t A , S k i r t B , S h o e B
S h i r t A , S k i r t C , S h o e A
Shirt A, Skirt C, Shoe B
Consider that there are four other shirts that will also have 6 combinations of skirts and shirts that will go with them.
Now, there are 5 × 6 total combinations which is 30 ways that Sofia could dress the mannequin.
Example B
Ralph is trying to purchase a new car. The salesperson tells him that there are 8 different possible interior colors, 5
exterior colors and 3 car models to choose from. How many different unique cars does he have to choose from?
Solution: Instead of making a tree diagram this time, let’s look at a more efficient method for determining the
number of combinations. If we consider what happens in the tree diagram, the 8 different interior colors would each
be matched with each of the 5 exterior colors and those combinations would then be linked to the 3 different models,
we can see that:

8 interior colors × 5 exterior colors × 3 models = 8 × 5 × 3 = 120 combinations

Example C
Monique is having a 5 course dinner in the dining room on a cruise. The menu consists of 2 appetizers, 3 soups, 2
salads, 4 entrees and 3 desserts. How many different meals could be configured if she chooses one of each course?
Solution: Following the method described in example B, we can multiply the number of chooses for each course
together to determine the total combinations:
2 × 3 × 2 × 4 × 3 = 144 unique 5 course meals.
Guided Practice
1. A coffee shop offers a special espresso deal. You choose one of three sizes, one of 5 flavored syrups and whole,
nonfat or soy milk. How many drink combinations can be made?
2. Sarah goes to a local deli which offers a soup, salad and sandwich lunch. There are 3 soups, 3 salads and 6
sandwiches from which to choose. How many different lunches can be formed?
3. A design your own t-shirt website offers 5 sizes, 8 colors and 25 designs for their shirts. How many different
t-shirts can be designed?
Answers
1. There are 3 sizes, 5 syrups and 3 kinds of milk from which to choose. So, 3 × 5 × 3 = 45 drinks.
2. 3 soups × 3 salads × 6 sandwiches = 54 lunch combos.
3. 5 sizes × 8 colors × 25 designs = 1000 shirts.
Vocabulary

The Fundamental Counting Principle

states that the number of ways in which multiple events can occur can be determined by multiplying the
number of possible outcomes for each event together.

Problem Set

388
Use the Fundamental Counting Principle to answer the following questions.

1. A frozen yogurt shop has a half price Sunday Sundae special. Customers can get one of four flavors, one of
three syrups and one of twelve toppings on their sundae. How many possible sundae combinations can be
made?
2. At a neighborhood restaurant wings are the specialty. The restaurant offers 3 sizes of wings, 4 levels of heat
and ranch or blue cheese dipping sauce. How many different orders are possible?
3. A noodle restaurant offers five types of noodles to choose from and each dish comes with a choice of one of
four meats and six different sauces. How many combinations can be made?
4. Charlie flips a coin and then rolls a die. How many different outcomes are possible?
5. On a one week cruise, the ship stops in four ports. At each port there are six different excursions to choose
from. If a passenger chooses one excursion at each port, how many different vacation experiences can be
created?
6. Samuel wants to know if he can go a whole month without wearing the exact same outfit twice. He has three
pairs of pants, six shirts and two pairs of shoes. Can he make a unique outfit for each day of the month?
7. A car dealership has four different models to choose from in six exterior colors. If there are three different
interior colors to choose from, how many different vehicles can be designed?
8. A burrito bar offers a lunch special burrito. Customers can choose a flour or corn tortilla; chicken, steak or
carnitas; white or brown rice; black beans or pinto beans; cheese, guacamole, or sour cream; and one of four
salsas for a special price. How many different burritos can be made?
9. Maria rolls a die, spins a spinner with four numbers and then flips a coin. How many possible outcomes are
there?
10. A local restaurant offers a dinner special. Diners can choose one of six entrees, one of three appetizers and
one of 3 desserts. How many different meals can be formed?

Using the Fundamental Counting Principle with and without Repetition

Objective
To determine the number of possible combinations in situations where elements may be repeated.
Guidance
Consider a phone number. A phone number consists entirely of numbers or repeated items. In this concepts we will
look at how to determine the total number of possible combinations of items which may be repeated.
Example A
A license plate consists of three letters and four numbers in the state of Virginia. If letters and numbers can be
repeated, how many possible license plates can be made?
Solution: If we consider the three slots for the letters, how many letters can be chosen to place in each slot? How
about the four slots for the numbers? If there are no restrictions, i.e. letter and numbers can be repeated, the total
number of license plates is:

26 × 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 175, 760, 000

Now, what if letters or numbers could not be repeated? Well, after the first letter is chosen, how many letters could
fill the next spot? Since we started with 26, there would be 25 unused letters for the second slot and 24 for the third
slot. Similarly with the numbers, there would be one less each time:

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 26 × 25 × 24 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 78, 624, 000

Example B
How many unique five letter passwords can be made? How many can be made if no letter is to be repeated?
Solution: Since there are 26 letters from which to choose for each of 5 slots, the number of unique passwords can
be found by multiplying 26 by itself 5 times or (26)5 = 11, 881, 376. If we do not repeat letters, then we need to
subtract one each time we multiply: 26 × 25 × 24 × 23 × 22 = 7, 893, 600.
Example C
How many unique 4 digit numbers can be made? What if no digits can be repeated?
Solution: For the first part, consider that in order for the number to be a four digit number, the first digit cannot be
zero. So, we start with only 9 digits for the first slot. The second slot could be filled with any of the ten digits and so
on:

9 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 9000.

For the second part, in which digits cannot be repeated, we would still have 9 possible digits for the first slot, then
we’d have 9 again for the second slot (we cannot repeat the first digit, but we can add 0 back into the mix), then 8
for the third slot and 7 for the final slot:

9 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 4536.

Guided Practice
1. How many unique passwords can be made from 6 letters followed by 1 number or symbol if there are ten possible
symbols? No letters or numbers can be repeated.
2. If a license plate has three letters and three numbers, how many possible combinations can be made?
3. In a seven digit phone number, the first three digits represent the exchange. If, within a particular area code, there
are 53 exchanges, how many phone numbers can be made?
Answers
1. 26 × 25 × 24 × 23 × 22 × 21 × 20 = 3, 315, 312, 000
2. 26 × 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 17, 576, 000
3. 53 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 530, 000
Problem Set
Use the Fundamental Counting Principle to answer the following questions. Refer back to the examples and guided
practice for help.

1. How many six digit numbers can be formed if no digits can be repeated?
2. How many five digit numbers can be formed that end in 5?
3. How many license plates can be formed of 4 letters followed by 2 numbers?
4. How many seven digit phone numbers can be made if there are 75 exchanges in the area?
5. How many four letter pins (codes) can be made?
6. How many four number/letter pins can be made if no number or letter can be repeated?

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How many different ways can nine unique novels be arranged on a shelf?
7. How many different three scoop cones can be made from 12 flavors of ice cream allowing for repetition? What
if no flavors can be repeated?
8. How many different driver’s license numbers can be formed by 2 letters followed by 6 numbers?
9. How many student ID numbers can be made by 4 random digits (zero cannot come first) followed by the
student’s grade (9, 10, 11 or 12). Example: 5422-12 for a 12th grader.

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 8.2 Permutations and Combinations

Objective
To define and use factorials to determine the numbers of permutations or combinations that can be made of multiple
items.
Review Queue
1. The summer reading requirement for an English course is to read one of 6 novels, one of 3 biographies and one
of 4 other nonfiction selections. How many different assignments might be completed?
2. How many six-digit identification numbers can be formed if digits may be repeated but none can start with zero?
3. How many ways can seven DVD’s be arranged on a shelf?

Define and Apply Permutations and Factorials

Objective
To define and use factorials to determine the number of permutations or arrangements of objects.
Guidance
The number of permutations of objects is the number of possible arrangements of the objects. Consider question
three in the review queue: How many ways can seven DVD’s be arranged on a shelf? This is an example of a
permutation. We used the Fundamental Counting Principle without repetition to determine the permutations of
DVD’s.
Example A
How many ways can 5 students sit in a row?
Solution: If we consider the students sitting in one of five seats, then we have 5 students to choose from for the first
seat, four remaining to choose from for the second seat and so on until all the seats are filled.
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 So there are 120 ways to seat the students.
More Guidance
The way we just wrote out 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 can also be expressed as a factorial. A factorial is the product of a
number with each number less than itself. We use the notation, 5!, which is read as “five factorial” to represent the
expression 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. It is important to note that 0! = 1! = 1. Students are often perplexed that both zero and
one factorial are equal to one but think back to the context for illustration. If you want to arrange zero items, how
many ways can you do it? If you want to arrange one item, how many ways can you do it? There is only one way to
“arrange” zero or one item.
To evaluate a factorial on the TI-83 or 84 graphing calculator, type in the number, then press MATH→NUM, 4!.
Press ENTER to evaluate.
Example B
Evaluate 10!
6!
Solution: We should expand the numerator and the denominator to see which common factors the numerator and
denominator that we can cancel out to simplify the expression.

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 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 ×2×1 10 × 9 ×8 ×7 ×6/! /
= = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 5040
6×5×4×3×2×1 /6!

