BE3254 – ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING UNIT – II: DC MACHINES

Subject Name : ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Subject Code : BE3254
Regulation : 2021
Department : Electronics and Communication Engineering
Year / Semester : I/II

UNIT-II

DC MACHINES

Introduction – Constructional Features– Motor and Generator mode - EMF and

Torque equation – Circuit Model – Methods of Excitation- Characteristics – Starting
and Speed Control – Universal Motor- Stepper Motors – Brushless DC Motors-
Applications.

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INTRODUCTION:

DC Machines can be used as a generator or as a motor. Hence DC Machines are

classified in to:
i) DC Generator
ii) ii) DC Motor

1. Describe the construction of DC Machine with neat sketch?[MAY 2018](OR)

Explain the construction and working of the dc generator? (OR) Explain in detail
about the construction and working of dc motor?

A dc generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy (dc
voltage and current) by using the principle of magnetic induction.

Construction:

The construction of DC generator and DC motor are the same. Any DC generator can be
run as a DC Motor and vice-versa. All DC machines have a stator and Rotor.
The stator consist of
• Yoke or Magnetic frame.
• Field system poles - Field winding, Inter-poles.
The Rotor has the following parts
• Armature-Armature core, Armature winding.
• Commutator.
• Brushes, Bearing.
Yoke:
• It acts as a protecting cover for DC machine.
• It provides mechanical support for the poles.
• It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
• Material used:
Small machine: cast iron
Large machine: cast steel
Pole core, pole shoes:
• Pole core carries field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
• Pole shoes spread out the flux in the air gap and also to reduce the reluctance.
• They support the exciting coils.
Material used:
Small machine: cast iron
Large machine: cast steel
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Fig 3.1: General arrangement of dc machines

Inter poles:
• Inter poles or the commutating poles are fixed to the frame in between main poles.
• They are used for improve commutation.
Field winding:
• The field winding is placed on the pole core.
• To carry the current and to produce the magnetic flux. Material used: It is made
up of aluminium or copper.
Armature:
• It is further divided into two parts namely:
• Armature core
• Armature winding

Fig 3.2: Isometric view of armature

Armature core:
• It is cylindrical in shape with slots on its outer periphery.
• It is mounted on the shaft.
• It provides the house for armature conductors.
Material used:
Small machine: cast iron
Large machine: cast steel

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Armature winding:
• The armature windings are placed into the slots on the armature surface.
• The ends of the coils are soldered with commutator segments.
Functions: When the armature rotates an emf is induced in the armature conductors
in case of generators.
Material used: Copper.
Commutator:
• The basic nature of emf induced in the armature conductor is alternating.
• This needs rectification in case of DC generator, which is made possible by a
device called commutator.
Material used: Copper.
Brushes & Bearings:
• The function of brushes is to collect current from commutator.
DC GENERATOR:
INTRODUCTION:
• An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy, generally using the principle of electromagnetic induction.
• According to Faraday's Laws of Electro-Magnetic Induction, when a conductor or a
coil is rotated in a magnetic field in such a way, to cut the magnetic lines of flux, an
e.m.f is induced in a conductor or in the coil.

Mechanical energy DC generator Electrical energy

Input Output

2. Explain the principle of operation of the DC generator.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
• When a conductor move in a magnetic field in such a way conductors cuts across
a magnetic flux of lines and so the emf produces in a generator.
• It is defined by faradays law of electromagnetic induction emf causes current to
flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
• Let us consider a single turn coil ABCD rotated on a shaft within a uniform
magnetic field of flux density. It is rotated in an anticlockwise direction.
• Let ‘l’ be the length and ‘b’ be the breadth of the coil in meters.
• When the coil sides AB and CD are moving parallel to the magnetic field, the flux
lines are not being cut and no emf is induced in the coil.
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• At this position we assume the angle of rotation ‘ ’ as zero.
• This vertical position of the coil is the starting position. According to Faraday’s law
II, the emf induced is propositional to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Where ‘N’ is the number of turns, ‘ ’ is the flux and ‘t’ is the time

Fig 3.3: Schematic diagram of simple DC generator

• When ‘ ’ = 90º, the coil sides are moving at the right angles to the flux lines. The
flux lines are cut at maximum rate and the emf induced is maximum.
• When ‘ ’ = 180º, the coil sides are again moving parallel and the emf induced is
zero.
• When ‘ ’ = 270º, the coil sides are again move at right angle to the flux but with
their position reversed. Hence induced emf is maximum in opposite direction.
• When ‘ ’ = 360º, the coil sides are once again move parallel to the magnetic field
making induce emf equal to zero.
• The coil has now come back to the starting point.

