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No.

Computer
Fundamentals

vUrjkZ"Vªh; dEI;wVj lk{kjrk fe'ku

A Program Initiated by Pankaj Technological Systems (P.) Ltd.

Registered Under the Companies Act. 1956, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Govt. of India.
Computer
Fundamentals
TM

PTS

No.

TM

vUrjkZ"Vªh; dEI;wVj lk{kjrk fe'ku

A Program Initiated by Pankaj Technological Systems (P.) Ltd.
Registered Under the Companies Act. 1956, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Govt. of India.
C Reserved with Pankaj Technological Systems (P.) Ld.

This book in fill or parts thereof or its translation must not be reproduced in any way
(except review or cretism) without prior written permission of the Publishers.

Printed at :
UTSAV PRINTER, DELHI

Not for Sale

Edition : 2017
 TM

Preface
Dear Students/Visitors,

We have entered the era of information, where electronic items have brought about a total
revolution in our day.to day life. A time has come when computers have entered almost
every field of life be it education, medicine, sports, films or space research. whether one
wishes to be a doctor, a lawyer, an engineer, an architect, a businessman or anything else,
he will have to use computer in his field to enhance the quality production and to do that
which is impossible without computer.

Realising this need in view and sharing the vast experience of our board of directors and
esteemed advisors (not only from India but also from far east countries) PTS Pvt. Ltd.
company registered under companies Act-1956, Ministry of Corporate Affairs,
Govt. of India. bearing the company number U72900DL2010PTC208161 has launched a
unique project known as“Antarrashtriya Computer Shaksharta Mission” at world level. Our
Organizations is intended to fulfill the needs of the students to acquaint them with computer
step by step in a sequential manner and to make them learn by doing.

Now we are introducing this book for the students who are really interested in learning
Computer Fundamentals.
Fundamentals It is simple to use and with easy to learn approach. Throughout
special attention has been paid to remove unwanted details and to make them material
comprehensive, concise and practical.

We Hope the students will enjoy learning of Computer Fundamentals.

Fundamentals While presenting
modified edition of this book we welcome suggestion and comments from our esteemed
readers, teachers for further improvements.

Best of Luck!

Pankaj Kumar
Managing Director
Contents
Introducing of Computer 1

Computer Application 8

Computer Architecture and I/O Device 13

Data Processing 26
Software 28
Future of Computer 32
Networking 34
Number System 36
DOS Basic 42
vUrjkZ"Vªh; dEI;wVj lk{kjrk fe'ku

Introducing to Compuetrs
INTRODUCTION
There are three concepts that we need to examine in order to be able to think sensibly and talk
intelligently about computer.
What are computer? what can they do? How can we communicate with them?
Clearly, computing has something to do with reckoning or calculating, but man has been using his brain
to do just that for centuries. What is so special about them that we need computers today? It cannot
simply be because these are calculating device.
Computers play an important part in everybody’s life, there importance is so great that without them we
would not be able to live the way we do. To Appreciate this, look around you to see the sort of influences
that these machines have on our daily lives.
Computers seem capable of performing almost any task. The computer is used to assists man in
business organizations, in research and in may other walks of life.
We can discuss one key fact. Computers act upon information. This information or data comes in all
shapes and sizes, from a mathematical equation to the required details about a company’s work-force
necessary to produce a payroll, or to the myriad of data needed to project an Apollo craft through space.
The fact that computers process information is so fundamental, some experts have coined a word for it -
information, the science of information processing, i.e., the method of recording, manipulating and
retrieving information. Many people believe this to be the essence of computing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Speed
The computer was first conceived as a high-speed calculator. This has led to many scientific projects
being carried out which were previously impossible. if we want tomorrow’s forecast today (and not in six
month’s time), meteorologists can use the computer to perform quickly the necessary calculations and
analyses.
Electric pulses travel at incredible speeds and because the computer is electronics, its internal speed is
virtually instantaneous. We do not talk in terms of seconds or even, today, of milliseconds. The units of
speed are the microsecond, the nanosecond are even the picosecond. A powerful computer is capable
of adding two 18-digit numbers in 300 to 400 nanoseconds.
Storage
As a human acquires new knowledge, the brain subconsciously selects what it feels to be important and
worth retaining in its memory and relegates unimportant details to the back of the mind or first forgets
them. In computers, the internal memory of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is only large enough to
retain a certain amount of information. It is therefore, impossible to store inside the computer each and
every information. All of this data is stores outside the memory of the CPU, on auxiliary or secondary

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Accuracy

The accuracy of computers is consistently high, Errors in the machinery can give rise to errors but due
to increased efficiency in error-detecting techniques, these seldom lead to false results. Most of the
errors in computing are due to human rather that due to technical flaws.

Versatility

Computers seem capable of performing almost any task, provided that the task can be reduced to a
series of logical steps.

Automation

Once a program is in the computers memory, the individual instructions are then transferred, one after
the other, to the control unit for execution. The CPU follows these instructions until it meets a last
instruction which say ‘Stop program execution; hence leading to automation.

Diligence

Being a machine, a computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. e.g. Numerous calculations have to be performed, it will perform the millionth calculation
standard of output, e.g. equality control in the refining of oil and other chemical processes, the computer
will be seen as a considerable help.

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The history of computers dates back to long, long ago when men first used their fingers and toes as
counting aids. Later, the cane-dwellers wanted to remember how many animals they had killed in a
head hut, they would draw crude pictures on the cave walls and make the regular scratches to records
the number of their kills.

Time hurried on, and with it progress, by 650 B.C., the Egyptians were using a system of hieroglyphics
and cave-wall picture to depict numbers. The problem here was that they were not portable and hence
limiting usefulness. The other tribes would have to come along and see, if they intended to believe.

Soon, people started using pebbles to count their possessions.

Later, in an efforts to male the system mobile, they put sand and pebbles into a box and called it Abacus.

The Romans, in the meantime produced a device called a tally-stick. It was a simple wooden stick with a
line down the center and was used for business transactions, A notch was made on the stick to record
each transaction. When the deal was completed, the stick was divided into two and each partner in the
received half as a receipt.

The Abacus was perfected by the Chinese till nearly 2000 years later, in 1200 A.D. It has beads
threaded on wires to represent numbers? It had two wires with five beads on each. That is why the
Abacus is called a biquinque device.

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The Abacus is still very much in use today. I China a student must be able to use an Abacus very
proficiently before he graduates from school. Interestingly, some tingly, calculator, Strangely, the
person using the Abacus often wins.

The idea that the position of a bead in an Abacus indicated its value resulted in one very important
notion. With the Abacus, the beads could be said to have a state of physical representation. A bead
being either up or down affected the meaning of its value. This concept of a number being represented
as a physical state was to become the basis of a very important computer concept.

It was not unit the seventeenth century, however, that calculating devices, as we understand them
today, were invented.

The seventeenth century, however, that calculating devices, as we understand them today, were
invited.

The seventeenth century saw the invention of three such devices. The first was the work of john Napier,
the inventor of logarithms. In 1617, Napier designed a set of rods that helped to make multiplication
easier. The rods were arranged in a manner that made it possible to fit them together into a
multiplication table.

The rods were called Napier’s Bones. This was the forerunner of the analogue computer.

Later, in 1640, Basic Pascal, a bogged down with the accounting work he had to do. So, to assist him,
Pascal (after whom the computer language, Pascal, is named) invented this gadget. The machine
worked using toothed wheels and could add and subtract. The machine turned in one direction to add
and in the reverse direction to subtract. However, it could not multiply or divide. Although he made as
many as 50 machines, he could not sell them. He got so bored of the idea that he went on to make
hypodermic syringes and the hydraulic press. The odometers that keep track of mileage in modem
automobiles are based on pascal’s machine.

Twenty year after Pascal, Samuel Moreland created a small calculator based on Napier’s Bones, but
not very useful’.

About thirty years later, a German, named Gottfried Von Leibniz, invented another calculating machine.
like Pascal’s it too used toothed wheels with the added advantage that it could both multiply and divide,
besides adding and subtracting. It was used to compute lengthy scientific calculations which had to be
done by incessantly tedious methods up till then. These inventions of Pascal and Leibniz proved that
arithmetic could now be done automatically.

Over the years, These machines were copied and improved. At first, they were made by hand. Later
they were assembled in factories and, with time, become smaller more.

Computers are used for much than calculating. They are used for processing information too. This
aspect of the computer’s use had its origin in the nineteenth century in the area of weaving.

A woven pattern on cloth is often produced by lowering threads of various hues as each row of cloth is
woven. With hundred’s of threads involved, the process could get extremely complicated. To simplify
the process, a Frenchman named Joseph Jacquards, invented a device that helped make things work
well high automatically. He used punched cards which controlled the movement of the threads by the
presence and of holes in cards.

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The problem, however, was that the making cards for each pattern was a very lengthy process. For example,
the design of Jacquard’s face required as many as 25,000 cards. Later, however, an American called Hollerith
was to use the idea to good effect.
Meanwhile, in England, Charles Babbage, regarded today as the Father of modern computer, emerged. He
developed most of his idea between 1820 and 1870. His first creation was the Difference Engine.
However, the engine was of limited value and so, he mechanical gears. It was meant to do both arithmetic
calculations and store data. His plan was to make the machine control itself, make its own decisions, skip,
step, go back over steps and have its own mechanism to input, output and process data. Like all of us, he
faced a lot problems. The technology of the day was not advanced enough to make his idea a reality.
There was reality no demand for such a machine. And finally, the Government withdrew its support for the
project.
Recently, however, engineers from IBM used his drawings and built the Analytical Engine, His ideas were
perfect. Only it took a 100 years for people to accept.
One person who believed Babbage was Lady Ada Lovelace. Ada Lovelace was Lord Byron’s daughter.
Unusual as it was for a woman of her day, she was a brilliant mathematician. She used a special number
system for Babbage’s machine. It was called the Binary Number System. Lovelace explained how the binary
number system could be control Babbage’s machines and how they could be used to systematically analyses
the given data. It for this reason that she is regarded as the first programmer.
When the 1890 census was to be taken, the Government was looking for a quick way of processing the
census information. A man named Herman Hollerith came up with a new plan. He watched railway conductors
punch passenger tickets and used the idea for census. He suggested that all the census information be put on
punched cards, he designed a tabulating machine. Each card was put through a machine that had little rods
that touched the card. Whenever there was a hole. This would allow electricity to flow through the rod. The
number on that card could the n be counted automatically. His invention were a great success. The 1980
census result were ready in just two and half years. Hollerith went on then to found his own company, his
company evenually become part of IBM. one of the largest companies in the world.
The first commercially available adding machine was introduced by William Burroughs in 1892. It has two
important innovation. Firstly, for inputting numbers, it used a typewriter style keyword. Secondly, for recording
numbers, it used a compact printing device.
In 1030, at Harvard University, Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper got together and arranged to had 500 miles
of wires and thousands of relays. If a relay broke, it was really hard to find it and it fix., once the compouter
refused to function and much time was spent trying to diagnose the problem. finally, it was discovered that a
moth was in one of the relays and hence the relay could close properly, mark I was a very good computer ad
was much in use till 1959. This was the first electro mechanical machine,