Example C
On a shelf there are 6 different math books, 4 different science books and 8 novels. How many ways can the books
be arranged if the groupings are maintained (meaning all the math books are together, the science books are together
and the novels are together).
Solution: There are 6 math books so if we think of filling 6 slots with the six books, then we start with 6 books for
the first slot, then 5, then 4, etc: 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720 ways.
There are 4 science books so we can arrange them in 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 ways.
There are 8 novels so we can arrange them in 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 40, 320 ways.
Now, if each type of book can be arranged in so many ways and there are three types of books which can be displayed
in 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 ways, then there are:
720 × 24 × 40320 × 6 = 4, 180, 377, 600 total ways to arrange the books.
Guided Practice
Evaluate the following expressions with factorials.
1. 12!
9!
2. 4×8!
3!5!
3. How many ways can nine children line up?
4. How many ways can 3 cookbooks, 5 textbooks, 7 novels and 4 nonfiction books be arranged on a shelf if the
groupings are maintained?
Answers
1. 9!
12×11×10×/ = 1320
/9/ !
2. 5!
4×8×7×6×/ = 4× 8×7×6 / = 224
5!
3 × 2 × 1 ×/
3 / × 2/ ×1
3. 9! = 362, 880
4. 3! ×5! ×7! ×4! ×4! = 2, 090, 188, 800
Vocabulary

Permutations
The number of ways items in a set can be arranged or ordered.

Factorial
Operation in which a number is multiplied by each positive number less than itself.

Problem Set
Evaluate the following factorial expressions.

1. 5!
2!3!
2. 10!
2!7!
3. 4!8!
9!
4. 5!10!
12!

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 5.How many ways can a baseball team manager arrange nine players in a lineup?
6.How many ways can the letters in the word FACTOR be arranged?
7.How many ways can 12 school buses line up?
8.How many ways can eight girls sit together in a row?
9.If the two of the eight girls in problem eight must sit together, how many ways can the 8 girls be arranged in
the row such that the two girls sit together?
10. How many ways can seven diners sit around a circular table. (Hint: It is not 7!, consider how a circular seating
arrangement is different than a linear arrangement.)
11. How many ways can three cookbooks, four novels and two nonfiction books be arranged on a shelf if the
groupings are maintained?
12. How many ways can two teachers, four male students, five female students and one administrator be arranged
if the teachers must sit together, the male students must sit together and the female students must sit together?

Permutations of Subsets and Permutations with Repetition

Objective
To calculate the permutations of a subset of items and to calculate permutations of a set with indistinguishable
objects, i.e. two or more objects are identical.
Guidance
Sometimes we want to order a select subset of a group. For example, suppose we go to an ice cream shop that
offers 15 flavors. If we want to layer 3 scoops of different flavors on an ice cream cone, how many arrangements are
possible? Here, the order matters so a chocolate, strawberry and vanilla cone is different than a strawberry, vanilla
and chocolate cone. This is an example of permutations of a subset. We don’t need to know how many ways we can
order all 15 flavors, just three choices. You have actually solved problems like this already using the Fundamental
Counting Principle. There are 15 choices for scoop one, 14 choices for scoop two and 13 choices for scoop 3, so
15 × 14 × 13 = 2730.
We can use factorials to solve this as well. Consider the expression: 15×14×13×12! = 15! = n! , where n
12! (15—3)! (n—r)!
represents the total number of elements in the set and r represents the number of elements in the subset we are
selecting. Mathematically, this can be written using the notation 15P3 or nPr. To summarize, if we wish to find the
number of permutations of r elements selected from a larger set containing n elements, we can use the formula:
nPr =
n! .
(n—r)!
∗Note that some textbooks use the notation Pnr to represent nPr.
We can evaluate this expression easily on the calculator as well. First, enter the value of n(15), then go to MATH→PRB,
select 2: nPr. Now enter the value of r(3) to get the expression 15 nPr 3 on your screen. Press ENTER one more
time and the result is 2730.
Example A
How many ways can a President, Vice President, Secretary and Treasurer be selecting from a club with ten members?
Solution: In the selection process here, the order matters so we are calculating the number of permutations of a
subset of 4 members of the 10 member club. So,

10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6!
10 P4 = = = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 5040.
(10 —4)! 6!

Example B
Consider the word, VIRGINIA. How many unique ways can these letters be arranged?

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Solution: There are eight letters which can be arranged 8! ways. However, some of these arrangements will not be
unique because there are multiple I’s in the word VIRGINIA. For example, if we let the three I’s be different colors,
then we can see that there are several indistinguishable ways the I’s can be arranged.

VIRGINIA, VIRGINIA, VIRGINIA, VIRGINIA, VIRGINIA, VIRGINIA

In fact, there are 3! or 6 ways that the three I’s can be arranged that are indistinguishable when the arrangement of
the remaining letters is constant. To figure out the number of unique arrangements of the 8 letters with 3 that are
indistinguishable we can find the permutations of the 8 letters and divide by the permutations of the indistinguishable
items.

8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3!
= = 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 6720
3! 3!

Example C
Consider the word PEPPERS. How many unique arrangements can be made of these letters?
Solution: There are seven letters in total, three of which are P and two of which are E. We can expand upon what
we did in the last example and divide by the number of ways each of these letters can be arranged.

7! 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3! 7 × 6 × 5 × (2 × 2/ )
= = = 7 × 6 × 5 × 2 = 420
3! 2! 3! × 2 × 1 2/

More Guidance
We can generalize the rule used in Examples B and C as follows. In a set with n elements, in which n1, n2, n3,... are
indistinguishable, we can find the number of unique permutations of the n elements using the formula:

n!
n1! ×n2! ×n3! × . . .

Guided Practice
1. Find 10P6
2. On a team of 12 players, how many ways can the coach select players to receive on of each of the following
awards (one award per player): most valuable player, best sportsmanship, most improved player.
3. How many ways can 5 yellow, 4 red and 3 green balls be arranged in a row?
Answers
1.10P6 = 10! = 10×9×8×7×6×5×4! = 151,200
(10—6)! 4!
2.12P3 = 12! = 12×11×10×9! = 1,320
(12—3)! 9!
12×11×10×9×(4×2)7×6
3. 12!
5!×4!×3!
= 12×11×10×9×8×7×6×5!
4!×4!×3!
= (4×3)×2×3×2
= 11 × 10 × 9 × 4 × 7 = 27 ,720
Problem Set
Evaluate the following expressions.

1. 8P5

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 2. 11P8
3. Evaluate and explain the results of each of the following: 5P5, 5P0, 5P1
4. Sarah needs to go to five different stores. How many ways can she go to two of them before lunch?
5. In a race there are eleven competitors in a particular age group. How many possible arrangements are there
for the top five finishers in this age group?
6. How many ways can eight distinct raffle prizes be awarded to fifteen ticket holders.
7. In a class of 24 students, there are six groups of four students. How many ways can a teacher select one group
for each of three classroom maintenance responsibilities?
8. At a birthday party there are 6 unique prizes to be given randomly to the 6 quests such that no one guest
receives more than one prize. How many ways can this be done?
9. How many unique ways can the letters in MISSISSIPPI be arranged?
10. How many ways can two Geometry books, eight Algebra books and three Pre-Calculus books be arranged on
a shelf if all the books of each respective subject are identical.
11. At a math department luncheon, the department chair has three $20 gift certificates to the local coffee shop,
five $25 gift certificates to a local bookstore and two state of the art calculators to give as prizes amongst the
10 department members. If each teacher receives one prize, how many unique distributions of prizes can be
made?

Define and Apply Combinations

Objective
To define and calculate combinations of objects and to recognize the difference between a combination and a
permutation.
Guidance
Combinations of a subset of a larger set of objects refer to the number of ways we can choose items in any order.
For comparison, look at the table below to see when order matters and when order doesn’t matter.

TABLE 12.1:
Combinations Permutations

• Ways to select the members of a committee from • Ways to select specific officers in a club-
a larger population president, vice president, treasurer, etc.

• Ways to select a set number of pizza toppings • Ways to select and arrange scoops of ice cream
from a larger list of choices on a cone

• Ways to select books from a reading list • Ways to select and order in which to read books
selected from a reading list.

The simplest way to describe the difference between a combination and a permutation is to say that in a combination
the order doesn’t matter. The members of a committee could be selected in any order but the officers in a club are
assigned a specific position and therefore the order does matter. Be careful of the use of these words in the real world

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as they are sometimes misused. For example, a locker combination. The ways to select and order the three numbers
for a locker combination is not actually a combination, but a permutation since the order does matter.
Example A
How many ways can we choose three different flavors of ice cream from a selection of 15 flavors to place in a bowl?
Solution: First, does order matter in the bowl? When we created an ice cream cone with three scoops in an
earlier concept the order did matter but here it does not. Let’s work from the example of the ice cream cone. We
determined the number of permutations of a subset of three flavors from the total 15 flavors using the formula:
n!
(n—r)!
= (15—3)!
15! = 15! = 15×14×13 ×12! = 2730. Now that order doesn’t matter, this number includes the 3! ways
12! 12!
to arrange each combination of 3 flavors. We can divide 2,730 by 3! to determine the number of combinations:
2730
3×2×1
= 2730
6
= 455.
n
The notation and formula for combinations can be written as: = nCr = Crn = r!(n—r)!
n!
, where n represents the
r
number of elements in the set and r represents the number of elements in the subset.
Example B
Evaluate the following expressions:
8
1.
5
2.8C0
3.8C8
4. C710
5. Explain why the answers to 2 and 3 are the same.
Solution: All of the notations in problems 1-4 indicate that we should use the formula for a combination. We can use
the graphing calculator to evaluate these as well. Problems 2 and 3 are set up in the form of the calculator notation
so we will use the calculator to evaluate those two and the formula for the other two.
8
1. 8!
= 5!(8—5)! = 8×7×6× /5/! = 8×7
1
= 56.
5 /5! ×3 ×2 × 1
2. Type in 8 on the TI-83 Graphing calculator, then MATH→PRB, select 3: nCr. Now type in 0 and your screen
should read 8 nCr 0 before your press ENTER to get the answer 1.
3. Type in 8 on the TI-83 Graphing calculator, then MATH→PRB, select 3: nCr. Now type in 8 and your screen
should read 8 nCr 8 before your press ENTER to get the answer 1.
10! = 10×9×8× /7
4. C710 = 7!(10—7)! /! = 10×3/×3 ×4 ×2/ = 120
/7! × 3 ! 3/ × 2/
5. In problem 2, we are looking at the ways to choose 0 items from 8 choices. There is only one way to do this. In
problem 3 we are looking at the ways to choose 8 items from 8 choices. Well, the only way to do that is to choose
all 8 items. So, there is only 1 way to choose zero items or all the items from a set.
Example C
How many ways can a team of five players be selected from a class of 20 students?
20
Solution: We can express this problem using the notation and then use the formula to evaluate.
5

20 20!
= ×15!
2/0× 19 × 6/ × 3 × 17 × 16 ×15 !
=/ ×c4 × c3 c×c2 × 15 !
c5c = 15, 504.
5 5!