Fig 3.4: Generator terminal voltage

• The emf changes from instant to instant and becomes alternatively positive and
negative. Such an emf is called alternating emf.

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• The induced emf in the coil can be increased by
(i) increasing the flux density(B) and
(ii) by increasing the angular velocity ( ).
• The current flowing in the external resistance to a D.C generator is made
unidirectional by connecting the coil side to a slip ring.
• The slip ring is split into two segments a and b and the segments are insulated
from each other and from shaft.
• The coil sides AB is always attached to the segment a and likewise CD to b.
• The brushes B1 and B2touch these segments and are meant to collect the current.

Fig 3.5: coil ABCD connected to the slip ring

• During the first half revolution, current flows along ABLMCD through brush B1
which is positive and into B2(negative brush)
• After half a cycle AB and CD have exchanged positions along with the segments a
and b and current now flows, through DCLMBA. B1 is now in contact with b.
• For each half revolution, the positions of segments a and b also reverse. Hence the
current in the load is always unidirectional.
• The changeover of segments a and b takes place when flux linkage or induced emf
is minimum. In a generator, the split-rings are called commutator.

3. Derive the EMF equation of the DC generator.[NOV/DEC-2015]

Let,
= flux per poles in weber
N= speed of armature in RPM
P= Number of poles

= Speed of armature in RPS

Z = Total number of armature conductors.

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E = EMF induced in any parallel path in the armature in volts
A = Number of parallel paths.
According to Faraday’s law, the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux.

i.e.,

Let us consider a single conductor moving during one revolution. The flux produced by it
is given by,
𝑑𝜑 = 𝜑𝑃weber

Number ofrevolutions per second seconds

Time taken to complete one revolution, seconds.

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.

EMF generated / conductor ……………….(1)

Substituting, in equation (1) gives

EMF generated/conductor,

Number of conductors in one path of armature

EMF generated / path Volts

For wave winding, A= 2

EMF generated/path Volts

Volts

For lap winding, A=P

EMF generated/path Volts

Volts

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4. Explain the Circuit Model of a dc machine.
• The parallel paths of dc machine armature are symmetrical and each has an
induced emfEa and a resistance Rp. as shown in Fig below for A = 4.
• Its Thevenin equivalent is drawn by the side in which

• The armature can be represented by the symbol as shown in Fig with Ea within
circle and the series resistance Ra written by its side.
• The armature resistance is quite small so as to limit the copper- loss to an
acceptable value. Figure 7.16 also shows the field circuit of the machine and the field
coil axis is placed at 90° to the brush axis.
• Since most of the time steady-state dc behaviour of the machine will be
considered.
The armature induced emf
Machine torque
• The voltage drop at brush-commutator contact is fixed (1–2 V), independent of
armature current as the conduction process is mainly through numerous short arcs.
• This voltage being small is modelled as linear resistance and lumped with Ra.
Generating Mode
• The machine operates in generating mode (puts out electrical power) when Ia is in
the direction of induced emfEa as in Fig. (a). For the armature circuit

• Thus a dc machine is generating if its armature induced emf (Ea) is more than its
terminal voltage (Vt).
• The electromagnetic power converted from mechanical to electrical from is

The net electrical power output is

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• In this mode torque (T) of electromagnetic origin is opposite to the direction of

rotation of armature, i.e., mechanical power is absorbed and a prime-mover is needed to
run the machine.
• The conductor emf and current are also in the same direction for generating mode
as shown in the cross sectional view of Fig.
Motoring Mode
• In this mode, Ia flows in opposition to induced emfEa as in Fig(b). Ea is now
known as the back emf to stress the fact that it opposes the armature emf. For the
armature circuit

• Thus a DC machine is motoring if armature terminal voltage (Va) is more than its
induced emf (Ea).
• The electromagnetic power converted from mechanical to electrical from is

The electrical power input is

• In this mode torque (T) of electromagnetic origin is in the direction of armature

rotation, i.e., mechanical power is put out and is and absorbed by load (mechanical).
• Conductor emf and current are also in opposite directions for motoring mode as
shown in Fig (c).

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Lap Versus Wave Winding
• Consider a P pole machine having flux/pole Φ and rotating at rad/s. It has a
total of Z conductors and maximum permissible conductor current is Ic.
• Let us derive the expression for power converted and torque developed.

Torque developed

Or

• Find that the power converted and torque developed are independent if the
number of parallel paths.
• It means that these values are that same whether the conductors are lap
connected or wave. These in fact depend on number of conductors and permissible
conductor current.