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
First Generation Computers : Values
In 1946, Eckert and Mauchly built the first electro-mechanical computer the Electronic Numerator Integrator
Analysis and Computer (ENIAC). It was used mainly of the calculation of ballistics.
It wa 100 feet long. weight 80 tons, had 70000 resistors, over 18000 vacuum tubes and guzzled electricity to
the tune of 150,000 watts. It could run only for a short time a strech because it heated up so fast, had to be

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shut fast, had to be shut down in order to cool off. One hour on the ENIAC was the equivalent of the on
the electricity consumption.
The Electronics Numerator, integrator, Analyser and computer (ENIAC) was a decimal machine. It
required the physical setting of thousands of switches. This took time, as did the problem with
programming, electricity consumption and with the fact that the storage space was very limited.
This was followed by electronic Discrete Variable Automation Computer (EDVAC). This used punched
cards and was able to store programs.
Eckert and Mauchly was also responsible for the UNIVERSAL AUTOMATIC COMPUTER (UNIVACI).
This machine was a real workhorse. It could work for 24 hours a day. it was self-checking, it used
magnetic tapes as input media and used about 10,000 vacuum tubes.
The computer builds during this time were all scientific machine, used those mind-boggling scientific
calculations that space venture are made of. Soon people realized the machine could used for
commercial application too. The first commercial computers came into being-the LEO in Britain and the
UNIVAC in the U.S.
The Problem with these first generation computers was that they were bulky and used to heat up fat too
fast. Something was urgently needed to overcome this handicap and it came from Bell laboratories in
New Jersey : the transistor. The transistor does a similar job to the valve. It can increase the electric
current flowing through it but operates many times faster than a valve and is cheaper, smaller, reliable
and for less heavy on electricity than a value. This was a major advance computing
Second generation computers ; transistors
Transistors are mad of semiconductors .A semiconductor is a Mineral That Conduct electricity, though
not as well as metals, and this is where its usefulness lies. Today , companies grow semiconductors in
laboratories .three, more simply, are referred to as ‘chips’.
Computer belong to the group that use transistor are called second generation computers. Being
smaller, faster, more reliable and cheaper than their predecessors. they soon became very popular. In
fact, their popularity saw the growth of the computer industry in the world.
Third Generation Computer : Integrated Circuits
The improvement on the second generation machine came with the arrival of the Integrated Circuit, or
IC. An integrated circuit is a single component containing a number of transistor. The first computer to
use the Ics were are called third generation computer.
Fourth Generation Computers-LSI
The microprocessor brings our story of the evolution of computer pretty much to the present. Time,
ideas and the creative instincts of man will continue to mould the evolution of the computer till, perhaps,
the dreams of today will become the realities of tomorrow.
As it has been so far, the first generation computers were made of valves, the second generation
introduced transistors, fourth generation computers operates operate with chips having 1000 or more
transistors.
Meanwhile, fifth generation computers are already under development. This generation of computers
plans to give highest priority to making the computer easy to handle and naturel to use.

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Taking a look at things in India. In 1955, the first computer is said to have been installed in the country. It
was HEC-2M and found its home in Calcutta. Meanwhile, we had to wait till 1964 for the ISIJU, said to
be first indigeneously developmet machine.
And finally, on the 25th of March, 19879, the Cray-X-MP-14, india’s first super computers was installed
in Delhi. It is meant to be used for facilitating weather forecasting, optimizing agricultural operations,
helping water resource management and other such vital issues.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
The Computers are classified based on their sizes as:
1. Micro Computers
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe
4. Super Computer

Micro Computers
The closest one can come to a hard and fast definition of microcomputer is in which the processor
consists of a single chip. e.g. 8088, 8086, etc. It has the following characteristics:
1. Its storage capacity is low.
2. Its rate of acceptance and transfer of data is a maximum of 5 lakh bytes/second.
3. Its is able to accept most high level languages. However, it used an Interpreter when running
high level languages because most micros do not have sufficiently large memories to support
compilers.
4. The maximum word length it holds is 16-bites, even through most micros use 8-bit word length.
Advantage
1. They are small and portable.
2. They are relatively inexpensive.
3. They do not occupy much space.
4. They do not consume much power.
Disadvantages
1. Micros have a limited storage capacity.
2. They are relatively slow.

Mini Computers
A Minicomputer is not as big as a mainframe and not as small as micro. It is a better version of
micro computer. It has the following charasteristics

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1. It is a general purpose.
2. its storage capacity is about 2 MEGA words.
3. its word lenghts are usually 12,16,24 or 32 bits.
4. The transfer rate of about 4 milion bytes/second.
5. It can support all of high level languages.
6. It can support between 15 and 25 terminals.
Advantages
1. It can perform most task that a MAINFRAME can.
2. It is affordable
Disadvantages
They are slower,with smaler memories compared to a mainfram.

Mainframe
Mainframe are huge machines with the following advantages:
Advantages
1. These are huge machines with high capacity and can handle almost anything.
2. The storage capacity is about 10 MEGA words.
3. The transfer rate is millions of bytes per second.
4. The word lenghs are either 24,32,48,64 or 128.
5. They are able to accept any high level language.
6. A mainframe can support up to 500 terminals.
Disadvantages
1. The are very,very expensive.
2. They require large space.
3. Their consumption of electricity is very high.
4. Maintenance cost too is very high.

Super computer
They are more powerful and bigger than the mainframes.
1. They are not so many of these around at present.
2. They use several processors working simultaneously.

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Computer Applications
Computers seem capable of performing almost any task. The computer is used to assist man in
business organisations, in researce and in almost any walk of life. For
example, a task such as preparing a payroll or controlling the flow of traffic.

1. Scientific Research
Computer were first developed for scientific purposes. In the field of science, computers have made
possible calculations which were previously beyond contemplation. This has greatly accelerated
and expanded research in such science as physics, astronomy, genetics and chemistry.
Computers are now a standard feature of life in universities and industrial laboratories and there are
world are now a standard feature of life in universities and industrial laboratories and there are
worldwide networks linking universities and engineering has benefitted from their development.

2. Business Applications
Computing procedures for clerical duties were relatively simple to develop since they ware well
defined and the repetitive nature of many of the tasks made them very suitable for the computers.
Computer applications to business and commerce date from the middle of the 1950s, the period
which led to economic expansion and rapid technological development throughout the
industrialised world. The place of technology since then has increased tremendously, and today we
fine most of the business houses depending heavily for administrative takes on computers.
More recently, there has been an increasing use of computers for business and data analysis in
less mathematical areas such as medicine, the social sciences, and even the humanities where
applications include textual criticism and specific applications. Packages/programs are written to
perform a particular job. Some of the specific application packages are:
a) accounting packages: An accounting system can range from a simple accounts-receivable
system which keeps track of debtors and creditors to a full ledger system that maintains a
company’s complete ledger system. Some of them can be used by any company which as
some are custom designed to meet the needs of the particular organisation.
b) Payroll packages: The calculation of wages or salaries involves a number of variables but
common factors which relate to the personal details of each employee, such as gross pay or
rate for the job,tax code,etc.
These details are stored on a computer with information which accumulates each time payroll is
run, such as pay-to-date, tax deducted for the year, no. of date attended overtime, etc. are the
input for a particular run. The program contains formulae for calculating all the dedications to
arrive at net pay. All this is integrated into one payroll system which may be a number of related
programs.
Payroll package range from straightforward wage payment to complex multi-company weekly
wages and monthly salary organised.

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c) Financial analysis packages: This uses all the information contained in the various ledger and
permit forecasts of future company performance to be made. This allows a company to create
realistic budget and analysis of budget target set and actual target archived.
d) Stock control system: There are various stock control packages handling simple routine
stock activities to complex system where stock level are optimised to reduced costs. An obvious
thing, If you hold too much stock, You spend too much storing it and if too little, You can hold the
production . Balancing all these required a deal of sophisticated mathematics-Which can be
handled early by a computer.

3. Office automation
Office automation can be explained as the application of today’s technology to today’s office
practice. The convergence of computer and telecommunications, gave extra impetus to office
automation, from the early 1980s and contributed further to the graduate evolution of is electronic
office.
Today, office automation covers the use of word processor, personal computers, work station
terminal, various peripherals equipment, network and fax systems. It also includes DTP, electronic
mail, voice communication, etc.
a) Word processing : The inventing of typewriter towards the end of the nineteenth century
revolutionised the processing of commercial correspondence enabling it to be processor, a
second revolution has occurred.
The word processor is a computer program that enables the user to manipulate text displayed
on the monitor screen and then instruct the printer to produce a hard copy of the text. Text can be
entered into a document faster because mistake can be very simply edited later. Paragraphs
and even whole document of pre-written text can be stored on disk instead of paper.
b) DeskTop publishing : Desk top publishing means the process of producing any published
material an office environment from the creation of the text through to page layout and design,
and the production of the camera-ready copy with artwork. The principal advantage is the
anyone in the office. The whole process of publication is obviously very much faster as no
external services are involved.
A desktop publishing system is built around three components:
I) a microcomputer,
ii) page makeup software and
iii) a leaser printer
The page makeup software is what really makes it all work. It work a user to set up, allow and
change page layout as many times as is necessary to achieved the right design. The package
allow a large number of fonts and character size, handles text justification., embeds graphics
into the text and provides powerful editing features which permit changes to be made even at
the page layout stage.
DTP is major growth area in the field of office automation.

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4. Banking
Bank were one of the first large organization to invest heavily in computing. Today, banking is
almost totally dependent on the computer. The expansion in the banking industry has been to such
an extent, that only a huge labor force would be needed to tackle the volume of bookkeeping. The
computer is the solution because there seems to be no other way of dealing with the problem.
In most of the case, the computer is installed in the main office and all the branches equipped with
terminals, giving them an online accounting facility and enabling them to integrated the central
system for information on such things as current balances, deposits, overdraft, interest charges,
etc. The computerize customer statements are prepared and printed out onto specially designed
stationary. Cheaques are handled by computer at the clearing banks, a mammoth operation. The
computer keeps branches and its customers updated with information from wider financial world,
than would be possible under a manual local system.
Leading internal banks and financial intitution are able to obtain up-to-date news on foreign
currency rates from the world’s money markets using an on-line world wide information retrieved
service.