Guided Practice

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1. Evaluate the following using the formula for combinations of the calculator.
7
a.
5
b. 20C12
c. C715
2. How many ways can a committee of three students be formed from a club of fifteen members?
3. How many three-topping pizzas can be made if there are 10 topping choices?
Answers
1. Using the calculator for each of these we get:
a. 7 nCr 5 = 21
b. 20 nCr 12 = 125, 970
c. 15 nCr 7 = 6, 435
15
2. = 15! = 3/ × 5×2/×7 ×13 ×12! = 455.
3 3!(15—3)! c3×cc2×12!

3. C103= 10 nCr 3 = 120.

Vocabulary

Combinations
The number of ways a subset of items can be selected from a larger set disregarding order of selection.

Problem Set
Evaluate the following combinations with or without a calculator.

1. 13C10
2. C610
18
3.
10
4. Explain why 9C5 = 9C4 = 126.
5. Decide whether the following situations are permutations and which are combinations.
1. Ways to arrange students in a row.
2. Ways to select a group of students.
3. Ways to organize books on a shelf.
4. Ways to select books to read from a larger collection.
5. Ways to select three different yogurt flavors from a collection of ten flavors.

In each scenario described below, use either a combination or permutation as appropriate to answer the question.

6. There are seven selections for appetizers on a caterer’s menu. How many ways can you select three of them?
7. You only have time for seven songs on your workout playlist. If you have 10 favorites, how many ways can
you select seven of them for the list? Now, how many ways can you select them in a particular order?
8. How many ways can you select two teams of five players each from a group of ten players?
9. At the local frozen yogurt shop a sundae comes with your choice of three toppings. If there are 12 choices for
toppings, how many combinations of toppings are possible?
10. How many ways can four people be selected from a group of 30 to serve on a committee? What if each of the
four people was selected to fill a specific position on the committee?
11. A soccer team has 20 players, but only 11 play at any one time.

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1. How many ways can the coach select a group of eleven players to start (disregard positions)?
2. Now, of the eleven players on the field, one is a goalie, four play defense, three play midfield and three
play offense. How many ways are there to assign the eleven players to these positions?
3. Considering your answers to parts a and b, how many ways can the coach select eleven players and
assign them positions on the field? Assume all players can play each position.

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 8.3 The Binomial Theorem

Objective
To recognize the connection between the elements in Pascal’s Triangle and the expansion of Binomials and to use
the Binomial Theorem to expand binomials.
Review Queue
1. How many ways can seven different floats be ordered in a parade?
2. How many unique ways can the letters in the word COMMITTEE be arranged?
3. How many combinations of 4 sundae toppings can be made from a selection of 12?

Pascal’s Triangle and the Coefficients in the Expansion of Binomials

Objective
Observe and use the connection between Pascal’s Triangle and expanded binomials to assist in expanding binomials.
Guidance
Pascal’s Triangle:

Each row begins and ends with a one. Each “interior” value in each row is the sum of the two numbers above it. For
example, 2 + 1 = 3 and 10 + 10 = 20. This pattern produces the symmetry in the triangle.
Another pattern that can be observed is that the row number is equal to the number of elements in that row. Row 1,
for example has 1 element, 1. Row 2 has 2 elements, 1 and 1. Row 3 has 3 elements, 1, 2 and 1.
A third pattern is that the second element in the row is equal to one less than the row number. For example, in row 5
we have 1, 4, 6, 4 and 1.
Example A
Continue the triangle to determine the elements in the 9th row of Pascal’s Triangle.
Solution: Following the pattern of adding adjacent elements to get the elements in the next row, we find hat the
eighth row is: 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

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Now, continue the pattern again to find the 9th row: 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
Example B
Expand the binomial (a + b)4 and discuss the pattern within the exponents of each variable as well as the pattern
found in the coefficients of each term.
Solution:

(a + b)(a + b)(a + b)(a + b)

(a2 + 2ab + b2)(a2 + 2ab + b2)
a4 + 2a3b + a2b2 + 2a3b + 4a2b2 + 2ab3 + a2b2 + 2ab3 + b4
a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

1. Take two binomials at a time and square them using (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
2. Next, distribute each term in the first trinomial over each term in the second trinomial and collect like terms.
We can see that the powers of a start with 4 (the degree of the binomial) and decrease by one each term while the
powers of b start with zero and increase by one each term. The number of terms is 5 which is one more than the
degree of the binomial. The coefficients of the terms are 1 4 6 4 1, the elements of row 5 in Pascal’s Triangle.
Example C
Use what you discovered in the previous example to expand (x + y)6.
Solution: The degree of this expansion is 6, so the powers of x will begin with 6 and decrease by one each term until
reaching 0 while the powers of y will begin with zero and increase by one each term until reaching 6. We can write
the variables in the expansion (leaving space for the coefficients) as follows:

x6 + x5y + x4y2 + x 3y 3 + x2y4 + xy5 + y6

In the previous example we observed that the coefficients for a fourth degree binomial were found in the fifth row
of Pascal’s Triangle. Here we have a 6th degree binomial, so the coefficients will be found in the 7th row of Pascal’s
Triangle. Now we can fill in the blanks with the correct coefficients.

x6 + 6x5y + 15x4y2 + 20x3y3 + 15x2y4 + 6xy5 + y6

Example D
Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (x —2)5.
Solution: We will use the 6th row of Pascal’s Triangle for the coefficients and the powers observed in the exponents
to begin the expansion as follows:

1x5 + 5x4(—2) + 10x3(—2)2 + 10x2(—2)3 + 5x(—2)4 + 1(—2)5

Now, compute the powers of -2 and multiply these by the coefficients of each terms to simplify:

1x5 + 5x4(—2) + 10x3(4) + 10x2(—8) + 5x(16) + 1(—32)

x5 —10x4 + 40x3 —80x2 + 80x —32

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Guided Practice
1. Write out the elements in row 10 of Pascal’s Triangle.
2. Expand (a + 4)3
3. Write out the coefficients in the expansion of (2x —3)4
Answers
1. The 9th row was determined in Example A to be: 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
Subsequently, the 10th row is: 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
2.

a3 + 3a2(4) + 3a(4)2 + (4)3

a3 + 12a2 + 48a + 64

3.

(2x)4 + 4(2x)3(—3) + 6(2x)2(—3)2 + 4(2x)(—3)3 + (—3)4

16x4 —96x3 + 216x2 —216x + 81

Problem Set

1. Write out the elements in row 7 of Pascal’s Triangle.

2. Write out the elements in row 13 of Pascal’s Triangle.

Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand the following binomials.

3. (x —6)4
4. (2x + 5)6
5. (3 —x)7
6. (x2 —2)3
7. (x + 4)5
8. (2 —x3)4
9. (a —b)6
10. (x + 1)10

Using the Binomial Theorem

Objective
Define and apply the binomial theorem to determine the expansions of binomials.
Guidance
Using Pascal’s Triangle and the patterns within it are only one way to expand binomials. The Binomial Theorem
can also be used to expand binomials and is sometimes more efficient, particularly for higher degree binomials. The
Binomial Theorem is given by:

n n 0 n n—1 1 n n—2 2 n n 0 n
(a + b) n = ab + a b + a b + .. . + a1 bn—1 + ab
0 1 2 n —1 n

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It can be seen in this rule that the powers of a and b decrease and increase, respectively, as we observed in the
n
previous concept. Recall that the notation refers to the calculation of the number of combinations of r elements
r
n n!
selected from a set of n elements and that = nC r = r!(n—r)! .
r
n n n n n n
As it turns out, , , , .. . , , are the elements in the (n + 1) st row of Pascal’s Triangle.
0 1 2 3 n —1 n
If we let n = 5, then we can find the coefficients as follows:

5 5! 5 5! 5 5! 5 5! 5 5! 5 5!
= = 1; = = 5; = = 10; = = 10; = = 5; = =1
0 0! 5! 1 1! 4! 2 2! 3! 3 3! 2! 4 4! 1! 5 5! 0!

These are the elements of the 6th row of Pascal’s Triangle: 1 5 10 10 5 1

The Binomial Theorem allows us to determine the coefficients of the terms in the expansion without having to extend
the triangle to the appropriate row.
Example A
Use the Binomial Theorem to expand (x + 2y)6
Solution: First, in this example, a = x, b = 2y and n = 6. Now we can substitute into the rule.

6 6 6 5 6 4 6 3 6 2 6 6 0
(x + 2y ) 6 = x ( 2y) 0 + x ( 2y) 1 + x ( 2y) 2 + x ( 2y) 3 + x ( 2y) 4 + = x1 (2y) 5 + x (2y) 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Now we can simplify:

= (1)x6(1) + (6)x5(2y) + (15)x4(4y2) + (20)x3(8y3) + (15)x2(16y4) + (6)x(32y5) + (1)(1)(64y6)

= x6 + 12x5y + 30x4y2 + 160x3y3 + 240x2y4 + 192xy5 + 64y6

More Guidance
What if we just want to find a single term in the expansion? We can use the following rule to represent the (r + 1)st
n n—r r
term in the expansion: a b . The rule is for the (r + 1)st term because if we want the 1st term, then r = 0
r
(refer back to the Binomial Theorem expansion rule). The value of r in the expansion is always one less than the
term number.
Example B
Find the 4th term in the expansion of (3x —5)8.
Solution: Since we want the 4th term, r = 3. Now we can set up the formula with a = 3x, b = —5, n = 8 and r = 3
and evaluate:

8
(3x) 8—3 (—5) 3 = (56)(243x 5)(—125) = —1 ,701, 000x 5
3

Example C
Find the coefficient of the term containing y5 in the expansion of (4 + y)9.