5. explain the different types of D.C Generators in detail (OR)Explain various

excitation methods of D.C Generator.[May/June -2013]
Generators are generally classified according to their methods of field excitation. On this
basis, d.c. generators are divided into the following two types:
(i) Separately excited d.c. generators
(ii) Self-excited d.c. generators
(i) Separately Excited DC Generator:
A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied from an independent external
d.c. source (e.g., a battery etc.) is called a separately excited generator.

Fig 3.6: Connections of a separately excited generator

• Armature current Ia= load current IL
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• Ra= Resistance of the armature winding.
• Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra - Vbrush
• 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ = Voltage drop at contacts of the brush
• Generated emfEg

• Power developed in the armature, 𝑃𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎

• Power delivered to load = 𝑉 𝐼𝑎
(ii) Self-Excited D.C. Generators:
A d.c. generator whose field magnet winding is supplied current from the output of the
generator itself is called a self-excited generator.
There are three types of self-excited generators depending upon the manner in which the
field winding isconnected to the armature, namely;
(a) Series generator;
(b) Shunt generator;
(c) Compound generator
Series Generator:
In a series generator, the field winding is connected in series with armature winding.
So that whole armature current flows through the field winding as well as the load.

Fig 3.7: Connections of a seriesgenerator

• 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
• Terminal voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra–𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒–Vbrush
• Generated emf, 𝐸𝑔= 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎+ 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
• V= terminal voltage in volts.
• 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎= Voltage drop in the armature resistance
• 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒= Voltage drop in the series field winding resistance
• 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ = Voltage drop at contacts of the brush
• Power developed in the armature, 𝑃𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
• Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼𝑎(or) 𝑉 𝐼L
Shunt Generator:
In a shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding.

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Only a part of armature current flowsthrough shunt field winding and
the rest flows through the load.It is a “constant speed” machine.

Fig 3.8: Connections of a shunt generator

• Terminal Voltage V = Eg – Ia Ra

• Shunt field current,

• Armature current, 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ

• Power developed in the armature, 𝑃𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
• Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼L
Compound Generator:
In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole,one is
in series and the other in parallel with the armature.
Depending upon these two winding connections, it is further classified into two types
• Long shunt compound generator
• Short shunt compound generator

Fig 3.9: Connections of a compound generator

Long shunt compound generator:
Shunt field winding is connected between both series and armature winding.

Fig 3.10: Connections of a long shunt compound generator

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• Series field current, 𝐼𝑠𝑒= 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ

• Shunt field current,

• Generated emf, 𝐸𝑔= 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎+ 𝑅𝑠𝑒) + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

• Terminal voltage V= 𝐸𝑔- 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎+ 𝑅𝑠𝑒) - 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
• Power developed in the armature, 𝑃𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
• Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼L

Short shunt compound generator:

Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and this combination is
connected in series with series field winding.

Fig 3.11: Connections of a short shunt compound generator

• Load current, 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒(series field current)
• Armature current, Ia = Ish + Ise

• Shunt field current,

• Generated emf, 𝐸𝑔= 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

• Terminal Voltage V= 𝐸𝑔- 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎- 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒- 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
• Power developed in the armature, 𝑃𝑎= 𝐸𝑔𝐼𝑎
• Power delivered to load, = 𝑉 𝐼L
6. What are the applications of DC generator?
APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATOR:
DC Separately Exited Generator:
As a supply source to DC Motors, whose speed is to be controlled for certain
applications. Where a wide range of voltage is required for the testing purposes.
DC Shunt Generator:
The terminal voltage of DC shunt generator is more or less constant from no load to full
load .Therefore it is used where constant voltage is required.
• For electro plating
• Battery charging
• For excitation of Alternators.
DC Series Generator:
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The terminal voltage of series generator increases with load current from no load to full
load .Therefore these generators are,
• Used as Boosters
• Used for supply to arc Lamps
DC Compound Generator:
• Differential Compound generators are used to supply dc welding machines.
• Level compound generators are used to supply power for offices, hostels and
Lodges etc.
• Over compound generators are used to compensate the voltage drop in Feeders.