5. Aid to management
The information provided by a computer is comprehensive and up-to-date. This means that the
decisions taken are much reliable, and they can often be made in advance of a crisis thus
preventing one, rather, than after it has occurred. Computers could also be used as management
tool to assist in solving business problems. In operational research, which is the name given to
“Scientific procedures to decision making”,certain techniques are used which is the calculate and
storage abilities that the computer can provide . critical path analysis and linear programming are
two methods of analysis which are used. they are possible in situtation where good deal of
information is available and where the task variable taking any constaraints if all into account.

6. Industrial applications
In industry , production may be planned, co-ordinated and controlled with the aid of a computer.
The computer could also be used to direct the operation of machine tools like drills , lathers
saws,etc. and also to operate assembly machines which precies toghter parts of equipment.
The control of a chemical plant by computer is a much safer and more efficient method that by
manual control, since changes in condtions that occur during a process can be detected and
compensated for immediately human surveillance over the total process in order to intervene
would however be required just in case the need arises.
In oil industry in the refining of oil,the separation of crude oil into its many component oils is a
continuous process and it depend on the maintenance of certain conditioning thruoghtout the
process thus making refining a suitable application for computer control.
Computer are also used in power station involving complex operations which have to follow a strict
sequence with set time-consuming, the computer can, however , be well suited for the application.
another application in industry could be for load control, as the demand /load of the electricity varies
throughout the day, thus making the task automatic.
Computer are used in steel industry for process control in printing and paper industry, engineering
design, etc.

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7. Meteorology
Meteorology involves obtained of sufficient data, and to analyse quickly enough, so that
predictions can be made. Weather is observed and data collected by human observes working at
land stations and on weather ships, and by automatic weather stations on land and sea, Data is
also recorded at different levels of the atmosphere using balloon borne equipment and remote
sensors on satellites. Measurements are taken from aircraft and commercial ships also. All this
data is transmitted to metrological centers over telephone, radio and satellite links. The computer
systems analyses this data and based on the result, wether forcasts are made.

More the amount of information, greater is the depth of analysis and more accurate are the
weather predictions that can be made. All this would have been impossible without the aid of
computers.

8. Communications
Computers, as we find today, are used in all modes of communication, Expl. Air travel,
transportation and road traffic control.

A traffic control, which is responsible for organizing the safe movement of our airlines, depends on
a significant amount of computer support.

Small computers are installed as part of the plans equipment. these computer are programmed to
continuously analyses data, which is realed direct from the decision and action.

Besides the many in-flight uses, the computer plays increasingly vital role in the training of pilots. A
flight similator provides a replica of the flight deck and performance of an aircraft, enabling the
equivalent of many hours of flying to be under taken without leaving the ground.

Computers are also used for seat reservations.

To avoid over-booking/under booking, a complete list of all booking needs to be maintained and
be available for immediate introjection. This is achieved by using communication networks,
covering the cantonments, linking all the booking offices to a real time computer systems. Any
booking office is hens able to find the status of any flight, and therefore, book accurately.

9. Road traffic control

Maintaining the flow of road traffic in congested areas is of paramount importance and is an ever
increasing problem. The computer assists with the control of traffic lights, A single computers-
based traffic system can control up-to an area of 200 sq kms. and the systems being expended.

Indivisual sets of traffic light normaly change after a period of time, irrespective of the volume of
traffic. A network under computer controll operates instead on the basis of the volume and flow
pattern of the traffic of any time.

The information regarding distributing of traffic, distances, etc. Is permanently stored in the
computer system and the network of traffic light operate according to pre-stored information can
be called for.

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10. Medicine
Computers are be used increasingly, in hospitals, administration to maintain inventories of drugs,
sergical equipment, hospital accounting and for the bed allocation. information the condition of
patients details of texts and clinical reports may be also be stored on a computer system can
provide instruction and reminders consurnign the case of indivisual patients.In intensive care
units, computers can be used to monitors a patients condition.

In certain places, some doctors are used computers to intervie patients before or after they see a
doctor to assists them in the diagnostic process, because it is felt that the patients are more
relaxed and frank when faced with impersonal machine.

The computer may assist in medical diagnosis, prescribing the correct dosage pattern of
treatment example in radiotharepy, where it is vital that the correct dosage of radium is
administrated and only to the exact area required. computers can make these calculations
accurately.

The computer has an important part to play in medical research, in teaching doctors nursing staff.

Various medical applications are in various stages of development, with some of them not used
widely as yet.

SOME FREQUENTLY USED TERMS

1. Hardware : It is term used to refer for the physical units which comprised a computer system. It is
the term given to the machinery itself and to the various individual pieces of equipment.

2. Software : It is a collection of programs written to bring the hardware of a computer system into
operation and to best advantage. we can do nothing useful with the computer hardware on its
own. it has to be driven by certain utility program , called software ,which are input and stored in
the computer system. these sets of instruction are called software.

3. Liveware: the user who works on the system is termed as liveware.

4. Firmware:fimware is depend as software embedded into hard ware,e.g. ROM ,which has the
basic input system(BIOS)

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Computer Architecture and Input /

Output Device
A typical computer system essentially consists of a
keyboard, a monitor and a box. The box contains all
the electrical circuitry that box contains all the
computer work. The keyboard allows the suer to
communicate with the computer to communicate with
the user.
The box is the heart or the computer and forms the
Central Processing Unit, known as CPC for short.
Basic structure of the computer
The way the CPU operates give the computer its characteristics. The way the CUP is constructed is
referred to as its architecture and this architecture consists of :
The Control Unit
The Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)
The Primary Storage Unit
The Control Unit
The control unit controls the whole system by coordinating and organising all the operations of the
computer. It obeys the instructions issued to it by various in out devices such as the keyboard and
organises the output to the various percheral devices such as the printer. It also coordinates the flow of
information between itself and the other two components of the CUP. It is responsible for fetching
instructions that primary storage, interpreting them and then issuing commands to all the hardware
units that are necessary to carry out the instructions.
The Arithmetic & Logic Unit
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is responsible for performing all the arithmetic and logic operation
of the computer, The arithmetic operations are used to compare numbers and include 'less then', 'equal
to', and 'greater than'. The ALU can handle text as well as numbers. Sometime, a computer dedicated to
perform arithmetic functions only. The advantage of coprocessor is the increased speed of performing
arithmetic calculations.
Flow of Information

Data INPUT PROCESSOR OUTPUT

The data is inputted to the system as it is, the processor processes the data as per the instructions given
to give us the final output as per he user specifications.
The Primary Storage Unit
The Primary Storage Unit is the computer's memory, where information is stored both permanently and
temporarily. There are two distinct types of memory.

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a) Read only memory (ROM)

b) Read access memory (ROM)
Read only memory (ROM): contains all the information and instruction necessary to makes the
computer operate when it is switched on.
This information is ROM resident and is put during the manufacturing and remains there stored on the
chip permanently, and is therefor hard to be hard wired into the chip. this memory is capable of being
read from only but not of being written to and hence known as read only memory.
THERE ARE VARIOUS OF ROM CHIP TO MEET USER SPECIFICATIONS.
1. PROM:
The programmable read only memory chips can be programmed by a user to perform specific
however, once a PROM has been programmed , its final physical state is fixed and it cannot
be re-programmed .
2. EPROM:
The erasable programmable Read only memory chips are PROMS that can be re-
programmed. they contain a quartz window,through which light can be shone, so that
ultraviolet light, can thus erase the memory of the chip, and can thus be reprogrammed
3 EEPROM:
The Electrically Erasable programmable Read only memory chips can be washed off the
memory with thee help of the electrical signals. these are most expensive of the lot and are
used in specific applications.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
The part of the primary storage unit used to store temporary information in the from of data and
instructions is the RAM can be written into as well as read from information is held on special RAM chip
and requires an current to maintain the information it stores . its contents are , therefor , lost whenever
the system is switched off and is , therefore called the volatile memory.
FLOW OF INFORMATION
A computer ‘s primary storage, consists of collection of two-state devices. these device are electronic
cell by can be either charged or uncharged . we represent the state of an uncharged cell by a 0 and a
changed cell by a 1. All the information within the computer is stored in the from of 1’s and 0’ s.
BIT: As explained, each electronics cell contains either of the binary
digits 0 or 1. This information represented by a 1 or 0 referred to
as a bit. The bit is the fundamental unit of information stored in a
computer’s memory.
BYTE , WORD AND NIBBLE: 8-bite together are referred to as a byte. An 8-bite memory
location can contain any one of 256 different binary number
ranging form
00000000 ----- 11111111
(0 in decimal) (255 in decimal)
A byte or an 8- bit memory location is the most commonly used
unit of memory . half a byte a is called a nibble i.e. four binary bits
With development in the chip technology being responsible for
the introduction of 16 and 32 bit memory location , we refer to
these as words.

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Memory size

The computer’s memory is measured by the number location it contains, but this would give an
unreliable measure because of the different size of different memory locations. the number of
characters it can store. A character occupies 8 bits — a byte . consequently, computer’s memory size is
measured in bytes — or commonly in kilobytes.

1 kilobyte (KB)= 2 10 bytes = 1024 bytes

personal computers have a standard memory 256 KB or 512 KB or even . Larger machine have
memories measured in megabytes or even gigabytes.

1 MB (Megabyte)= 2 20 bytes= 104876 bytes

1GB(Gigabyte)= 2 30 = 1073740 109 bytes

INPUT/ OUTPUT DEVICES

The input/ output device from an essential part of the computer system. they are connected to the CPU
the brain of the computer system and are called the peripheral devices. without these devices, the
,MAN to machine , and machine to man communication is impossible . their purpose is to provide an
information link between the outside world and the CPU , they act as an interface , translating the
familiar symbols which we can read into the binary pattern that can be handled electronic within the
CPU.

INPUT DEVICES
The input devices are used to convert information to data for transmission to the computer’s
processing unit. There are a variety of input devices which are as follows:

1. KEYBOARD

keyboard is the most commonly used devices. it is used to input data to the computer.

The keyboard devices resembles a typewriter keyboard . Besides having the ordinary keys of a
typewriter , each computer has a few of its own spacial function keys.