403
Solution:
n n—r r
This time, think about the rule, a b , and that we know that b r = y 5 and thus r = 5. We also know that n = 9
r
and a = 4. Now we can fill in the rest of the rule:

9
(4) 9—5 y5 = (126)(256)y 5 = 32 ,256y 5
5

Guided Practice
1. Use the Binomial Theorem to show that (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2.
2. Find the coefficient of the 5th term in the expansion of (1 —3x)10.
4
3. Find the constant term in the expansion of 4x 3 + 1x .
Answers
1.
2 2 0 2 1 1 2 0 2
(a + b) 2 = ab + ab + ab
0 1 2
= (1)a2(1) + (2)ab + (1)(1)b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2

10
2. r = 4 in the 5th term so, (1) 10—4 (—3x) 4 = 210(1 )(81x 4) = 17 ,010x4. Since only the coefficient is required,
4
we can drop the variable for the final answer: 17,010.
4 1 r.
3. The constant term occurs when the power of x is zero. Let r remain unknown for the time being: (4x 3) 4—r x
r
Now isolate the variables to determine when the power of x will be zero as shown:
We can set the variable portion of the expanded term rule equal to x0.
Then simplify using the rules of exponents on the left hand side of the equation until we have like bases, x, on both
sides and can drop the bases to set the exponents equal to each other and solve for r.

(x3)4—r(x—1)r = x0
x12—3r ·
x—r = x0
x12—3r—r = x0
x12—4r = x0
12 —4r = 0
12 = 4r
r=3

Now, plug the value of r into the rule to get the constant term in the expansion.

3 3
4 1 1
(4x 3) 4—3 = 4(4x )
3
= 16.
3 x x

Problem Set
Expand the following binomials using the Binomial Theorem.

404
 1. (x —a)7
2. (2a + 3)4

Find the nth term in the expansions of the following binomials.

3. (7x —2)5; n = 4
7
4. 6x + 12 ; n = 3
5. (5 —a)9; n = 7
6. 2 x + 9y 6 ; n = 4
3
7. Find the term with x5 in the expansion of (3x —2 ) 7 .
8. Find the term with y6 in the expansion of (5 —y) 8.
9. Find the term with a3 in the expansion of (2a —b)10.
10. Find the term with x4 in the expansion of (8 —3x)5.
6
11. Find the constant term in the expansion of x 2 + 3x .
8
12. Find the constant term in the expansion of 5
x3 —x .

405
 8.4 Introduction to Probability

Objective
Develop an understanding of the probability of a particular outcome of an event and to calculate this probability.
Review Queue
5
1. Simplify ( 2x) 5—3 (—y) 3 .
3
2. Expand (m —n)4.
3. Find the term containing x5 in the expansion of (x —4)7.

Finding the Probability of an Event

Objective
Determine the probability of an event with a known sample space.
Guidance
The probability of a particular outcome of an event occurring is a measure of how likely the desired outcome is to
occur. In this concept we will calculate the probability of an event using the ratio of the number of ways the desired
outcome can occur to the number of items in the sample space. The sample space is essentially a list of all the
possible outcomes. For example, when we roll a single die, the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} because these are
all the possible outcomes. So, the probability of rolling a 3 is 16 because there is one way to roll a 3 and there are
6 elements in the sample space. We can write a rule for probability when all the outcomes in the sample space are
equally likely:

P(event) =
number of desirable outcomes
number of outcomes in the sample space

Example A
What is the probability of rolling a single die and obtaining a prime number?
Solution: In this example there are exactly 3 prime numbers on the die {2, 3, 5} and there are six elements in the
sample space {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} so P(prime) = 36 = 12 .
Example B
What is the probability of rolling a four and a three when two dice are rolled? How about a sum of six when two
dice are rolled? What is the most likely sum to roll?
Solution: In this case it is useful to make a diagram of the sample space when two dice are rolled.

406
 1, 1 2, 1 3, 1 4, 1 5, 1 6, 1
1, 2 2, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 2 6, 2
1, 3 2, 3 3, 3 4, 3 5, 3 6, 3
1, 4 2, 4 3, 4 4, 4 5, 4 6, 4
1, 5 2, 5 3, 5 4, 5 5, 5 6, 5
1, 6 2, 6 3, 6 4, 6 5, 6 6, 6

From this diagram we can see that there are 36 possible outcomes when two dice are rolled.

• To answer the first part of the question, we can observe in the table that there are two ways (shown in red) that
2 = 1.
can we roll a 4 and a 3 so the probability of rolling a 4 and a 3 is 36 18

• For the second part, there are 5 ways (shown in blue) that a sum of six can be rolled. Therefore the probability
6 = 1.
of rolling a sum of six is 36 6

More Guidance
The examples above are more accurately described as theoretical probabilities because the theory is that if all the
outcomes have an equal likelihood of occurring then the probability is the ratio described about. Does this mean
however that when we flip a coin four times we will get 2 heads and 2 tails? Theoretically, this is the most
likely outcome, but it is possible that in an experiment we get very different results. When we use the results of
an experiment to determine probabilities they are referred to as experimental probabilities. Each flip of the coin
Complete the table below to investigate the connection between theoretical and experimental probabilities.

TABLE 12.2:
Number of flips of Number of Heads Number of Tails Probability of flip- Probability of flip-
a coin ping a Head ping a Tail
5
10
50
100
1000∗
1 1
Theoretical 2 2

∗You may wish to use a probability simulator to investigate how many heads and tails are achieved with 1000 flips
or combine your results for the 100 flips with 9 other classmates.
Is the experimental probability the same as the theoretical probability? What do you notice as the number of flips
increases?
Example C
In a case study of an experimental drug, there were 80 participants. Of the 80 participants, 65 of them experienced
no significant side effects from the treatment. What is the probability of a person taking the drug to experience
significant side effects? How accurate do you think this probability is? Justify your answer.
Solution: If 65 of the 80 participants did not experience significant side effects, then 15 of them did. So the
likelihood of someone in the future experiencing a significant side effect to the drug is 15 = 3 . This is experimental
80 16
probability and as we learned in the investigation, the accuracy of this type of probability will increase as the number
of trials in the study increases. Also, as individuals and their general health vary, so will the likelihood of a particular

407
person to experience side effects from a drug vary.
Guided Practice
1. What is the probability of selecting a red chip from a bag containing 10 red chips, 12 blue chips and 15 white
chips?
2. What is the probability of rolling doubles when two dice are rolled?
3. Over the course of a month, Sally and Stan recorded how many times their cell phones dropped a call. During this
time Sally made 55 phone calls and 4 of them were dropped while Stan made 36 calls and 3 were dropped. What
is the probability that Sally’s cell phone drops a call? How about Stan’s? Who appears to have to more reliable
service?
Answers
1. P(red) = 10
10+12+15 = 10
37 .
2. There are six ways to roll doubles (1, 1), (2, 2), etc (refer back to the diagram in Example B). So P(doubles) =
6 = 1.
36 6
3. Sally, P(dropped call ) = 4
55
≈ 0.0727; Stan, P(dropped call) = 3
36
= 12
1 ≈0
.0833; Sally appears to have the more
reliable service.
Vocabulary

Probability
The measurement of the likelihood of the desired outcome of an event.

Sample Space
The set of all the possible outcomes of an event

Theoretical Probability
The ratio of the number of ways a desired outcome can be achieved to the number of outcomes in the sample
space.

Experimental Probability
The ratio of the number of ways a desired outcome can be achieved to the number of outcomes in the sample
space determined by an experiment with multiple trials.

Trial
Each flip of a coin, roll of the dice or other event which results in one of a set number of possible results.

Problem Set
Determine the following probabilities.
In a standard deck of cards there are 4 suits (two black suits: spades and clubs, and two red suits: hearts and
diamonds) and in each suit there are cards numbered 2 through 10, a jack, a queen, a king and an ace. Use this
information to answer questions 1-5.

1. What is the probability of randomly drawing a queen?

2. What is the probability of randomly drawing a black card?
3. What is the probability of randomly drawing a face card (jack, queen or king)?
4. What is the probability of randomly drawing a red five?
5. What is the probability of drawing an even numbered card?

408
Use the table of outcomes for rolling two fair dice (Example B) to answer questions 6-10.

6. What is the probability of rolling a sum greater than 8?

7. What is the probability of rolling doubles?
8. What is the probability of rolling two prime numbers?
9. What is the probability of rolling a sum that is prime?
10. What is the probability of rolling an even sum?

In a bag of goodies at a party there are 8 gum balls, 5 gobstoppers and 10 fireball candies. When children win a
party game they get to reach in the bag and pull out a prize. All three candies are spherical and the same size and
thus indistinguishable to the touch ensuring a random selection.

11. What is the probability of selecting a gobstopper?

12. What is the probability of selecting a fireball?
13. You are the third person to select a candy from the bag and the first two party goers selected a gum ball and a
gobstopper, respectively. What is the probability that you will get a gumball?