7. Explain the open circuit and load circuit characteristics of separately excited
DC generator (OR) performance characteristics[NOV/DEC 2009](OR) Explain the
internal and external characteristics of DC generators.[APR/MAY 2015]
There are three types of characteristics in DC generator.
➢ Open circuit characteristics (OCC) (or) Magnetization characteristics [EgVs If]
➢ Internal characteristics (or) Total characteristics [E VsIa)
➢ External characteristics (or) Voltage regulated characteristics [V Vs IL]
These three characteristics are applicable for both self-excited and separately excited DC
generator.
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR:
From generator emf equation,

• It is clear that the induced emf is proportional to the flux. If the speed is kept
constant, and the flux is varied, then the induced emf also varies.
𝐸𝑔∝𝜑𝑁
Open circuit characteristics:
• If N is constant, Φ increases Eg increases Fig. shows the separately excited circuit
diagram for OCC.
• The variation of flux with the induced emf is called the no-load magnetization
curve (or) saturation curve of the generator. Measurement of flux is difficult, instead the
curve is plotted between field current (If) and induced emf (Eg).

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Internal and External Characteristics:
• The internal and external characteristics are obtained due to armature reaction
drop and armature resistance drop.
Internal Characteristics
• This curve is drawn between the emf (E) and armature current (Ia). By increasing
the Ia induced emf, E will decrease due to armature reaction is shown in Fig. This is
represented as curve (2).

External Characteristics
• This curve is drawn between the terminal voltage (V) and armature current (Ia).By
increasing Ia, the induced emf again decreases due to armature resistance. This is
represented as curve (3).
(i)DC Shunt Generator Characteristics:
• This is one type of self-excited DC generator. If the armature and field winding are
connected in parallel it is called shunt excitation.
a) Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC):

Fig 3.12: Open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator.

• Initially the field current is zero, but emf OA is induced in the generator due to
residual magnetism. Due to this voltage, field current increases and emf also increases.
The emf and field current increase till it reaches point B.
• At this point, the field current is just sufficient to produce the voltage till B. There
is no further increase in field current (or) induced emf. This curve is drawn between field
current and induced emf. It is called as open circuit characteristics.
Internal and External Characteristics:
• There are several reasons that cause reduction of terminal voltage.

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• Ia increases causing a drop of voltage in the armature resistance Ra, Drop in the
brush contact resistance and Drop due to armature reaction.
The above three factors cause a decrease in the induced emf. It is expressed by the
following equation.

Fig 3.13: shows the characteristics of DC shunt generator

From the characteristics curve,
• The curve (1) represents Ideal DC generator (i.e.,) by increasing load current the
terminal voltage should be constant. There is no armature drop.
• The curve (2) shows internal characteristics, here the drop is due to the armature
reaction.
• The Curve (3) shows external characteristics, here the drop is due to the armature
resistance. By increasing the load current the terminal voltage increases.
DC Series Generator Characteristics:
• Curve (l) represents Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC) of a series generator. This
curve can be obtained by disconnecting the field winding from the machine and excited
by separate d.c source.
• The curve (2) represents the internal characteristics (i.e.,) Eg/Ia. Here, the drop is
due to armature reaction. By increasing the load current, the induced emf E decreases,

Fig 3.14: Circuit diagram and characteristics curve of DC series generator

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• The curve (3) represents the external characteristics. Here, the drop is due to
armature resistance and series field resistance. By increasing the load current, the
terminal voltage decreases.
• It is seen from characteristics shown in Fig. that the series generator has a rising
characteristic (i.e.,) voltage increases with increase in load.
Compound Generator:

Fig 3.15: circuit diagram and characteristics curve of compound generator

There are three curves presented in the characteristics of DC compound generator. They
are,
• The curve (1) represents curve of flat compound generator.
• Curve (2) represents the characteristics of over compound generator.
• The curve (3) represents the characteristics of under compound generator.

D.C MOTOR
INTRODUCTION
• A machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is known as dc
motor.
• Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force.
• The fundamental principles and construction of the DC motors are identical with
the DC generators.
• A DC machine that runs as a motor will also operate as a generator.

Electrical energy DC Motor Mechanical energy

Input Output

8. Explain the principle of operation of DC Motor.[NOV/DEC 2015]

The basic principle of operation of DC motor is a “Whenever current carrying conductor
is placed in magnetic field, the conductor experiences a force tending to move it”.

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The force whose direction is given by Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule and whose magnitude is
given by
F=BILNewtons
B=Magnetic field intensity in wb/m2
I=Current in Amperes
L=Length of the conductor in meter.
OPERATION:
• When voltage is applied to the loop of wire a current flows, and a magnetic field is
created that will interact with the field of the magnet.
• Repulsion and attraction of the fields will cause the loop to turn.
• The loop moves away from the strong field toward the weak field.
• The direction of the rotation can be determined by “the right-hand rule”.

Fig 3.16: Interaction of two fluxes and forces experienced by the conductor
• In a dc motor, the stator poles are supplied by dc excitation current, which
produces a dc magnetic field.
• The rotor is supplied by dc current through the brushes, commutator and coils.
• The interaction of the magnetic field and rotor current generates a force that drives
the motor.
• A current is supplied to the coil by a battery and the torque acting on the current-
carrying coil causes it to rotate.