These permit direct contact with the computer. The main features of the keyboard are: it allows
data to be entered directly into the computer. The special function keys help to reduce some
of the otherwise necessary typing.The electrical contacts and circuits just below the translat
the information directly into binary.

One of the drawbacks of the keyboard is however quite obvious, the speed of work is
dependent on the typing speed.

For the sakes of understanding you can think of the keyboard divided into following three
areas:

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Typewriter Area: It resembles to a QWERTY typewriter, Besides the usual alphabetic and
numerical character keys, there are some special key like Tab, Caps lock, Shift, Alt ,Esc etc.
Explore their function yourself
Numerical Keyboard Area: It look calculator and is located on the right-hand-side of the
keyboard. you can see that on each of the keys there is making of two symbols like 7 on top and
Home at bottom,3 at top and page down at bottom etc. the num lock (at the left top) enables us to
switch between numerical mode and the cursor mode. When it ON the key prints the
corresponding number (say3)and when it is OFF , it perform function of scrolling down.
Function Key: Normally these keys are the top of the typewriter area of the keyboard labeled as
F1,F2
F3 ...............F12. These keys have different function in different programs e.g. pressing F5 is
meant
for refreshing in most of the programs.
2. MOUSE
A mouse is a pointing device that function by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its
supporting surface. it is used to point the thing on the computer monitor . It moved on a clean
surface known as mouse pad. The normal shape for the mouse pointer is an arrow. its movements
are controlled by mouse. A mouse has least two button - left and right. Some have middle button or
a scroll wheel between left and right buttons. mostly the left button is used. you can click, right
click, drag, scroll, etc. the mouse.
3. SCANNER
Bar-code Recognition Devices
Lines or bars can be arranged in an 11-digit computer readable
code which is used in labeling retails products. The code consists
of a number system character , a 5-digit manufacture identification
number and a 5-digit item code number, used generally by the
retail trade for labeling goods, by supermarkets for shelves and in
stock control.
An 11-digit computer readable code which is used in labeling retail
Manufacturer Product
products. The code consist of a number system character , a 5- Cade Code
digit manufacturer identification number and a 5- digit item code Fig. A Bar-Code
number.

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Bar - code reading is performed by a scanner or light pen which is linked to a computer via a
terminal. The scanner or light pen is stocked across the pattern of pattern of bars , a sequences
of bits is generated and information recorded.
Optical Mark Reading
The optional mark reading involves recognition of marks or characters. optical mark readers are
able to scan from completed in pen or bro ,as well as in pencil. The forms or cards are passed
under a light source and the pressure of a mark is detected by measuring very accurately the
infra-red light levels. A mark reader may be able to detect colors marks. it may be designed to
be insensitive to certain colours
so that these particular colors can be used safely in the pre-printing of the document or card
without risk of their being read as marks intended for recognition. An advantage of OMR is that
it requires no specialist skills to collection and input data. Data collection can be practiced at
the point at which the information first becomes available, e.g. on the factory floor , on the
building site, etc.
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
After the success of a mark reader, the first successful form of character recognition was in the
area of MICR. This system uses highly stylized character shapes printed in magnetite ink .
Two standard MICR fonts were accepted by the international standards Organizations. one
known as E13B , consists of the numerals 0-9 and four special characters. This is used
generally for bank cheques. The code number of the bank , cheque sequence number and the
customer’s account number are all pre-printed in magnetic ink. When a cheque is submitted to
a bank , the amount of the transaction is inscribed on it before the cheque is presented for
computer processing.

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The magnetised ink induces a current reading the circuit. The current induced will be proportional to
the area of ink being scanned. The patterns of the varying currents can then be compared with ,
and identified of the selected character . E13B is widely used in USA and UK Another MICR font,
he CMC7,
is used in Europe. This includes the digits 0-9 the letters of the alphabets and five special
characters. The symbols are made up of seven magnetizable lines with six spaces of varying width
between them. A narrow space generates a binary 0 and a wide space generates a binary1.
MICR systems employ character styles designed expressly for machine recognition and therefore,
the characters have to be accurately formed. they also require magnetic ink. These factors
makes for expensive printing, but one useful advantage is that characters printed with ink
containing magnetizable particles can still be read even -stamped, as may be the case with bank
cheques. MICR reader cannot vary, they can identify with a cheque, someone still has to verify
things like amount, whom to paid, signature etc.
Optical character Reader (OCR):
OCR readers, or scanners as they are sometimes called , typically examine each character as if it
were made up of a collection of minute spots. once the whole characters has been scanned, the
pattern it matches, or nearly matches is considered to be the character read.
The more powerful of the available can handle many different character fonts in various point size.
A typical small scanner looks like a miniature drawing borad with a rule that slides up and down a
rail on the left hand side of the devices. Read heads are positioned in a small box which slides,
under manual guidance, from left to right over the line of text immediately above the rule. such a
scanner may be equipped to identify as many as four different typefaces with the capability to learn
an additional font of the user’s choice. A typical line scan takes between one and three seconds to
complete.

OUTPUT DEVICES
To present the results of the computing process , we require an output device.
There are a wide variety of output available
which are as follows:
1. Visual Display unit
2. Printers
3. Plotters
1. Visual display Unit (VDU)
The VDU is often in the form of a T. V.
screen or a monitor. It consists of a
cathode Ray Tube (CRT) which
produces a beam of electronic that
makes the picture on the screen. The
monitor are available in various forms:

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Monochrome
These are generally black and white monitors, green phosphor monitors or amber. they are
reasonably priced and most widely used type of VDU’ S.
RGB Monitors
These are special kinds of coloured monitor that use three separate signals for the colours Red,
Green and blue. resolution on these monitors is much sharper.
2. Printers
A printer is a piece of equipment which is able to reproduce on paper, copies of programs, data or
output from the computer’s memory. there are printers using different methods of printing. The
most inexpensive of these is perhaps the character printer. This prints one but does it so fast that it
seem to be printing a line at a time.
The third of printer is the page printer. This one prints one page at a time.
Most printers are IMPACT printers. .An impact printer is one which prints a character by hitting on
ink-coated ribbon against paper, just as an ordinary typewriter does. The type of impact it makes
depends on the type of print head it uses on printer. e.g., a dot matrix printer. A non impact printer,
on the other hand, uses other means for forming a character image on the page e.g. a laser
printer.
Dot Matrix printer
This has a print head made of a set of very, very thin pins. It prints a character by hitting the ribbon
which makes up the shapes of the character in a pattern of dots. If you observe the printouts, you
will notice that each letter is composed of patterned dots.
Being a dot printer, it is able to print in any language and is able to make very effective use of
graphics .it is able to produce a variety of scripts and hence is very popular. it does have some
drawbacks: it is comparatively slow. is noisy , can be used in short stretches and produces a rather
poor quality of print.
Thermal printer
It is a non -impact printer which produces a print, different from the dot matrix printer. It uses a heat
sensitive paper. the print head burns the shape of the character onto the paper. These printers work
very silently and have a big advantage in places like hospitals.
Ink Jet printer
This is also a non impact matrix which fress ink drops onto the paper by using an electrostatic
field.
Its print head has a nozzles which fires a jet of electrically charged ink at the paper, thus forming
characters. These too are silent but are not widely used.
Daisy Wheel printer
This is an impact printer which produces letter quality printing. The print head of this looks like a
daisy with character at the end of each in the right position for a character to be hit onto the paper.
The result is a very neat and clean script but the process is rather slow. The print head is easily
interchangeable; hence different script can easily be used for different purpose. The printer too is
the noisy side.

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Thimble printer
This produce a quality print much like that of daisy wheel. The print head in the shape of a thimble
with characters around the edge.
Sparks printer
This is also known as an electrostatic, this function in much the same manner as the thermal
printer. here, however the paper is a aluminum coated and sparks of electricity: are used to bur n
character onto the paper.
Drum printer
This is an impact printer and is regarded as one the speed printing. The drum printer is shaped like a
cylinder and has embossed on it various character. The drum revolves at a constant speed and has
a hammer to print each letter. with each rotation, all the letters of the line are printer at a time, as the
characters pass the printing position. printing is not done from left to right, instead, characters are
printed in the order in which they pass the hammer. The speed of a drum printer various from 1500-
3000 line per minute. It has the advantage of speed and or being able to work for long hours at a
time. It does have few p the hammer strike is mistimed, the printed line can go hay way.
Chain printer
The chain printer, also an impact, high-speed printer, has a linked chain on which are embossed the
characters. the head for the chain printer is magnetically operated. As the necessary character
come in line, a hammer hits it onto the paper. The chain moves horizontally and does between 600-
1300 lines per minute. This printer is fast. one can also change the chain at will. This allows for
variations in script. it can be used for long stretches.
Laser Beam printer
This page printer is the fastest printing device developed to date. here , a whole page of print is
represented by a series of minute dots. These dots are so close together that each character looks
like a shaped character and not a matrix of dots. A typical printer can print 146 pages per minute,
when dealing with characters.
3. Plotters
It is an electro technical device with a moving arm which itself moves along a sheet of paper. it uses
signals from a computer to draw a graph, a diagram or any other dra. plotter can be used on line or
off line.
There are two types of plotters:
Flat bed plotter
This is the most common plotter it is also called x-y plotter. it plots on paper which rests on a flat bed.
The pen moves in perpendicular direction across the bed. one directional movement is supplied by
a gantry which straddles the bed and runs on rails at either side , allowing for up-down movement.
The other direction is supplied by a pen turrent running to and fro across the gantry itself. The
turrent can have different coloured pens. the small desk top plotters come in A2 size whilst very
large beds used in Aircraft design , for such thing as wing profiles are big as 20 ft. to 50 ft.

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Drum plotter
In this kind, the paper is warpped around a drum which revolves in both directions - clockwise and
anti-clockwise. the pen turrent is suspended from a bar above the drum and moves from side,
plotting or moving to a new position , as the drum revolves at right angles to the bar.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

These storage devices are also referred to as the backing stores. as explained earlier, the computer’s
memory is limited in size , but computers may often work often work on vast amount of and backing
stores are used to retain the data on a permanent basis, information stored on these devices can be
transferred and retrieved speedily to the CPU when it is required.
Various devices provide this additional storage spaces, but one selected will depends mainly on how
the information needs to be accessed. There are two methods of access: serial and direct. information
on a serial device can be considered in the same sequence in which it is stored. backing storage
devices exist which permit access to individual information in this more direct manner. These timed
devices are also called random access devices because the information can be accessed at random
i.e. it is available in any order.
1. Magnetic tape
Magnetic tapes are devices very much like those spools used in many old tape recorders– where
data can be recorded (output) as well as read -in (input). The tape is normally between 1.25 to 2
cms wide. its base material is plastic with metallic oxide coating.