Calculating Probabilities of Combined Events

Objective
Calculate the probability of events which require the using of permutations or combinations to determine the number
of elements in the sample space and the number of desired outcomes in the sample space.
Guidance
When multiple events occur we can calculate the probability of these combined events by finding their product if
the events are independent. Independent Events are events for which the outcome of one event does not affect the
outcome of a second event. For example, if we roll a die and then roll it again, the outcome of the second roll is
independent from the outcome of the first event.
To determine the probability of two independent events, A and B, both occurring, we multiply the probabilities of
each of the two events together: P(A) × P(B) = P(A and B).
∗Note, the use of set notation will be introduced in the concept “Union and Intersection of Sets”.
In some cases, the outcome of one event affects the outcome of a second event. For example, when a hand of cards is
dealt in a game of poker, the probability of receiving a particular card changes based on what cards have already been
dealt. This is an example of Conditional Probability. We will introduce conditional probability here for situations
in which we can manipulate the subsequent probabilities to make independent events as shown in Example C.
Example A
Given a fair die and a fair coin, find the following probabilities.

1. rolling a 5 and getting tails.

2. rolling an odd number and getting heads.

Solution: Since the outcome of rolling the die does not affect the outcome of flipping the coin, these are independent
events. Thus we can determine their individual probabilities and multiply them together.

1. P(5) × P(T ) = 16 × 1 =
2
1 .
12
2. P(1, 3, 5) × P(H) = 3×
6
1 = 3
2 12
= 1
4

409
Example B
What is the probability of rolling doubles twice in a row? Three times in a row?
Solution: Each of these rolls are independent events. It is human nature to think that just because we have rolled
doubles once or twice already that we are unlikely to roll them another time. It is true that that probability of rolling
doubles three times in a row is smaller than rolling doubles once but this is not because the probability changes for
each roll. Let’s look at why this occurs:
P(doubles) = 6
36
= 16, since there are six ways to roll doubles.
P(doubles twice) = 16 × 1
6
1
= 36
P(doubles three times) = 16 × 16× 1
6
= 1
216
Example C
What is the probability that you draw an ace from a deck of cards three times if each card is replaced before the next
card is drawn? What if each card is not replaced?
Solution: There are 4 aces in a deck of cards, so there is a 52 4 = 1 chance of drawing an ace each time a card is
13
selected. For the first part of the question which requires each card chosen to be replaced, the probability of selecting
an ace does not chance so the events are independent of one another.
P(three aces, with replacement) = 1 3 = 2197
1 .
13
The second part of the question does not require replacement. Now the events are not strictly independent. We
can, however, determine the probability of an independent event and use multiplication to find the probability of the
combined events. For the first selection, there are 4 aces in the 52 card deck. After an ace is selected, how many
cards remain? Well, to determine the probability of selecting three aces, we must assume the first selected was an
ace so now there are 3 aces remaining in a deck of 51 cards. After the second ace is selected, there are 2 aces in a
deck of 50 cards. Now we can find the product of these probabilities.
P(three aces, without replacement) = 4
52
× 3
51
× 2
50
= 1
13
× 1
17
× 1
25
= 1 .
5525
Notice that the probability of selecting an ace diminishes with each selection in this situation because the number of
aces in the deck is being reduced.
Guided Practice
Determine the following probabilities.
1. Rolling snake eyes (double ones) and then rolling a sum of seven on a pair of dice.
2. Turning over a face card (jack, queen or king) followed by an ace from a full, shuffled deck of cards.
3. Drawing a hand of five cards which contains exactly 2 jacks, from a full, shuffled deck of cards.
4. Randomly selecting a pair of black socks followed by a pair of navy blue socks and then a pair of white socks
from a drawer containing 5 black pairs, 4 navy blue pairs and 8 white pairs if each selection is replaced before the
next pair is chosen. What if each pair is not replaced?
Answers
1. P(snake eyes) × P(seven) = 1
36
× 1
6
= 216
1 .

12 4 4
2. P(jack, queen, king) × P(ace) = 52
× 51
= 221
4 3 48 47 46 1081
3. P(jack) × P(jack) × P(non jack) × P(non jack) × P(non jack) = 52
× 51
× 50
× 49
× 48
= 270725
≈ 0.00399298
We aren’t quite finished, however, because what we have determined here is the probability that the first two cards
are the jacks and the last three are the non jacks. These cards could have been dealt in any order so we need to
determine the number of permutations of these cards and multiply by that value. Keep in mind that the jacks are
5! = 10. This could also
“non distinguishable” and the non jacks are “non distinguishable”. The permutations are: 2!3!

410
be described as the number of combinations of selecting two jacks from a set of five cards: 5C2 = 2!(5—
5!
2)! = 10.
These are just two ways to find the same result. Now that we have the number of combinations or arrangements, we
can multiple our probability by this value:
1081
270725
× 10 ≈ 0.0399298181.
4. For the first part of the question, the total number of socks in the drawer remains the same for each selection,
17. So, P(black, then blue, then white) = 17 5 × 4 × 8 = 160 ≈ 0.032567.
17 17 4913 Now, if we do not replace the socks, the
number of socks decreases with each sock selected: P(black, then blue, then white) = 517 × 164 × 8 = 160 = 2 ≈
15 4080 51
0.039216. This probability is slightly higher because removing one pair of black socks makes it more likely that we
will select a different color pair of socks for the next pair and so on.
Vocabulary

Independent Events
Multiple events for which the outcome of one event does not affect the outcome of a second or subsequent
event. The probability of multiple independent events occurring is the product of the probabilities of the
individual events.

Conditional Events
Events for which the outcome of one event is influenced by the outcome of a previous event. In this concept,
we can manipulate the probabilities of the subsequent events to reflect the desired outcome of previous events
and thus create pseudo-independent events.

Problem Set
Given a spinner as shown in the illustration below, two fair six sided dice and a standard deck of 52 playing cards,
calculate the probability of each compound event below.

1. Spin a 4 and roll doubles.

2. Spin an odd number and roll an odd sum.
3. Draw four red cards in a row without replacement.
4. Draw three face cards (jack, queen, king) without replacement.
5. Rolling a sum of eight and spinning a 2.
6. Spin a three, three times in a row.
7. Roll an even sum and spin a prime number.
8. Draw a five card hand containing exactly 3 red and 2 black cards.
9. Draw a five card flush (a hand in which all cards are the same suit).
10. Draw a hand of five cards containing exactly two hearts.
11. Draw a hand of three cards that contains at least one spade.
12. Roll a sum of 7 or 11 and draw three cards in which at least one is a face card.

411
Tree Diagrams and Probability Distributions

Objective
Use Tree Diagrams, combinations or permutations to determine the probabilities of multiple events and probability
distributions.
Guidance
Sometimes it is useful to create a tree diagram to illustrate the possible outcomes of multiple events and their
individual probabilities, calculate the probabilities of the combined events and the sample space. In other cases, we
might use combinations or permutations to create a Probability Distribution table. A Probability Distribution is a
table which includes all possible outcomes (sample space) and their respective probabilities.
Example A
A game of chance involves flipping a coin and selecting a chip from one of two urns. If the coin toss results in
heads, then you select from urn A which contains 8 yellow chips and 5 green chips. If the coin toss results in tails,
then you select from urn B which contains 6 yellow chips and 6 green chips. Use this information to create a tree
diagram illustrating the possible outcomes and their probabilities and then determine the probability of selecting a
yellow chip.
Solution: First, we need to make a tree diagram. The first branches of the diagram show the coin toss results and
the second sets of branches show the chip selection results. Notice that each set of branches in the tree diagram has
probabilities which sum to 1. This happens because one of the outcomes must occur. In other words, you either
select a yellow or a green chip (there is no other outcome in the sample space) so the sum of the probabilities will
be 1. These types of events are called Complimentary Events.

By multiplying “across” the branches, we can determine the probabilities of the combined events. Now, look at the
4 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 1. The entire sample space is shown here so the sum of
sum of the probabilities on the far right: 13 26 4 4
the probabilities of all the possible outcomes should be 1. This is an excellent way to check for accuracy in your tree
diagram calculations.
Now, to answer the question: What is the probability of selecting a yellow chip? Looking at the diagram, there are
two ways to select a yellow chip. One, we could toss the coin and get heads and then select a yellow chip from urn A
and this probability is 13
4 . Two, we could toss the coin and get tails and then select a yellow chip and this probability

is 4 . We can add the probabilities of these two “paths” to the same end result and get 134 + 41 = 52
1 29 ≈ 0.5577.

Example B

412
In a box of 20 candies, there are 8 which contain nuts. If 5 pieces are randomly selected and consumed, create a
probability distribution table to show the probability of selecting 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 candies which contain nuts in the
sample.
Solution: First, let’s create a formula for determining the probability of each of the outcomes. We can use
combinations to help us do this. First, how many ways are there to select 5 pieces of candy from a box of 20
20
pieces? This is a combination, so 20C5 or . This value will be the total number of possible outcomes and thus
5
the denominator of our probability ratio. Now, how many ways are there to select 0 of the 8 candies with nut and 5
of the 12 candies without nuts? Again, we have combinations and their product can be found for the numerator of
8 12
our probability ratio: . Now we can put it all together and find the probability of selecting 0 candies with
0 5
8 12
nuts: 0 5 = 33 ≈ 0.05108.
20 646

5
8 12
Similarly, for 1 candy containing nuts: 1 4 = 646
165 ≈ 0.25542.
20
5
8 12
For 2 candies with nuts we get: 2 3 = 969
385 ≈ 0.39732, and so on.
20
5
The table to the right shows all of the final probabilities for each outcome in the sample space. This is called a
Probability Distribution Table.
What happens if we add up all of the probabilities in this table?
0.05108 + 0.25542 + 0.39732 + 0.23839 + 0.05418 + 0.00361 = 1
This means that the probability of getting one of these outcomes is 100%. Also, this shows that our probability
distribution is correct because we have included all of the possible outcomes and the sum of their probabilities is 1.
In other words, this illustrates that there are no other possible outcomes since there is a 100% chance of getting one
of these results.
TABLE 12.3:
Number of Candies Selected Containing Nuts Probability
0 646 ≈ 0.05108
33

1 165 ≈ 0.25542
646
2 385 ≈ 0.39732
969
3 323 ≈ 0.23839
77

4 646 ≈ 0.05418
35

5 1938 ≈
7

0.00361
Example C
Over time, Ronald has shown that in 2 of 5 attempts he makes a bulls eye with a bow and arrow. Create a probability
distribution table which shows the possible outcomes and the associated probabilities when Ronald shoots three
arrows.
Solution: First, we will consider each bulls eye a success and each non bulls eye a failure. So, the probability
3
of a success is 25 and the probability of a failure is 35 . The probability of zero successes is 35 = 125
27 = 0
.216.