Fig 3.17: Direction of rotation of conductor

Back emf of a Motor:
• As the coil rotates in a magnetic field, an emf is induced in the coil. This induced
emf always acts to reduce the current in the coil and is called back emf.
• The back emf increases in magnitude as the rotational speed of the coil increases.

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9. Derive the Torque and Speed Equations of the DC Motor.
• Torque is turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It is measured by
the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
• Consider a pulley of radius ‘r’ meter acted upon by a circumferential force of ‘F’
newton which causes it to rotate at speed N rpm.
Torque, T = F × r (Nm)
Work done by this force in one revolution = Force x distance
=Fx joules.
And P = Power developed = Work done/time

P=Tx watts
Where
T = Torque in Nm
= Angular speed in rad/sec =

P= watts

Armature Torque of a motor:

• Let ‘Ta’ be the gross torque developed by the armature of motor running at rpm.
It is also called armature torque.

• Power developed in armature ……………………. (i)

We also know that

Electrical power converted into mechanical power in the Armature = 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎…….….. (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii) we get,

But ‘𝐸𝑏’ in a motor is given by

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Speed and Torque Equation:

For a DC motor, the speed equation is obtained as follows:
We know

(Or)

Since for a given machine, 𝑍, 𝐴𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.

Where ‘𝐾’ is constant.

Speed equation becomes

10. Explain in detail the various types of dc motor with suitable diagram.
DC MOTOR TYPES
The types of DC motors are
1. DC Series motor
2. DC Shunt motor
3. DC Compound motor
DC series motor:
In DC series motor means the field winding is connected in series with armature.
Same current flows through field as armature.

Fig 3.18: Connection of series motor

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• 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − (𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼se𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ)
• 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
• Hence 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 −𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
• 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎= Voltage drop in the armature resistance
• 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑒= Voltage drop in the series field winding resistance
• 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ= Voltage drop at connects of the brush
NormallyVbrush is neglected and hence 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)
DC Shunt motor:
In DC shunt motor, the field winding is connected across the armature.

Fig 3.19: Connection of a shunt motor

• A “constant speed” machine.
• Shunt field current,

• Armature current, 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿− 𝐼𝑠ℎ

• 𝐼L= 𝐼a+𝐼𝑠ℎ
• Back emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉𝐿− 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎− 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
• 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 −𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
Compound DC motor:
The DC compound motor consists of both series and shunt field windings.

Fig 3.20: Connection of compound motor

Depending upon these two winding connections, it is further classified into two types
• Long shunt compound Motor
• Short shunt compound Motor
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LONG SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR:
• Shunt field winding is connected between both series and armature winding.

Fig 3.21: Connection of a long shunt compound motor

• Series field current, 𝐼𝑠𝑒= 𝐼𝑎= 𝐼𝐿− 𝐼𝑠ℎ (𝑜𝑟)𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ
• Shunt field current,

• Back emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎+ 𝑅𝑎𝑒) − 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ

• 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 −𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒)+ 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ
SHORT SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR:
• Shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and this
combination is connected in series with series field winding.

Fig 3.22: Connection of a short shunt compound motor

• Load current, 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑠𝑒
• 𝐼𝐿= 𝐼𝑎+ 𝐼𝑠ℎ

• Shunt field current,

• Generated emf, 𝐸𝑏= 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎− 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑅𝑠𝑒− 𝑉𝑠𝑒

11. What are the applications of DC motors?
APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS:
D.C Shunt Motors:
It is a constant speed motor.Where the speed is required to remain almost constant from
noload to full load.Where the load has to be driven at a number of speeds and any one of
which is nearly constant.

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Industrial use:
• Lathes
• Drills
• Boring mills
• Shapers
• Spinning and Weaving machines.

D.C Series motor:

It is a variable speed motor.The speed is low at high torque. At light or no load the motor
speed attains dangerously high speed.The motor has a high starting
torque.(elevators,electric traction)
Industrial Uses:
• Electric traction
• Cranes
• Elevators
• Air compressor
D.C Compound motor:
Differential compound motors are rarely used because of its poor torque characteristics.
Industrial uses:
• PressesShears
• Reciprocating machine.
12. Explain the characteristics of dc shunt dc series motor[APR/MAY -2015](OR)
Explain the performance characteristics of any one type of dc motor.[NOV/DEC
2015]
DC motors are shunt, series or compound motors. We are generally interested in the
following three characteristics.
➢ Speed - armature current characteristics
➢ Torque - armature current characteristics
➢ Speed - torque characteristics
DC SERIES MOTOR

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• The motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the armature is
called series motor.

i) Speed-armature current characteristics

• As the flux depends on the field current 𝐼𝑠𝑒 which is same as the line current, the
flux is not constant with loads. The speed equation

∵ 𝜑∝𝐼𝑎

• From the above equation it is clear that by, increasing the armature current, speed
will decrease. It is shown in figure.