Pick-up reel
Supply
reel

Read/write
heeds

Vacuum
columns
Loop
(Varying
in height)

Fig. Typical magnetic tape drive

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This coating is on one side. generally, data is recorded either on a 7-track method or 9-track
method. The head that reds in or writes the data onto the types is fixed – hence access to data is
sequential which makes it slower than a disk. The data is recorded in blocks.
The traditional type of drive is depicted in the figure .the type runs from a supply reel to a pick -up on
reel via two vacuum channel and between a set of read/writer heads. The two vacuum channels are
designed to take up slack, acting as buffers to prevent the type from shaping or stretching when
starting from a stationary position or slowing down from full speed. The read/writer heads are
present either to access information, or to place information on the tape. They are a signal unit,
made up of one read/writer head per track.
In spite of information being accessed serially, magnetic tape is very widely used.
2. Magnetic Disk
it is a direct access store device. it can however be used in the serial mode also. The disk resembles
a LP record. A disk pack consists of a number of these disks, six or more, mounted about half an inch
apart on a central hub which rotates. spinning the disk at speeds of 60 or more revolution a second.
information is stored on both side of each disk as a series of magnetized non magnetic spots.
Information is stored on tracks arranged in concentric circles with each character represented by a
pattern of bits in sequence on track, Although varying in length, each track contains the same
number of character than those towards the center. Each track is normally subdivided into sectors
and information is accessed by track and sector address.
The diameter of a standard sized disk is 14 inches and there may be serveral hundred track per
surface. The storage capacity ranges from 20 MB to 1000MB.
The disk is generally permanently, fixed in position. There are two types of read/writer head units
for magnetic disk devices.
a) a moving head,
b) a fixed head unit.
In the moving head unit, the head moves
horizontally across each track
individually. there is a head for each Sector
surface and all the head move in unison .
information stored on tracks is
accessed simultaneously. Replaceable Tracks
disk packs are associated only with arranged
in concentric
moving -head units. In case of fixed - circles
head unit, there is one read/writer head Central
for each track, resulting in on movement spindle
of the head and information is therefore
traced more quickly. The heads do not Raveling at
make any contact with the surface and speed
only rest on a cushion of particles, etc. It
could be a serious problem resulting in Fig. Track and sectors of a disk
physical damage as well as data
corruption.

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Access Arm movement
Moving heed
arms

Disk surfaces

Read/write heads Central soindle

(one per surface)
Fixed head

Read write needs

(one per track)

Fig. Vertical cross-sections of read-write head units for magnetic dick packs

Access Time and Seek Time

Hoe does the computer go about retrieving data from a disk? And what is the time spent in doing
so?
Since the head can move only in a unilateral manner (forwards and backwards) – to get a piece of
information stored in some sector and track– first the head has to go and SEEK the right TRACK:
and when it has done so, it has to wait for some time for the SECTOR to pass beneath the head.
This time is called the ROTATIONAL LATENCY. Thus ACESS time is the total time from the
initiation of the READ signal to the READING of the data item.
SEEK TIME is time taken to locate the right track (cylinder)
ROTATIONAL LATENCY is the time spent in getting the right SECTOR.
Mathematically, this can be summed up as:
ACCESS TIME = SEEK TIME + ROTATIONAL LATENCY
The MINIMUM rotational latency is ZERO if is luck- i.e. the right sector is just passing beneath the
head as the head seeks out the right track. if it is ‘unlucky’ then the MAXIMUM ROTATIONAL
LATENCY is the time taken for one full
revolution.
3. Optical disk
The most recent development in disk
storage since the introduction of
winchester technology is that of CD-
ROM (compact disk read-only
memory). These are early days , but the
impact is likely to be just as significant,
for CR-ROM is able to provide
enormous storage capacity for use with
all manner of systems from huge
mainframes to small desktop systems.
A single silvery plastic disk, as it is more Fig. An optical disk drive
commonly called, no more than 4.72 in

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diameter is able to store up to 600 MB of data. This is the equivalent o 1000 or more floppy disks or
approximately 200,000 pages of text. CR-ROM uses the same metal-coated, plastic platters as
used for digital audio recordings. The digital information is burned on in the same way a laser. The
playing surface is coated with a thin film of aluminum and this reflects the scanning laser beam of
the CR-ROM player. a layer of clear resin cover the aluminum for protection. The CD-ROM player is
essentially an audio compact disk player.
As implied information stored in CD-ROM can be read only . it cannot be modified. CD-ROM is
potentially useful for application in which there is a database of information which is useful as it
stands and does need changing in any way over a reasonable period of time e.g. telephone
directory.
4. Winchester disk
it is a hermetically sealed unit, in which read/write head are designed to take off and land on the disk
surface. The is coated with a special lubricant mainly to reduce the friction the heads land and the
sealed chamber prevent dust and other airborne particles to contaminates the surface.
The technoloy enables greater precision of alignment, an increase in the number of track on the
surface and higher density per track. The disk are highly reliable , access is fast and are low priced
compared with conventional hard disk devices. the disk being sealed, prevent maintenance is not
requires. standard sizes are 51/4 inches, 8 inches and 14 inches disk.
5. Floppy disks
Floppy disks, also called flexible disks or diskettes, are thin, plastic disks on which computer data
and programs can be stored. they look like a 45 r. p m. record and are lightly coated with ferrite. they
are either single- sided (SS) wihich means you can record only on one side, or doble
sided(DS).they can be single Density(SD) or Double Density(DD). The density refers to the amount
of data that can be recorded on disk. floppies, come in a variety of sizes:
DISK

5 ½ IN
WRITE PROTECT
SPINDLE NOTCH
HOLE

INDEX HOLE

PLASTIC
SLEEVE

READ/WRITE HEAD ACCESS

A FLOPPY DISK

— 51/4 inches in diameter, generally used on micros

— 3 to 4 inches in diameter
— 8 inches in diameter, generally used on large computers. information is written onto the
floppy using a REAd /WRITE head. Each floppy is divided into tracks and each track is
divided into sectors.

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using a READ/WRITE head. each floppy is divided into tracks and each track is divided into sectors.
Advantages
1. Retrieval of information from a floppy is practically instant.
2. Floppies have a large storage capacity. The more the floppies, the more is the amount of data
one store.
3. They are easy to transport and are not in the latest bit bulky.
Disadvantages
Floppies are very delicate. They should be handled with care. Therefore, one needs to be careful not be
bend them, not to keep them in places where they might get magnetist and to see that they are dust
free. If these precautions are not taken, there is a likelihood that some of the tracks will be corrupted and
you might have to format the floppy all over again. A recent, almost revolutionary discovery now makes
it possible a very fine coating of a chemical, known as teflon on the floppies, This helps to wipe floppy of
any stains, etc. without corrupting the data.

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Data Processing

In the early days of computers, computers were mainly used for scientific data processing, but once it
was appreciated that the computer was not only a computational tool but also had the ability to store
vast amounts of data, the commercial organization were interested. In 1951, the UNIVAC (Universal
Automatic Computer) intended for both scientific and commercial applications, was the first machine to
be widely used for data processing.

1. The main steps involved preparing of source documents i.e., obtain the relevant facts and figures.
There documents may be so designed that information is recorded in the same structure as the data
required by the computer program.

2. The second step involves manipulation of the data. The data that is suitable for entry into the
computer so that processing can take place. The method depends upon the input media or device,
e.g., keyboard, paper tape, OCR documents.

3. The third involves manipulation of the data, The data is inputted may have to be classified or sorter.
it is this form of data manipulation with which data processing in mainly concerned, rather than pure
computation. For example order or to list people to be mailed by street order. This will require some
manipulation of the data.

4. After the data has been manipulated, we required to output the information in some meaningful form
ro analysis, accountants, Careful consideration should be given to the presentation of output so that
it is easily or quickly digested.

5. Finally, one needs to store the results of data processing for future use or reference, e.g., in a payroll
application, last week’s updated results will be needed by this week’s program in order to update the
‘gross-pay-to-date’ total and may be also to compare data over a period of time. This would,
therefore, require that data processing installations require a great deal of secondary storage space
to store all the programs and the different sets of data.

Files
- A file is defined as a collection of records.

Data is stored in files, data relating to a specific application is organized as a separate file, e.g., payroll,
inventory in a mailing list may contain a name field and an address field. Each record in a given file has
the same structure. i.e., the same number of fileds.

File Organization
The address of record, i.e., its place within the data processing system as a whole depends upon the
type of storage used.

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Sequential Access File

Random Access Files, also know as direct access. With the development of magnetic disks, some of
the disadvantages of sequential file organisation will overcome. Direct file organisation enables the
program to have immediate access to any particular record without going through any intervening ones.
thus accessing the records much faster.

Indexed Sequential Access

This method also enables storing or retrieving information directly, but only after reading an index to
locate the address of time of information.

Files can be distinguished according to their use within the systems as :

1. Master files : This file contains information that is continually being referenced such as that relating
to customers, sales and stock and which will, form time to time, have their contents amended. A
master file may contain records of two types of dat: first, data that is of a semi permanent nature
such as a name and address, and second, data which is less permanent, i.e., the number or hours
worked during the previous week. the first is called reference data and the second is known as
dynamic data because of its changing nature.

2. Transaction files: Transaction files contain data of a temporary nature. This file contains data and
information that has been both input into and output by the system. They can be used to update
master files.

3. Reference files: This file contains information that is of a permanent nature, the bulk of which
remains unchanged.

4. Archival files: An archival file is a file used for permanent storage to hold historical information.
This may be used every time but is kept for historical purposes.

5. Working files: This file is created during the execution of a program and may even get elected
without the user's awareness.

6. Backup files: A backup files is a copy of a file. Its purpose is to guard against any loss of information
from te system due to accidental loss or damage to the system's files. Backup copies must be kept
of all files and procedures backup any files, to ensure the safety of any new information with the
system.

Report files : A report file consists of an organised summary of information held within the system.
The report could be displayed on the screen or can be sent to a printer. Reports contain
summarised information obtained form the system's files, which will be placed within a defined
layout as to how and where on the report it should be placed.