413
 3
Similarly, the probability of three successes is 25 = 125
8 = 0.064. With three shots, there are two other possibilities

to consider. Ronald could also have one success and two failures or two successes and one failure. In these
cases, we must consider that any one or two of the shots could be successes so we will multiply by the number
3
of “combinations” that are possible. For example, if Ronald has one success, then there are or 3 ways this
1
could occur: SFF, FSF or FFS. So we will multiple the combinations by the probability of one success and two
1 3 2 2 2 3 1 = 36 = 0
failures: 31 25 5
= 125
54 = 0.432. For two successes and one failure we have 3
2 5 5 125 .288.
Now, make a probability distribution table:

TABLE 12.4:
Number of Bulls Eyes Probability
0 0.216
1 0.432
2 0.288
3 0.064

This is an example of a special type of probability called a Binomial Probability because its rule resembles the
Binomial Theorem. In order for a problem to be a binomial probability it must consist of multiple independent trials,
called Bernoulli Trials, in which there is either a success or a failure. In other words, P(success) + P(failure) = 1
and the result of each trial is independent of the result of a previous trial.
If we let n = number of trials, p = probability of a success and r = number of successes, we can use the following
formula to determine the probability of any number of successes.

n
P(r successes ) = (p) r (1 —p) n—r .
r

Notice that this formula is exactly what we did to find the probability of Ronald shooting two bulls eyes:
3 2 2 3—2 3 2 2 3 1
For two bulls eyes, n = 3, p = 25 , and r = 2: 5
1 —25 = 5 5
= 36
125
= 0.288.
2 2
Guided Practice
1. Sarah either walks or rides the bus to school. When she walks she is more likely to be late to school than when
she rides the bus. Complete the tree diagram and find the probability that Sarah is late for school.

414
2. In a case of 15 light bulbs there are 2 defective bulbs. Create a probability distribution which illustrates the
possible outcomes and their respective probabilities if we randomly select 3 bulbs from the box. Show that the sum
of the probabilities is 1.
3. On any given workday, there is a 15% chance that Professor Calculus will cause an explosion in his laboratory.
Use the Binomial Probability formula to determine the probability that Professor Calculus will cause less than three
explosions in a five day work week.
Answers
1.

To find the probability that Sarah is late we need to add the probabilities of the two different ways she can be late.
She can walk and be late or she can ride the bus and be late:
P(walk and late) + P(bus and late) = 2
3
1
10
+ 1
3
1
20
= 1
12
≈ 0.08333
2.

TABLE 12.5:
Number of defective bulbs Probability
2 13
0 3
0 = 0.628571
15
3
2 13
1 2
1 = 0.342857
15
3
2 13
2 1
2 = 0.028571
15
3

0.62857 + 0.342857 + 0.028571 = 0.999998

Since we rounded the individual probabilities, the sum may reflect this inaccuracy. For all intents and purposes, this
answer is 1.

415
Note that it is not possible to select a sample containing 3 defective bulbs because there are only 2 defective bulbs in
the box.
3. Less than three explosions implies that Professor Calculus could cause 0, 1 or 2 explosions in the work week. We
can add these individual probabilities to determine the probability. For the Binomial Probability, n = 5 (since there
are 5 days in the work week), p = 0.15 and r takes on the values 0, 1 and 2.

5 5 5
(0.15)0( 0.85)5 + ( 0.15)1 (0 .85)4 + (0 .15)2 ( 0.85)3 = 0.443705 + 0.391505 + 0.138178 = 0.973388
0 1 2

Vocabulary

Probability Distribution
A summary, usually a table, of the possible outcomes of an experiment or series of events and all the
corresponding probabilities.

Complimentary Events
A pair of events such that if one event does not occur the other one will. As a result, the sum of their
probabilities must be equal to 1.

Problem Set
Jamie and Olivia are best friends and neighbors. As such they often eat dinner together at one of their houses. About
30% of the time, they eat at Jamie’s house and her mother makes a non vegetarian meal 65% of the time. The rest of
the time, they eat at Olivia’s house and her mother serves a vegetarian meal 55% of the time.

1. Make a tree diagram, including the appropriate probabilities to illustrate this scenario.
2. What is the probability of going to Olivia’s house and eating a meal containing meat?
3. What is the probability that the girls will eat a vegetarian dinner?

Tommy has 20 water balloons in bucket. There is a 18 chance of each balloon exploding on him before he even has a
chance to throw it. Use a Binomial Probability Distribution to answer the following questions.

4. What is the probability that Tommy throws eight without any breaking on him?
5. What is the probability that exactly five of the eight balloons he attempts to throw explode on him?
6. What is the probability that more than two of the eight explode on him?

A vaccine has a 92% success rate. The vaccine is given to 50 patients in a medical practice. Use a Binomial
Probability Distribution to answer the following questions.

7. What is the probability that it works for all patients?

8. What is the probability that is fails for exactly 9 patients?
9. What is the probability that it fails for more than 1 patient?

Five cards are randomly selected from a deck of cards.

10. Create a probability distribution table for the number of “high” cards (jack, queen, king or ace) in a 5 card
hand chosen at random.
11. What is the probability of getting at least one high card?
12. What is the probability of getting at least two?

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Basic Geometric Probabilities

Objective
Determine the probabilities of events occurring based on Geometric properties.
Guidance
Sometimes we need to use our knowledge of geometry to determine the likelihood of an event occurring. We may
use areas, volumes, angles, polygons or circles.
Example A
A game of pin-the-tale-on-the-donkey has a rectangular poster that is 2ft by 2ft. The area in which the tale should be
pinned is shown as a circle with radius 1 inch. Assuming that the pinning of the tale is completely random and that
it will be pinned on the poster (or the player gets another try), find the probability of pinning the tale in the circle?
Solution: This probability can be found by dividing the area of the circle target by the area of the poster. We must
have the same units of measure for each area so we will convert the feet to inches.

12π
242
≈ 0.005454 or about 0.5% chance.

Example B
In a game of chance, a pebble is dropped onto the board shown below. If the radius of each of blue circle is 1 cm,
find the probability that the pebble will land in a blue circle.

Solution: The area of the square is 16 cm2. The area of each of the 16 circles is 12π = π. The probability of the
pebble landing in a circle is the sum of the areas of the circles divided by the area of the square.
P(blue circle) = 16π
64
≈ 0.785
Example C
What is the probability that a randomly thrown dart will land in a red area on the dart board shown? What is the
probability that exactly two of three shots will land in the red? The radius of the inner circle is 1 unit and the radius
of each annulus is 1 unit as well.

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Solution: First we need to determine the probability of landing in the red. There are four rings of width 1 and the
radius of the center circle is also 1 so the total radius is 5 units. The area of the whole target is thus 25π square units.
Now, we need to find the areas of the two red rings and the red circular center. The center circle area is π square
units. The outside ring area can be found by subtracting the area inside from the entire circle’s area. The inside
circle will have a radius of 4 units, the area of the outer ring is 25π —16π = 9π square units. This smaller red ring’s
area can be found similarly. The circle with this red ring on the outside has a radius of 3 and the circle inside has a
radius of 2 so, 9π —4π = 5π square units. Finally, we can add them together to get the total red area and divide by
the area of the entire target. 9π+5π+π
25π
= 15π
25π
= 35. So the probability of hitting the red area is 35 or 60%.
For the second part of the problem we will use a binomial probability. There are 3 trials, 2 successes and the
3
probability of a success is 0.6: ( 0.6)2 (0.4) = 0.432
2
Guided Practice
1. Consider the picture below. If a “circle” is randomly chosen, what is the probability that it will be:
a. red
b. yellow
c. blue or green
d. not orange

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2. If a dart is randomly thrown at the target below, find the probability of the dart hitting in each of the regions and
show that the sum of these probabilities is 1. The diameter of the center circle is 4 cm and the diameter of the outer
circle is 10 cm. What is the probability that in 5 shots, at least two will land in the 4 region?

Answers
1. a. 225
29

b. 69
225
c. 84
225
d. 182
225
2.
22π 4
P(1) = 52π = 25
120 52 π —22π 1 21π 7
P(2) = 360 = × =
52π 3 25π 25
90 52 π —22π 1 21π 21
P(3) = 360 = × =
52π 4 25π 100
150 52 π —22π 5 21π 35
P(4) = 360 = × =
52π 12 25π 100

Now add them up:

P(1) + P(2) + P(3) + P(4) =

4 7 21 35
= + + +
25 25 100 100
16 28 21 35
=
100 + 100 + 100 + 100
100
= 100 = 1

The probability of landing in region 4 at least twice in five shots is equivalent to 1 —[P(0) + P(1)].

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Use binomial probability to determine these probabilities:

" 0 5 1
#
5 35 65 5 35 65
1— + 4
0 100 100 1 100 100
= 1 —(0.116029 + 0.062477)
≈ 0.821

Problem Set
Use the diagram below to find the probability that a randomly dropped object would land in a triangle of a particular
color.