• DC Series motor should never be started without some load. Otherwise the motor
speed will rise to a dangerous value and get damaged.
ii) Torque – armature current characteristics
• We know that, 𝑇∝𝜑𝐼𝑎.
• In DC series motor, flux is directly proportional to armature current,
𝜑∝𝐼𝑎
𝑇∝𝐼𝑎2 (𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇∝𝐼𝑎 (𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• At light load, armature current, 𝐼𝑎 and hence flux is small. But as 𝐼𝑎 increases,
torque increases as the square of the current. Hence this characteristic is a parabola. It
is shown in the figure.

• After saturation, the flux is constant. i.e. is independent of 𝐼𝑎, hence torque is
directly proportional to armature current. So the curve becomes a straight line

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iii) Speed-torque characteristics
• This characteristics can be got from the above two characteristics. Here the DC
series motor speed is high, the torque is low and vice- versa. It is shown in figure.

DC SHUNT MOTOR
• The shunt motor field winding is connected in parallel to the armature winding.
• Shunt motor normally called as constant speed motor. In DC shunt motor
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓

• Since, the field winding is directly connected to supply voltage ‘v’ which is also
constant, the field current If is also constant.
i) Speed - armature current characteristics:
• The speed equation of the DC motor is

• Since Ish and are nearly constant, N = K (V - IaRa)

• Where K is a constant. This implies that speed is nearly constant except for a
small drop. This is shown in fig.

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ii) Torque – armature characteristics:
• It is also called electrical characteristics. The DC shunt motor torque is directly
proportional to flux and armature current.
T Ia
Here, is constant
Ia
• So when the armature current increases, the torque also increases. It is shown in
the figure.

iii) Speed – Torque characteristics:

• It is also called mechanical characteristics. This characteristic can be got from the
above two characteristics. It is shown in figure.

• Here, when the load torque increases, the speed slightly decreases.

Necessity of D.C. Motor Starter

• At starting, when the motor is stationary, there is no back e.m.f. in the armature.
• Consequently, if the motor is directly switched on to the mains, the armature will
draw a heavy current (Ia = V/Ra) because of small armature resistance.
• As an example, 5 H.P., 220 V shunt motor has a full-load current of 20 A and an
armature resistance of about 0.5Ω. If this motor is directly switched on to supply, it

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would take an armature current of 220/0.5 = 440 A which is 22 times the full-load
current.
• This high starting current may result in:
(i) Burning of armature due to excessive heating effect,
(ii) Damaging the commutator and brushes due to heavy sparking,
(iii) Excessive voltage drop in the line to which the motor is connected. The result is that
the operation of other appliances connected to the line may be impaired and in
particular cases, they may refuse to work.
• In order to avoid excessive current at starting, a variable resistance (known as
starting resistance) is inserted in series with the armature circuit. This resistance is
gradually reduced as the motor gains speed (and hence Eb increases) and eventually it is
cut out completely when the motor has attained full speed.
• Starting current is limited to 1.25 to 2 times the full-load current.

Types of D.C. Motor Starters

13. Explain the types of D.C. Motor Starters.
• The stalling operation of a d.c. motor consists in the insertion of external
resistance into the armature circuit to limit the starting current taken by the motor and
the removal of this resistance in steps as the motor accelerates.
• When the motor attains the normal speed, this resistance is totally cut out of the
armature circuit.
• It is very important and desirable to provide the starter with protective devices to
enable the starter arm to return to OFF position
(i) When the supply fails, thus preventing the armature being directly across the
mains when this voltage is restored. For this purpose, we use no-volt release coil.
(ii) When the motor becomes overloaded or develops a fault causing the motor to take
an excessive current. For this purpose, we use overload release coil.
• There are three types of d.c. motor starters, they are two-point starter, three-point
starter and four-point starter.

Two-Point Starter:
• A two-point starter is used for starting dc motor which has the problem of over-
speeding due to loss of load from its shaft. Such a starter is shown in fig(3.23).
• DC motor starting, two and three point starter. Here for starting the motor,the
control arm is moved clockwise from its OFF position to the ON position against the
spring tension.