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Software

computer need a series of instruction to become useful. Software is one or more program that actually
makes the computer’s hardware “tick” . The software can be divided into two kinds:
a) System software used to manage the operation of machine. e.g., a program that may allow you to
create and manage data of railway enquiry/reservation system or airline booking, etc.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
A computer system may contains one or more processors, main memory, input and devices, clocks,
terminal, etc, To keep track of all these in not an easy job and an operating system does exactly that.
The operating system
an operating system (os) is an integrated set specialized programs that’s used to manage the
resources and overall operations of a computer. The OS permit the computer to supervise its own
operations by automatically calling in th application programs, translating any other special service
program, and managing the data needed to produce the output desire by users. The OS tends to isolate
the hardware from th user. The user communicate with the OS, supplies instructions and input data that
are acceptable format to the OS.
The computer system running under OS control today range in size from small personal computers to
the large mainframe and supercomputer. The general goal of OS is to operate a computer with a
minimum of idle time in the most efficient and economical ways during the execution of user programs.
There are number in OS fond in system of all size today. Most of these OS elements can be classified
are either control or processing programs.
The OS can be broadly divided into following:
1. Memory management Module.
2. Processor management Module.
3. Device management Module.
4. Information management Module.
Type of Operating Systems:
Just as there are diffren5t types of computer system, so there are different types of operating systems.
Each type of operating system offers facilities that are appropriate to the computer in which used.
Single program operating system: A single program operating will permit one application program to
be run at a time. It will permit both real-time processing, where the user is interacting with the computer
during the execution of the program and batch processing, where a series of program are run in
sequence.

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As batch processing is done in not in real-time, it is the operating system that acknowledges the
termination of one program and initiates of the next program.
Multi-user operating system : a multi user operating system will permit a number of user to shared
among the user, each user having exclusive use of the resources at any one time. The time slice during
which any one user has access to the computer can be as small as 2 milliseconds. This is a long time for
many of the computer’s operations and because all operations are offered a time-slice in turn, every
user has the impressions that they have exclusive use of the computer all the time.
Multi-programming operating system : A multi-programming system gives the appearance of
running more than one program at a time. Different area of primary operation by the user at any time. An
example of piece of multi-programming software is the program sidekick which is a combination of
diary, notebook and calculator that can be called into use at any time.
Virtual storage operating system : The virtual storage operating system was originally devised to
cater to programs that were too large to be wholly contained within primary storage available it is not
ususal for the size of RAM available to be small to accommodate the needs of a particular application
program. In the case, a virtual storage operating system will permit data to be moved between primary
and secondary storage as and when the primary storage proves to be too small. This gives the user an
impression of a computer with a large memory, especially if the secondary storage is a multi megabyte
hard disk. Many professional word processors use this facility. If the RAM available too small
accommodate a complete document then only a few pages will be in RAM at any one time. Any other
pages that are required will then be brought in from the secondary storage, room being made for them
by dumping current pages from primary storage to secondary storage. Another aspect of virtual storage
is called spooling. spooling is the process of spending output to the disk file and then printing that output
directly from the file, thereby freeing the CPU to do other tasks.
Virtual machine operating system : Multi-programming and them sharing can bring users into conflict
over sharing resources. Consequently, the idea of the virtual machine has been devised to give each
user the impression that each has control over the entire computer, i.e., each user what appear to be a
separate copy of physical machine. In such a virtual machine operating system, different user can even
use different operating system simultaneously.
This facility allow different application program to use the operating system appropriate to them. Them
overall control of such a system is under the supervision of a virtual machine operating system.

SOME POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEMS:

Some of the actually used very common operating systems for microcomputer are CP/M, PC-DOS,
MS-DOS,UNIX,XENIX, etc.
CP/M is a disk operating system for microcomputers and is produced by a company named digital
Research. The full form of CP/M is control program for microprocessors. CP/M was developed in 1973
by Dr. Gray Kundall.
in 1981 IBM, launched its own microcomputer. It also gave its own operating system along with the
microcomputer. They called it PC/DOS i.e., Personal Computer Disk Operating System. This was
however only meat for their disk based personal computer. in spite of offering its own operating system
along with the PC it had to Give The Option of using CP/M on its Computer due to immense popularity of
CO/M at the time.

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With the tremendous sales it has made over since it appeared on the personal computer market, IBM
has managed to capture quit a bit of market to PC-DOS.
Soon after that another very powerful operating system entered the market. This was UNIX. UNIX
offered many capabilities that any other operating system and was much more versatile. it ran on most
of the 16-bit Pcs. UNIX very fast became a very popular operating system.

GENERATION OF LANGUAGE
First and second generation language:
Originally, computers were programmed in machine code. The cental processor until in instructed by
pulses which were coded as the sequence of 0s and 1s. Specification sequence of 0s and 1s from
machine code - the lowest level programming languages. This is referred to as the first generation
language or the machine language. Programming in machine code is a long and tedious process and
greatly prone to error. Apart from having to ideal with the cumbersome nature of the code but it still
required a detailed knowledge of how were the computer hardware operated.
Third generation language
A need was seen to create a language that permitted the programmer to instruct the computer and
comprise standard mathematical English which did not require the programmer to passes a detailed
knowledge of computer working. This was achieved in 1957 with the introduction of FORTRAN the fist
third generation languages. This was followed by a multitude of other third generation language, e.g.,
COBOL, BASIC, PASCAL, C etc.
Fourth generation languages
Fourth generation languages, or 4GL that stand out as a landmark because such a language is of a little
use without a database facility to accompany it. hence 4GL’s are all part of application packages, e.g.,
ORACLE, INGRESS, etc.
4GL’s are mainly used for;
— Application generators.
— Database query languages.
— Report generators.
Translators
To enable the operating system to act as an intermediary between the user and all the component parts
of the computer, the system must be capable of accepting information from the user in the user’s
languages, so some means of translating into the computer’s language.

Source Object
Translator
Code Code

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A computer needs to understand our language. We communicate with it in high level language because
we can understand the language and use it to create the instruction necessary o perform the task. As
we understand, the machine understand only the on/off i.e., the machine code.
There are there types of translators:
1. Assembler.
2. Compilers.
3. Interpreters
Assembler: Assemblers were the first translator and used to translate the assembly language into
machine code. The lowest level of language that we use to instruct the computer is the mnemonic
assembly code. This code is translated into machine code by an assembler is a piece of software that
recognizes the mnemonic codes, looks-up table and them replaces them with the appropriate machine
coded instruction.
Compilers: A compiler translates a program written in high level language into machine code. The
Program as written in high level language is referred to as the source code and compiled mach8ine
coded program obtained from it is called the object code.
Interpreters: An interpreter translates a program written in high level language into machine code,
one line at a time, as the program is being executed. As each line of code is translated it is executed it
has to be re-interpreted. BASIC on a microcomputer is executed through an interpreter.

Difference

Compilers Interpreters

1. Compiled programs run much faster. Since every time you run the program, the lines will
have to be re-interpreted programs run more faster.

2. Source code is not necessary. This source is cade is always necessary. Source code
is well protected.

3. debugging is more difficult. Debugging is easier since one can write one or two
lines of the source code and run it-in case of any
mistake-the exact line where the mistake has been
made is pointed out.

4. The executable program does not. The source code always requires the require anything
else INTERPRETER to “RUN”.

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Future of Computer

It is clearly important that people become aware of the potentialities so that they can seek to influence
the future use.

Predicting the future is like shooting at moving target -very unreliable. despite that, it is still a worthwhile
exercise to contemplate possibilities.

A variety of aids are available to help teachers put the lessons across, but more they will stand in front of
you and talk, reinforcing ideas by writing on the blackboard.

just around the corner now we have Computer Based Training (CBT). Imagine yourself sitting in front of
your personal computer and on the screen a lesson is in progress, a television picture is coming from a
video disk or computer laser dist slotted the side of your computer.

Many benefit have undoubtedly been derived from the intention, but the consequences brought on
society have been far reaching, and they were unforeseeable initially. The increased mobility provided
by the automobile has helped to alter the very structure of family life. Roads and motor ways have
scarred the face of the land, and increasing traffic accident and pollution have brought suffering to
motorists and non-motorists like.

Inevitably, the computer seems destined to bring about radical changes and the goal, surly is to create a
better world for the man to live in.

The industrial revolution saw many technological developments, the social effects of which have
changed over serval generation before becoming absorbed into our way of life. Significant changes
have taken place since the computer industry came into being, and serval lifetimes may have to pass
before the social and cultural effects of the computer are fully understood.

Computer are pointing towards an automated society. The developments of the robots to work in certain
hostile situations, such as fire fighting, mines, security of sensitive establishment and space exploration
can be of great help.

Industrial robots, which have the capacity to change industrial practice radically and to bring about
automation on a scale not envisaged, may not be socially acceptable. society will have to decide on the
balance that needs to be struck between the use of robots and the gainful employment of people.

The computer as an information provider within the home is also beginning to be exploited. Advanced
technology is changing the image of computer from an exceedingly fast calculating device to a machine
which is capable of imitating human thought processing. These computers with the capacity to reason,
think and learn are already on their way. It is only a matter of time before ‘thinking’ computers open up a
new range of applications in factory, in offices, etc.

The development and application of artificial intelligence has also enabled the creation of so-called
expert system. The purpose of an expert system is to provided reasoned advice in particular field and at
a level commensurate with which a human expert would provided. It comprises of knowledge base and
a set of rules for manipulating knowledge.

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Expert system are expected to become more sophisticated and widely used in the 1990’s assuming
the advent of fifth generation computer. At present, there are examples of monitoring of
experiments.

A fifth generation computer will be different is design from the computer of today. If will contain a
large number of processors, rather than a single processor, will be arranged in three major groups:

a) A knowledge base system.

b) An interference mechanism.

c) An intelligent user interface.

With today’s computer at the interface level, the user has to learn to think like a computer but with
tomorrow’s systems, Computer will think as we do.

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Networking

A computer, as we see, basically consists of processors, memories, and I/O devices. This gives us a
centralised picture of a computer. With the passage of time, It became imperative to transmit/receive
data to/from a remote workstation to/from a centalised system. A typical example that should give the
user a good idea regarding the need for data transmission in an airline reservation system or railway
reservation system.
A data communication system links I/O device at remote locations with more or more processors.
A network system is a vital factor for the unsuccessful working of information system – and as such
communications is going to play a major role in the near future.

Satellite link Phototypesetter Wide area

Internetwork network
geteway

Microcomputers
Disk
storage

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

Magnetic
tape
Cluster of
terminal

Console High
speed
line Printer
Disk
storage
Printer

Fig. A typical network configuration

The biggest advantage of a computer network system is that a network allows its users to share
programs and data, document or in short, information. A DATABASE with NETWORKING facilities
allows people at different sites to share the data. The information in kept on-line – and hence the latest
information is available to users.
On a wider scale, the impact of this information sharing have a vital impact in medicine, engineering and
the social sciences. A remote workstation, having access to the central database of some medical
information system – can easily have access to such information like which life saving drug is available
in which of the hospitals – closest to the station. Electronically mail can be transferred in second to some
other user.