1. yellow
2. green
3. plum
4. not yellow
5. not yellow or light blue

The dart board to the right has a red center circle (bull’s eye) with area π cm2. Each ring surrounding this bull’s eye
has a width of 2 cm. Use this information to answer the following questions.

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 6. Given a random throw of a dart, what is the probability that it will land in a white ring?
7. What is the probability of a bull’s eye?
8. What is the probability that in 10 throws, exactly 6 land in the black regions?
9. What is the probability that in 10 throws, at least one will land in the bull’s eye?
10. How many darts must be thrown to have a 95% chance of making a bull’s eye?

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 8.5 Venn Diagrams and Independence

Objective
To use Venn diagrams and the related set notation to show the relationships between sets.
Review Queue
1. A fair pair of dice is rolled twice. What is the probability of obtaining a sum of six on both rolls?
2. A drawer contains 4 pairs of brown socks and 5 pairs of black socks. If two pairs are randomly selected without
replacement, what is the probability of selecting at least one pair of black socks?
3. Three cards are selected randomly from a deck of 52 playing cards. What is the probability of selecting cards of
the same suit (all three are either red or black) if the cards are replaced between each drawing? What if the cards are
not replaced?

Union and Intersection of Sets

Objective
Define and apply the notations for union and intersection of sets and the compliment of a set.
Guidance
A Venn diagram is shown below.

The diagram illustrates that within some universe of data, there are two subsets, A and B, which have some elements
in common. The following example relates the use of a Venn diagram to a real world situation.
Example A
At a school of 500 students, there are 125 students enrolled in Algebra II, 257 students who play sports and 52
students that are enrolled in Algebra II and play sports. Create a Venn diagram to illustrate this information.
Solution: First, let’s let set A represent the students enrolled in Algebra II and set B represent the students who play
sports. Generally speaking, it is easiest to start in the center or “intersection” of the Venn diagram. Once we place
52 in the intersection, then we can subtract it from the total number of students who play sports and the total number
of student who take Algebra II to determine how many just do one or the other. Finally, we can subtract this total
from 500 to figure out how many are outside the circles altogether.

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There symbols that can be used to describe the number of elements in each region in the diagram as well.

TABLE 12.6:
Symbol Description Value for this Problem
n(A) The number of elements in set A 125
n(A ∩B) The number of elements in the in- 52
tersection of sets A and B (all the
elements that are in both sets-the
overlap)
n(A ∪B) The number of elements in the 330
union of sets A and B (all the ele-
ments that are in one or both of the
sets)
n(A′) The number of elements in the com- 375
pliment of A (the number of ele-
ments outside set A)
n((A ∪ B)′) The number of elements in the com- 170
pliment of A ∪B (everything outside
the union of A and B)
n((A ∩ B)′) The number of elements in the com- 448
pliment of A ∩B (everything outside
the intersection of A and B)
n(A ∩B′) The number of elements in the in- 73
tersection of A and B’s compliment
(the number of elements in A but not
in B)

Example B
Create a Venn diagram to illustrate the following information regarding the subsets M and N in universe U :

n(M) = 89; n(N) = 103; n(M ∪N) = 130; n(U ) = 178

Solution: Again, we will start in the middle or intersection. We must determine how many elements are in the
intersection. Let’s consider that when we add the elements in M to the elements in N, we are adding the elements in
the intersection twice. This happens because they are counted in set M and counted again in set N. Did you notice
that n(M) + n(N) = 89 + 103 = 192 while the n(M ∪N) = 130? We have double counted the 62 (192-130) elements
in M ∩N. Now we can put this number in the Venn diagram and work our way out as we did in the previous example.

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In general, for two sets, M and N, we can use the formula: n(M) + n(N) —n(M ∩N) = n(M ∪N) to represent the
relationship between the regions in the Venn diagram and to solve problems. In this case, substituting in the given
information we can determine the n(M ∩N) as shown below:

89 + 103 —n(M ∩N) = 130

192 —n(M ∩N) = 130
—n(M ∩N) = —62
n(M ∩N) = 62

Example C
Create a Venn diagram to represent the following information and answer the questions that follow.
In a survey of 150 high school students it was found that:
80 students have laptops
110 students have cell phones
125 students have iPods
62 students have both a laptop and a cell phone
58 students have both a laptop and iPod
98 students have both a cell phone and an iPod
50 students have all three items
a. How many students have just a cell phone?
b. How many students have none of the mentioned items?
c. How many students have an iPod and laptop but not a cellphone?
Solution: First we will use the given information to construct the Venn diagram as shown.

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We can start by putting 50 in the center where students have all three items. Next we can find the values in blue
by subtracting 50 from each of the “overlapping” values. For example, there are 62 students with both a laptop and
a cell phone and 50 of them also have an iPod. To find the number that have a laptop and cell phone but no iPod,
subtract 62 —50 = 12. Once the blue values are found we can find the green values by subtracting the blue and red
values in each subset from the total in the subset. For example, the number of students with a cell phone but no other
technology item is 110 —(50 + 12 + 48) = 0. Finally we can add up all the values in the circles and subtract this
from 150, the total number of students surveyed to determine that 3 students have none of the items.
Now that the Venn diagram is complete, we can use it to answer the questions.
a. There are 0 students that just have a cell phone.
b. There are 3 students with none of the mentioned technology.
c. There are 8 students with an iPod and laptop but no cell phone.
Guided Practice
Use the Venn diagram to determine the number of elements in each set described in the problems.

1. n(A)
2. n(C)
3. n(A′)
4. n(A ∩B)

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5. n(A ∪B ∪C)
6. n(A ∩C′)
7. n(A ∩B ∩C)
8. n(A′ ∩B′ ∩C′)
Answers
1. 3 + 7 + 8 + 8 = 26
2. 8 + 8 + 4 + 12 = 32
3. 8 + 4 + 12 + 6 = 30
4. 7 + 8 = 15
5. 3 + 7 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 4 + 12 = 50
6. 3 + 7 = 10.
7. 8
8. 6
Problem Set
Use the information below for problems 1-5.
In a survey of 80 households, it was found that:
30 had at least one dog
42 had at least one cat
21 had at least one “other” pet (fish, turtle, reptile, hamster, etc.)
20 had dog(s) and cat(s)
10 had cat(s) and “other” pet(s)
8 h a d d o g ( s ) a n d “ o t h e r ” p e t ( s )
5 had all three types of pets

1. Make a Venn diagram to illustrate the results of the survey.

2. How many have dog(s) and cat(s) but no “other” pet(s)?
3. How many have only dog(s)?
4. How many have no pets at all?
5. How many “other” pet(s) owners also have dog(s) or cat(s) but not both?

Use the letters in the Venn diagram below to describe the region for each of the sets.

6. A ∩B

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 7. A
8. A ∪B
9. A ∩B′
10. (A ∩B)′
11. (A ∪B)′
12. A′
13. B′ ∪A

Probability Using a Venn Diagram and Conditional Probability

Objective
Use Venn diagrams to solve probability problems.
Guidance
It is often useful to use a Venn diagram to visualize the probabilities of multiple events. In Example A we explore
the use of a Venn diagram to determine the probabilities of individual events, the intersection of events and the
compliment of an event. In Example C we will continue to explore the concept of a conditional probability and how
to use a Venn diagram to solve these problems as well as the formula for conditional probability first introduced in
the concept “Calculating Probabilities of Combined Events”.
Example A
Use the Venn diagram to find the probabilities.

a. P(A)
b. P(B)
c. P(A ∩B)
d. P(A ∪B)
e. P(A′ ∩B′)
Solution: Essentially we will do exactly what we did in the previous concept with probabilities rather than whole
numbers. Notice that the sum of all the values in the diagram is 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 1. This diagram represents
the entire sample space for two events, A and B.
a. To find the P(A), we will add the probability that only A occurs to the probability that A and B occur to get
0.4 + 0.3 = 0.7. So P(A) = 0.7.
b. Similarly, P(B) = 0.2 + 0.3 = 0.5.
c. Now, P(A ∩B) is the value in the overlapping region 0.3.

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d. P(A ∪B) = 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.9. Which can also be found using the formula P(A) + P(B) —P(A ∩B) = 0.7 +
0.5 —0.3 = 0.9.
e. P(A′ ∩B′) needs to be determined by finding where in the diagram everything outside of A overlaps with everything
outside of B. That will be the region outside of both circles and that probability is 0.1. Another way to think of this
is P(A ∪B)′, or 1 —P(A ∪B).
More Guidance
There are a couple of equivalent set notations or probabilities and they are called De Morgan’s Laws.
(A ∩B)′ = (A′ ∪B′) for sets or P(A ∩B)′ = P(A′ ∪B′) for probabilities.
and
(A ∪B)′ = (A′ ∩B′) for sets or P(A ∪B)′ = P(A′ ∩B′) for probabilities.
We looked at the second one in part e of Example A. We will look at the first one in the next Example.
Example B
Given P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.3 and P(A ∪B) = 0.7, find P(A ∩B) and P(A′ ∪B′).
Solution: First, we can use the formula for the union of two sets to determine the intersection.

P(A) + P(B)— P(A ∩B) = P(A ∪B)

0.6 + 0.3 —P(A ∩B) = 0.7
0.9 —0.7 = P(A ∩B)
0.2 = P(A ∩B)

Now we can use De Morgan’s Law to find P(A′ ∪B′).

P(A′ ∪B′) = P(A ∩B)′ = 1 —P(A ∪B) = 1 —0.2 = 0.8.