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• The control arm is held in the ON position by an electromagnet. The hold-on
electromagnet is connected in series with the armature circuit.
• If the motor losses its load,current decreases and hence the strength of the
electromagnet also decreases.The control arm returns to the OFF position due to spring
tension,this preventing the motor from overspeeding.

Fig 3.23Two point starter

• ThestarterarmalsoreturnstotheOFF-
positionwhenthesupplyvoltagedecreasesappreciably.LandFare two
pointsofthestarterwhichareconnectedwiththesupplyandmotorterminals.
Three-Point Starter:
• This type of starter is widely used for starting shunt and compound motors.
• Fig. (3.24) shows the schematic diagram of a three-point starter for a shunt motor
with protective devices.

Fig 3.24 Three point starter

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• It is so called because it has three terminals L, Z and A. The starter consists of
starting resistance divided into several sections and connected in series with the
armature.
• The tapping points of the starting resistance are brought out to a number of studs.
• The three terminals L, Z and A of the starter are connected respectively to the
positive line terminal, shunt field terminal and armature terminal.
• The other terminals of the armature and shunt field windings are connected to the
negative terminal of the supply.
• The no-volt release coil is connected in the shunt field circuit.
• One end of the handle is connected to the terminal L through the over-load release
coil.
• The other end of the handle moves against a spiral spring and makes contact with
each stud during starting operation, cutting out more and more starting resistance as it
passes over each stud in clockwise direction.
Operation:
(i) To start with, the d.c supply is switched on with handle in the OFF position.
(ii) The handle is now moved clockwise to the first stud. As soon as it comes in
contact with the first stud, the shunt field winding is directly connected across the
supply, while the whole starting resistance is inserted in series with the armature
circuit.
(iii) As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is
cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-
volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current.
(iv) If the supply voltage is suddenly interrupted or if the field excitation is accidentally
cut, the no-volt release coil is demagnetized and the handle goes back to the OFF
position under the pull of the spring.
(v) If no-volt release coil were not used, then in case of failure of supply, the handle
would remain on the final stud. If then supply is restored, the motor will be directly
connected across the supply, resulting in an excessive armature current.
(vi) If the motor is over-loaded (or a fault occurs), it will draw excessive current from
the supply. This current will increase the ampere-turns of the over-load release coil and
pull the armature C, thus short-circuiting the no volt release coil.
(vii) The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by
the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply.
Drawback
• In a three-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected in series with the
shunt field circuit so that it carries the shunt field current.
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• While exercising speed control through field regulator, the field current may be
weakened to such an extent that the no-volt release coil may not be able to keep the
starter arm in the ON position.
• This may disconnect the motor from the supply when it is not desired. This
drawback is overcome in the four point starter.

Four-Point Starter
• In a four-point starter, the no-volt release coil is connected directly across the
supply line through a protective resistance R.
• Fig. (3.25) shows the schematic diagram of a 4-point starter for a shunt motor
(over-load release coil omitted for clarity of the figure.
• Now the no-volt release coil circuit is independent of the shunt field circuit.
Therefore, proper speed control can be exercised without affecting the operation of no
volt release coil.
• Note that the only difference between a three-point starter and a four-point starter
is the manner in which no-volt release coil is connected.

Fig 3.25Four point starter

• However, the working of the two starters is the same. It may be noted that the
three point starter also provides protection against an open field circuit.
• This protection is not provided by the four-point starter.
Speed control of D.C. Motors:
14. Explain the different methods of speed control of dc motor.[NOV/DEC 2014]
• Different ranges of speeds are required for different applications. A single motor
can be used for different speeds for various works.
• Smooth speed control is possible in D.C. Shunt motor.
• The speed of a D.C. motor can be expressed by the equation:

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Where R = Ra for shunt motor

R = Ra + Rse for series motor
• From exp. (i), it is clear that there are three main methods of controlling the speed
of a d.c. motor, namely:
(i) By varying the flux per pole (Φ). This is known as flux control method.
(ii) By varying the resistance in the armature circuit. This is known as armature
control method.
(iii) By varying the applied voltage V. This is known as voltage control method.

Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motors

15. Explain with a neat diagram, the Armature control and Flux controlmethods
of speed control of dc shunt motor.[MAY 2018]
The speed of a shunt motor can be changed by
(i) Flux control method
(ii) Armature control method
(iii) voltage control method.
The first method (i.e.Flux control method) is frequently used because it is simple and
inexpensive.
Flux control method

• It is based on the fact that by varying the flux , the motor speed canbe

changed and hence the name flux control method.

• In this method, a variableresistance (known as shunt field rheostat) is placed in
series with shunt field winding as shown in Fig.