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Network Types
Network and distributed system may be roughly classified into two groups:
a) The Local area network (LAN) for shorter distance–and with a higher data transfer rate.
b) The wide area network (WAN) for greater physical distance– with a low transfer rate when
Telephone Channel are used.
Local area Networks
A LAN area normally serves a single premises The figs. show 3 different topologies :
or no more than a group of building. Computer
and related equipment can be connected A F
through nodes and placed anywhere on a
network . LAN’s vary in extent i.e.,the area it
covers in the number of devices connected and B G E
supported. A local area network normally
nestles within a spread of 1 km. C B A
The are three base shapes, or network C Central D
topologies, employed in LAN. Node
D H
Network topology is basically the method by STAR
which the various terminals/stations are NETWORK
connected with each other. E F G
DISTRIBUTED
the fig. show 3 different topologies. NETWORK

In the STAR SYSTEM, any node can

communicate with any other node via the A B C D E
central node. But the disadvantage of this
system is that if the Central is “down”, them the BUS NETWORK
network ceases to function.
In a DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM, There is no. Central Node. which node should be connected to which
other nodes is dependent on a variety of factors like-Intermodel should be connected, volume of traffic
expected, and facilities available. Thus in a distributed system if C is shutdown then B may
communicate with D via F, E.
In a BUS SYSTEM the network is connected as shown in the fig. This type of network fails completely if
it is cut but not generally if one of the network node is in trouble. The selection of a particular topology
depends on the sort of use for which the network is intended, the requirements of the organisation
concerned and the environment, with each having its own advantages and disadvantages.
Wide Area Network
Wide area networks(WAN’s)are large scale data network which span a sizeable geographical area.
In a WAN system, it is not feasible to connect the system physically with cables due to the tremendous
costs involved. So how is data transferred to remote stations in such cases? One answer is the use of
telephone links which may in that case be used to transmit digital data provided the no. of bits
transferred per second is reasonably low.

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Number System

Computer being Electronic Machines, characters and numbers have to be represented in form of
electronic pulses. If computer has to work with decimal number system, computer circuitry should be
such that it should be able to generate and identify ten different levels of electronic pulses (for ten digits
0-9). this will makes the machines very unreliable and error-prone.

The basic elements in early computers were relay switches. The operation of a switch or relay can be
seen to be essential binary in nature. That is a switch is either ON(1) or OFF(0). The principle of modern
computer system is transistors. For the purpose of reliability these devices are always in one or two
states, st(1) or not set (0). However, to work with binary number system, which deals in only two
numbers, viz. 0 and 1, the computer circuit has to be such, that is able to generate a identify only two
different levels of pulses. Each of these binary digits (0 and 1) is know as bit. A combination of these bits
together constitutes a byte (8 bit=1 byte).

Different types of number System

1. Decimal number system

Our present number system with a base or radix of 10; is based on use ten different digits (0-9),
known as Arabic numbers. The highest numerical symbol i.e. 9 has a value one is less than the base
for the decimal number system. The number system is most easily understandable and is most
popular in daily life.

2. Binary Number system

Gotfried Wilhelm Von Leibnitz advocate use of binary number system in the 17th century. Binary
number system uses only two digits, i.e. 0 and 1 has a base of 2. All decimal numbers can be
represented using the combination of these two digits only. Use of binary number system in
computers simplifies the design, reduces the costs, and improves the reliability of computer. it also
simplifies the design of storage devices. all the modern computers use binary number (0 and1)
system. The binary number system is the most natural number system, requires a small amount of
circuitry, and is more efficient.

3. Octal Number system

A number system with base of radix of 8 is known as Octal Number System. Digits used in this
number system are 0 to 7. For the representation of local octal number in binary number system, 3
bits are required to represent each digits of octal number system.

4. Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal number system is a number is a number system with base of 16. Digits used in this
number system are 0 and 9 and A, b, C, D, E, F. Where decimal value of A to F are 10 to 15
respectively. A represents 10, B represents 11, and so on.

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Binary Operation and Conversion

Binary Addition- Binary addition is very similar to that in decimal system. Actually, binary arithmetic is
much simpler o learn. The complete table for binary additional is as follows:
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=0 plus a carry of no 1.
Some examples are:
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
9 1001 10 1010
+4 +100 +6 +110
13 1101 16 10000
Binary Subtraction- Binary subtraction is also similar to number system. rules of subtraction are as
follow:
0-0=0
1-0=0
1-1=0
0-1=1 borrowing of next higher column
Example:
Binary Decimal
100 6
10 -2
110 4
Binary Subtraction depends upon complement. A compliment is defined as the difference between th
number and the base raised to then power minus one.
Complement are of two types
> 1’s complement and
> 2’s complement

1’s Complements Methods of Subtraction

The subtraction using 1’s complement method is straight forward. In this method 1’s complement of the
number, which is to be subtracted, is taken by converting each 0 to 1 to o. This complement is added to
the number from which it has to be subtracted. Now after adding two possibilities may arises:
> A carry is generated when, (+ve number is greater than -ve number). This carry is again
added to the sum of both the numbers giving the result, and the result will be positive.

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> A carry is not generated when, (-ve number is greater than +ve number). Again 1’s complement of
the result is taken. A negative sign is attached to the complement, this is the final result.
Example:
> A carry is generated:
Subtracted 1100101 from 1110001
1’s complement of 1100101 = 0011010
Adding 0011010 to 1110001
0011010
+1110001

0001011

+ 1 (carry, generated at the end is added)

therefore the result is 1100.
> A carry is not generated:
Subtract 110011 from 1001
1’s complement of 1101 = 0010
Adding 0010 to 1001
0010
1001
1011 ( no carry is generated)

1011 again complemented gives 0100

A negative sign is attached to 0100
Therefore the result is -0100.
2’s Complement Method of Subtraction
In this method, 2’s complement of the number, which is to be subtracted, is taken. This accomplished by
adding 1 to 1’s complement of that number.
2’s complement is then added to the number from which it had to subtracted. Now after addition two
possibilities can arises:
1. A carry generated, then its ignored, and the result is positive.
2. A carry is not generated, a 2’s complement of the resulting number is taken to get final result,
and a negative sign is attached to the result. e.g.
> A carry is generated
Subtract 10001 from 11010
2’s complement of 10001 is =01110 + 1 = 01111
Adding this second number

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1 (last carry)
01111
11010 (carry is ignored)
01001
Therefore the result of subtraction will be 01001
A carry is not generated
Subtract 1101 from 0111
2’s complement of 1101 = 0010 + 1= 0011
Adding 0011 to second number
0011
0111
1010
Again 2’s Complement of 1010 is taken it gives = 0101+1=0110
Attaching a negative sign we get the final result = -0110

Conversion From Decimal Number System To Other Number System

Representation of data and memory address using binary number is very difficult. So for making it more
compact for understanding, we use some other number system also. Divide the decimal number, by
the base of required number system, and record the remainder as the right most digit (i.e. least
significant digit) then quotient gain by the base and record the reminder as next significant digit. Repeat
these steps until quotient becomes 0. The last remainder is the left most, i.e. most significant digit of
required system. Example: for binary divide by 2, for octal divide by 8, and the hexadecimal divide by
16.

Decimal to Binary

55 –> 110111)²

2 55 1
2 27 1
2 13 1
2 6 0
2 3 1
1 1
1

Result is (110111)²

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Decimal to Octal
55 (67)8
8 55
8 6 7
0 6
Result is (67)8

Decimal to Hexadecimal
55 (37)16
16 55
16 6 7
0 0
Result is (37)16

Binary Multiplication
Multiplication in the binary system is also follows the same general rules of decimal multiplication.
Rules for multiplication are as follows
0*0=0
0*1=0
0*0=0
1*0=0
1*1=1
Example: Multiply te binary number 11011 and 101.
Binary Decimal
11011 multiplicand 27
×101 multiplier ×5
11011 135
00000
11011
10000111
Binary Division
Binary division is again very simple. As in the decimal system, division by 0 in binary is also
meaningless.
Rule for division are follows:
0/1= 0
1/0=1

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Example: Divide 110011 by 1001

Binary Decimal
1011 11
1001 1100011 9 99
1001 9
1101 ×9
1001 9
1001 ×
1001
Quotient is 1011
Dividend 1100011
Remainder 0.

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DOS Basic

What is a DOS
Whenever you use a PC or any other kind of computer, you execute computer programs. Computer
program are sequences of instructions that tell the computer how to perform a particular activity. A
computer program is usually stored disk and then loaded in to the computer’s main memory to be
executed.
Operating system is the master computer program that manages the files on the disk file system and
executed program when you ask it to do so. The phrase “manages the files” means that DOS will create
new files, read them, change them copy them, and delete theme whenever it is instructed to do so by
you or one of your application programs (e.g., a word processing or spreadsheet program).
DOS provides a common interface between the user and the PC for the Execution of programs.
Because of the presence of DOS-supported environment, there is a major of compatibility among Pcs.
Disk data files and programs that work on one PC will work on another because the Pcs use the same
DOS. the Microsoft Disk operating system (MS-DOS) in OS most widely used with personal computers.

Booting sequence: System files

As soon as PC is switched on it runs a programs that is permanently stored its memory. The program is
called BIOS (Basic Input Output Services) , and it is always there, whether or not you have any disks
loaded and even when the power is turned off. Upon startup, BIOS automatically looks for the Pc’s
master computer program, first in the ‘A’ drive if a diskette is loaded otherwise in the ’c’ drive. The MS-
Dos software comprises of three files:
- MS-DOS.SYS
- IO.SYS
- COMMAND.COM
Once the files have been loaded into memory, the following message appears on the VDU:-
MS-DOS version 5.00
Copyright 1985’90 Microsoft corp.
Current Date is Tue 1-01-1980
Enter new date(mm-dd-yy):
After entering the date, (in case it is to be changed), press the Return key. The next message that
appears is:-
Current time is 0:00:09:53
Enter new time:
After the time has been entered, the ‘A’ prompt or the ‘C’ appears along with a blinking line called the
cursor.
A>-
This indicates now that the system is already to execute a MS-DOS commends.