We could have also created a Venn diagram for the probabilities and interpreted P(A′ ∪B′) and the regions outside
A union with the regions outside B which would be everything in the Venn diagram except the overlap of the two
regions or P(A ∩B).
Example C
The data from a survey of 140 students showed that 37 study music, 103 play a sport and 25 do neither. Create a
Venn diagram to illustrate the data collected and then determine the probability that if a student is selected at random,
a. he or she will study music
b. he or she will study music given that he or she plays a sport.
Solution: Let M represent the set of students who study music and S represent the set of students who play sports.
First let’s determine the number of students that study music and play a sport to fill in the overlapping region in the
diagram and then we can find the other values.

n(M) + n(S)— n(M ∩S) = n(M ∪S)

37 + 103 —n(M ∩S) = 115
n(M ∩S) = 25

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a. The probability that a randomly selected student studies music is the number of students who study music divided
by the total number of students surveyed or P(M) = n(M)140
= 140
37 ≈ 0.264.

b. The probability that a randomly selected student will study music given that he/she plays a sport is called a
conditional probability. We use the notation P(M|S) to represent the P(M) given that S has already occurred. To find
this probability using a Venn diagram, we find the number of student who study music and play a sport and divide
by the number of students who play a sport or P(M|S) = n(M∩S)n(S)
= 103
25 ≈ 0.243. Think of it this way, when we say

that we know that the student plays a sport, then the numerator is limited to those students who study music and play
a sport and the denominator is limited to those who play a sport.
P(A∩B)
There is also a formula for conditional probability: P(A|B) = P(B)
25
P(M∩S)
In the context of our problem, it is: P(M|S) = P(S)
= 140
103 = 25
140
·103
140 = 25 .
103
140

Notice that the resulting probability is the same as previously determined. Either method can be used.
Guided Practice
1. In a class of 260 seniors, 125 study Spanish, 95 study Chemistry, 165 study Mathematics, 18 study Spanish and
Chemistry, 75 study Chemistry and Math, 20 study Math and Spanish and 15 study all three subjects. Make a Venn
diagram to illustrate the data and then find the probability that a student selected at random studies:
a. just Spanish
b. Math and Chemistry but not Spanish
c. none of these subjects
d. Spanish, given that he/she studies Math
2.Given P(A ∩B) = 0.4, P(A ∩B′) = 0.2 and P(A′ ∩B′) = 0.3, find P(B) and P(A|B).
Answers
1.

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a. P(S ∩M′ ∩C′ ) = 70 = 7 ≈ 0.269
260 26
S′
b. P( M ∩C ∩ ) = 260 = 13 ≈ 0.231
60 3

c. P( M′ ∩C′ ∩S′ ) = 2605 = 52

1
≈ 0.0192
20
P(S∩M)
d. P(S|M) = P(M)
= 260
165 = 4
33
≈ 0.121
260

2. The information gives us the Venn diagram:

The missing value, P(B ∩A′), must be 0.1 in order for the total of the probabilities in the sample space to equal 1.
Thus, P(B) = 0.5. P(A|B) = P(A∩B)
P(B)
= 0.4
0.5
= 45 = 0.8.
Problem Set
For questions 1-3, find the indicated probabilities given P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.65 and P(A ∪B) = 0.75.

1. P(A ∩B)
2. P(A′ ∩B′)
3. P(B|A)

For questions 4-6, find the indicated probabilities given P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.8 and P(A ∪B)′ = 0.2.

4. P(A ∩B′)
5. P(B|A)
6. P(A|B)

For questions 7-9, find the indicated probabilities given P(A ∩B′) = 0.3, P(B ∩A′) = 0.2 and P(A ∪B) = 0.8.

7. P(A ∩B)

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 8. P(A)
9. P(B|A)
10. Given P(A) = 2P(B), P(A ∪B) = 0.8 and P(A ∩B) = 0.1, find P(A).
11. The international club at a school has 105 members, many of whom speak multiple languages. The most
commonly spoken languages in the club are English, Spanish and Chinese. Use the Venn Diagram below to
determine the probability of selecting a student who:

1. does not speak English.

2. speaks Spanish given that he/she speaks English.
3. speaks English given that he/she speaks Chinese.
4. speaks Spanish and English but not Chinese.

Independent, Conditional and Mutually Exclusive Events

Objective
Define and apply the appropriate formulas to determine probabilities of combined events which are Independent,
Conditional or Mutually Exclusive.
Guidance
A∩B)
We have already discussed the formula for conditional probabilities: P(A|B) = P(B) . These events are notP(
independent, they are conditional because the outcome of event B affects the outcome of event A. When events
are independent, P(A|B) = P(A), meaning that it doesn’t matter that event B has occurred, the result of event B
does not affect the result of event A. Now we can replace P(A|B) with P(A∩B)
P(B) in the previous statement to get
P(A∩B)
P(B)
= P(A). Finally, multiply both sides by P(B) to get P(A ∩B) = P(A) × P(B) for independent events A and B.
We can use this rule to determine if events are independent or to find the intersection of known independent events.
It is also possible for two events to have not intersection, or P(A ∩B) = 0. When this occurs we say that the events
(or sets) are Mutually Exclusive. If one has occurred, then the other cannot occur. Examples of Mutually Exclusive
sets are Boys and Girls, Juniors and Seniors-it is not possible to be both. It is important to note here that mutually
exclusive events cannot be independent unless the probability of one of the events is zero since for independent
events P(A ∩B) = P(A) × P(B) and the only way a product can equal zero is if one of the factors is equal to zero.
Example A
Given two events, A and B, such that P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ∪B) = 0.65
a. Find P(A ∩B).

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b. State with a reason whether the events are independent.
c. State with a reason whether the events are mutually exclusive.
Solution:
a. Since we are not told that the events are independent, we do not know that P(A ∩B) = P(A) × P(B). However, for
all events, independent or otherwise, it is true that P(A) + P(B)— P(A ∩B) = P(A ∪B) so

0.3 + 0.5 —P(A ∩B) = 0.65

P(A ∩B) = 0.15

b. To determine if the events are independent we will test the rule P(A ∩B) = P(A) × P(B).

P(A) × P(B) = 0.3 × 0.5 = 0.15 = P(A ∩B).

Thus, the events are independent since the product of their probabilities is equal to the probability of their intersec-
tion.
c. The events are not mutually exclusive because P(A ∩B) = 0.15 /
= 0.
Example B
Given that A and B are independent events such that P(A) = 0.4 and P(A ∪B) = 0.76, find
a. P(B)
b. Probability of A or B but not both occurring.
Solution:
a. Since we know the two events are independent, we know that P(A ∩B) = 0.4P(B). Now we can use the formula
for the probability of the union of the two sets and substitute this product for the probability of the intersection:

0.4 + P(B)— 0.4P(B) = 0.76

0.6P(B) = 0.36
P(B) = 0.6

b. To find the probability of either A or B occurring but not both, we need to find P(A ∩B) and subtract this from
P(A ∪B).

0.76 —(0.4)(0.6) = 0.76 —0.24 = 0.52

Example C
Events A and B are independent such that P(B ∩A′) = 0.2 and P(A ∩B) = 0.3. Find P(A ∪B).
Solution: For this problem, a Venn diagram might be useful to illustrate the given information.

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From the diagram we can see P(B) = 0.5 and since we know that the events are independent, we know:

P(A) × P(B) = P(A ∩B)

P(A) × 0.5 = 0.3

P(A) = 0.3 = 0.6

0.5

Now, P(A ∪B) = 0.6 + 0.5 —0.3 = 0.8.

Guided Practice
1. Given two events, A and B, such that P(A) = 0.4, P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ∪B) = 0.75
a. Find P(A ∩B).
b. State with a reason whether the events are independent.
c. Find P(A|B).
2. Given that A and B are independent events such that P(A) = 0.8 and P(A ∪B) = 0.9, find
a. P(B)
b. P(B ∩A′)
3. Events A and B are independent such that P(A ∩B′) = 0.25 and P(A ∩B) = 0.25. Find P(A ∪B).
Answers
1. a.

0.4 + 0.5 —P(A ∩B) = 0.75

P(A ∩B) = 0.15

b. If the events are independent, P(A ∩B) = 0.4 × 0.5 = 0.2.

Since 0.2 /
= 0.15, the events are not independent.
P(A∩B)
c. P(A|B) = P(B)
= 0.15
0.5
= 0.3.
2. a.

0.8 + P(B)— 0.8P(B) = 0.9

0.2P(B) = 0.1
P(B) = 0.5

b. P(B ∩A′) = P(B)— P(B ∩A) = 0.5 —0.8 × 0.5 = 0.1

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3. P(A) = P(A ∩B′) + P(A ∩B) = 0.25 + 0.25 = 0.5
P(A ∩B) = 0.5P(B) = 0.25 and thus P(B) = 0.5
P(A ∪B) = P(A) + P(B)— P(A ∩B) = 0.5 + 0.5 —0.25 = 0.75
Vocabulary

Mutually Exclusive
Two or more sets which have no common elements or for which the intersection does not exist. In the case of
probability, these would be events such that if one occurs, the other one cannot occur

Problem Set

1. Events A and B are mutually exclusive. Describe P(A|B).

2. Events A and B are independent. Show that P(B) = P(B|A).

For problems 3-7, use the given information about events A and B to determine whether or not the events are
independent.

3. P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.4 and P(A ∪B) = 0.76

4. P(A) = 0.5, P(A ∩B) = 0.2 and P(A ∪B) = 0.8
5. P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.4 and P(A ∪B) = 0.55
6. P(A) = 0.6, P(B ∩A′) = 0.28 and P(A ∩B) = 0.42

For problems 7-10, events A and B are independent.

7. Given P(A) = 0.8 and P(A ∪B) = 0.88, find P(B) and P(A or B but not both).
8. Given P(A ∩B′) = 0.54 and P(A ∩B) = 0.36, find P(B) and P(A ∪B).
9. Given P(B) = 0.8 and P(A′ ∩B′) = 0.04, find P(A) and P(A′ ∪B′).
10. P(A ∩B) = 0.28 and P(A ∪B) = 0.82, find P(A) and P(B).

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