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What is file ?
DOS’s main purpose is keep track of the data file and execute use specified commands.To understands
commands, it is necessary to know how the files are organised and named. The concept of “files” is a
very important one. even the program in a DOS disk are organised in the form of files. There are three
basic types as files which are normally used.
• Data files
• Program files
• Sub directory files
Data files contained records of data that are created, retrieved and modified by application programs.
Example of data files can be letters/documents in wordprocessor, database containing records in an
application package and so on.
Program files are part of software package. There are mainly four kind of program that are stored in disk
files. These are files with extension .EXE, .COM, .BAT and .SYS.
Subdirectory files are disk files which contain a subdirectory. You will learn more about these later on.
How to name a file ?
Every file has name. Mainly a filename consists of two parts : file and extension. The file name part
identifies the particular file and the extension part identifies the category of files.
There are some rules that governs the naming of files :
– the file name should not contain more than eight characters and the extension should not
contain more than three characters.
– filenames can consist of letters, numbers and some special characters. The letters are case
insensitive.
– filenames should not contains the world CON and PRN as these are driver specifications.
DOS commands
A command can be defined as something you are type when the cursor is at the screen command line
or DOS prompt. To execute the command, You can type its name and top execute it, press the Enter
key.
There are mainly three types of commands :
• Internal commands
• External commands
• Batch file commands
All these commands perform different functions as you’ll notice subsequently.
– External commands are those commands which use programs files with extensions .COM and
.EXE. To execute these commands, DOS should be able to locate these COM or EXE files.
– Batch file commands mainly, used in files with extension. BAT.
Though it cannot be defined as a separate category but a fourth kind of command is an invalid
command. If you type a command that DOS does not recognise, DOS will display a massage:
Bad command or file name.

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There is a interesting feature which is associated with the way in which the file with the extension .COM,
.EXE and .BAT are executed. DOS actually assigns a precedence in case the same file name has got
different extension namely COOL, COM, COOL, EXE and COOL .BAT. If you attempt to execute COOL,
DOS will first take the COM file extension. If there is no COM file, then .EXE takes precedence and so
on.
Introduction to Autoexec. bat
When DOD is loaded, it often looks for a file named AUTOEXEC .BAT in the root directory (you will learn
about root directory later on) of the boot disk.
The AUTOEXEC .BAT file is a text file that contains DOS commands. These commands are
automatically executed every time DOS is loaded.
You will learn about AUTOEXEC. BAT in the later chapters.
DOS version
Since its release in 1981, DOS has grown to match hardware and software developments to keep pace
with the ever expanding needs of its user. Each new DOS release is give a number, to uniquely identify it
in the DOS lineage. The first DOS version was 1.0. The version on which this reference is based on in
version 6.0.
# VER
Purpose : Display the MS-DOS version number.
Syntax : Ver<CR>
ClearThe Screen
As you work DOS and give it one command after another, you screen becomes cluttered with
information. The DOS clear screen command wipes the screen give you “blank slate” on which to work
on.
Purpose : To clear the screen.
Syntax : cls <CR>
Files and Directories
When you work document without a computer, you group and store them in some logical order–
addresses of friends in one book, bills in a desk drawer .etc.
As you accumulate files on a disk, especially on a hard disk, can also store them in group by creating file
“folders” called directories, each of which you assign a name.
DOS provides a hierarchical structure of directories and subdirectories into which you can store files. A
new disk has no date recorded on it. It has to prepared for use by DOS . A formatted disk has the
beginning of hierarchical directory structure with the top of the hierarchy called the “root directory”. The
root directory is denoted by a backslash (\). The following figure shows a typical PC hierarchical
Directory structure.
ROOT
d BASE

WPDIR
COMMAND.COM SUM. PRG
DATA.DB
DOCUMENT
LETTER 1

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If you are currently working the dBASE directory and want to refer to the file called sum. prg. Tehe two
ways would be:
Sum. prg (This could be called the pathname because it is with reference to the current
working directory)
\dBASE\sum.prg (This is called absolute pathname because it is with reference to the root
directory).
When you want to find, save, or otherwise work with a file, you often specify its directory name (called a
pathname) as well as its file name. Depending on the solution and the command you are using, a
complete file specification might include only a path name, only a filename, or a combination of
pathname and filename, perhaps with wildcards in the filename .
The ability to use file related commands is large part of using DOS effectively. The commands
described here tell you how to list. display, and copy files and how to delete them.
Directly Management commands
#DIR
Purpose Display a list of a directory’s files and subdirectories.
Syntax Dir (drive:) [path] [filename] [/p] [/w] <CR>
Parameters [drive:] [path] - Specifies the drive and directory for which you want to see a listing.
[filename]-Specifies a file or files for which you want to see a listing.
Switch: /p Displays one screen of the listings at a time. Yo see the next screen, press any key.
Switch : /w Display the listing in wide format, with as man as five filenames or directory names.
If DIR command is used is used without parameters or switches, it displays the disk’s volume label and
serials number, one directory of filename per line, including the filename extension, size in bytes and
the date and time the fille was modified; and three total number of files listed, their cumulative size and
the free space (in bytes) remaining on the disk. Every filenames of file listed, their cumulative size name
which can be of ,s maximum of eight characters follows optimally by a’.’ and a secondary name of
maximum of three characters.
Example: To display a directory listing for drive SA if C is the current drive, the command would be:
C>DIR:<CR>
and if youy want to display the directory entry for a filename showme. doc, the command is: C:DIR
showme<doc<CR>
Wildcards
Instead of speechifying a single filename on the command line, you can specify a group of files for
performing any operation in DOS. This is done with the help of wildcard. A wildcard cats as a substitute
for a filename of extension.
There are two wildcards :
(I) The asterisks (*) wildcard character represents all the occurrences of filename that share certain
characteristics. For example if you say *.EXE, than you are requesting for all files which have the
extension. EXE regardless of their name. The asterisk (*) wildcard can be used on both side of
e.g.*.BAT and CHAMAN,* are valid wildcard operations. The command DIR * * is same as DIR

45 Computer Fundamentals
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command and means all the filename regardless of filenames can be considered.
The asterisk (*) can also be used to specify part of filename.
e.g. DIR *.8*, DIR AUT8.8 are all valid operations.
The asterisk (*) wildcard can also be used in same way in the filename extensions.
(ii) The question mrk (?) wildcard represents single character of the filename.
e.g. suppose all the files have 1 as the second character in then filename extension, then the
command DIR *, ?1? is a valid DOS operation.
#MD?MKDIR
purpose To create a directory.
Syntax MD [drive:] {path}<CR>
or MKDIR [drive:] [path] <CR>
Parameters [drive:] specifies the drive on which you want to create th e new directory.
[path]-Specifies the filename and the location of the new directory.
EXAMPLE
To create the new directory called TAX under the root directory, the commands is:
MKDIR\TAX<CR>
If tax is now the current directory and new subdirectory called property is to be
created under it, the command is:
MKDIR property (using relative pathname)<CR>
#CD/CHDIR
Purpose Displays the name of the diffaerent directory
Syntax CHDIR [..]<CR>:
CHDIR<CR>
or CD [drive:] [path]<CR>
CD[..]<CR>
CD<CR>
Parameters [drive:] [path] - Specifies the drive (If other than the current drive) and directory which
you
want to change to.
..-Specifies that you want5 to change the parent directory.
CD\CHDIR without any parameters would display the path of the current working
directory.
Example
To change the root directory, the command is:
CD\<CR>

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Suppose you have a directory names SPECIAL which have subdirectory named SPONSOR. To change
you r current directory to sponsors, the command is:
CD\SPECIAL\SPONSERS\<CR>
#RMIDR/RED
Purpose delete a directory.
before you can delete a directory, you must delete its files and subdirectories.
Syntax rmdir [drive:] path <CR.
or RD [drive:] path <CR>
Parameters [drive:] path - Specifies the location and name of the directories you want6 to delete.
Example
To delete a directory called INCOME under TAX, first check that the directory is empty and then from any
other directory expect INCOME, type the following command:
.rmdir\tax\income<cr>
TREE
Purpose graphically displays the directory structure of a path or the disk in drive.
Syntax tree [drive: ] [path] [/f]<cr>
Parameters drive:- specifies the drive that contains the disk for which you want to display the
directory structure.
switch:/f - Displays the name of the file in Displays the name of file in each directory.
SUBST
Purposes To associate a path with a drive letter. The drive you assign\represent5s a virtual
drive.
Syntax SUBST [drive 1:] [path] <CR.
Parameters drive 1: Specifies the virtual drive to which to you want to assign a path.
Drive 2. Specifies the physical drive that contains the specified path (if different from
the current drive).
path - specifies the path that you want assign to a virtual drive.
Switch /d - Delete a virtual drive name to a path c:\LOTUS\WORKAREA the
command will be:
SUBSTX:C:\LOTUS\WORKAREA
File management command
#Copy
Purpose Copies one or more files to another location. Can also be used for combining files.
Syntax Source- Specifies the location/ name of a file or set of file which you want to copy.
Destination- Specifies the lo0cation/name of a file or file a file or set files which you
want to copy.
Source and destination can consist of a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a
filename or a combination.

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Switch : /V Verifies that new files are written correctly.

Example
To create a copy of the file letter, the command is -
Copy letter memo<CR>
To copy files Mar.rpt.April.rpt and may.rpt into files called report-
Copy MAR.RPT April.RPT and may.rpt report <CR>
#Del
Purpose Delete specified files.
Syntax Del [drive:] [path] files name [/p]
Parameters [drive:] [path] filename- specifies the location ands the name of the file or set of files
you want to delete.
Switch /p prompts for conformation before deleting the specified file (s).
Example
To delete a file called redme.txt under the current directory type:
DEL Redmer.txt<cr>
#Rename/Ren
Purpose Change the name of a file or group of files.
Rename command cannot be used to rename files across drive, to move filed to a
Different directory location or to rename subdirectories.
Syntax Rename [drive:] [path] [filename 1] [filename 2]- specifies the location and name of
the file or set or files you want rename.
Example
to rename a file called OLD.TXT as NEW.TXT the command will be:
C>REN old.txt new.txt<CR>
To rename a group of filesw with a different extension the command will be:
C>REN*.EXE*>CO)M
#FIND
Purpose searches for specifies string of the text in a file or set of files.

Syntax find [/v] [/c] [/n] [/I]”string” [drive:] [path] [filename(s)] ,CR>
Parameters “string” - specifies the group of character being searched for.

[drive:] [path] [filename (s)- specifies the name annd location of the files (S).
Switches /v- Displays all lines not containing the string.
/c- Displays only a couny of the line number.
/I- Specifies that the search is not be case sensitive.
eg. `Supose, we wqant to see all the records which have the having ‘R’ as one of the
alphabet.type.
Find “r” names.

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