• The shunt field rheostat reduces the shunt field current Ish and hence the flux Φ.
• Therefore, only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed .

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• Generally, this method permits to increase the speed in the ratio 3:1.Wider speed
ranges tend to produce instability and poor commutation.
Advantages
• This is an easy and convenient method.
• It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shuntfield
rheostat due to relatively small value of Ish.
• The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on themachine.
Disadvantages
• Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the totalfield
circuit resistance cannot be reduced below Rsh—the shunt fieldwinding resistance.
• There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It isbecause if
the flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.
Note:The field of a shunt motor in operation should never be opened because itsspeed
will increase to an extremely high value.
Armature control method
• This method is based on the fact that by varying the voltage available across
thearmature, the back e.m.f and hence the speed of the motor can be changed.
• This is done by inserting a variable resistance RC (known as controller resistance)
inseries with the armature as shown in Fig.

where RC = controller resistance

• Due to voltage drop in the controller resistance, the back e.m.f. (Eb) isdecreased.
Since , the speed of the motor is reduced.
• The highest speed obtainable is that corresponding to RC = 0 i.e., normal speed.
Hence, this methodcan only provide speeds below the normal speed .
Disadvantages
• A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since itcarries full
armature current Ia.

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• The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon thevoltage drop in
the controller resistance and hence on the armature currentdemanded by the load.
• The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.
• This method results in poor speed regulation.Due to above disadvantages, this
method is seldom used to control the speed ofshunt motors.
Note:The armature control method is a very common method for the speedcontrol of d.c
series motors. The disadvantage of poor speed regulation is notimportant in a series
motor which is used only where varying speed service isrequired.

Voltage control method

• In this method, the voltage source supplying the field current is different fromthat
which supplies the armature.
• This method avoids the disadvantages of poorspeed regulation and low efficiency
as in armature control method. However, it is quite expensive.
• Therefore, this method of speed control is employed for largesize motors where
efficiency is of great importance.
(i) Multiple voltage control:
In this method, the shunt field of the motor isconnected permanently across a-fixed
voltage source.
• The armature can beconnected across several different voltages through a suitable
switchgear.
• In this way, voltage applied across the armature can be changed. The speedwill be
approximately proportional to the voltage applied across thearmature.
• Intermediate speeds can be obtained by means of a shunt fieldregulator.
(ii) Ward-Leonard system:
In this method, the adjustable voltage for thearmature is obtained from an adjustable-
voltage generator while the fieldcircuit is supplied from a separate source.
• This is illustrated in Fig. (5.5).The armature of the shunt motor M (whose speed is
to be controlled) isconnected directly to a d.c. generator G driven by a constant-speed
a.cmotor A.
• The field of the shunt motor is supplied from a constant-voltageexciter E. The field
of the generator G is also supplied from the exciter E.
• The voltage of the generator G can be varied by means of its fieldregulator. By
reversing the field current of generator G by controller FC,the voltage applied to the
motor may be reversed.
• Sometimes, a fieldregulator is included in the field circuit of shunt motor M for
additionalspeed adjustment.
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• With this method, the motor may be operated at anyspeed upto its maximum
speed.

Advantages
(a) The speed of the motor can be adjusted through a wide range withoutresistance
losses which results in high efficiency.
(b) The motor can be brought to a standstill quickly, simply by rapidlyreducing the
voltage of generator G. When the generator voltage is reducedbelow the back e.m.f. of the
motor, this back e.m.f. sends current throughthe generator armature, establishing
dynamic braking. While this takes place, the generator G operates as a motor driving
motor A which returnspower to the line.
(c) This method is used for the speed control of large motors when a d.c.supply is not
available.
Disadvantage
• The disadvantage of the method is that a special motor-generator set is requiredfor
each motor and the losses in this set are high if the motor is operating underlight loads
for long periods.

Speed Control of D.C. Series Motors

16. Explain the different methods of speed control of dc shunt motor with neat
circuit diagrams [or] Explain the speed control of dc shunt motor applying flux
control technique. [MAY/JUNE 2014]
The speed control of d.c. series motors can be obtained by
(i) flux control method
(ii) armature-resistance control method.
The latter method is mostly used.
Flux control method
• In this method, the flux produced by the series motor is varied and hence the
speed. The variation of flux can be achieved in the following ways:

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(i) Field diverters
In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is connected in parallel with
series field winding as shown in Fig.
• Any desired amount of current can be passed through the diverter by adjusting its
resistance.
• Hence the flux can be decreased and consequently the speed of the motor is
increased. The minimum speed is obtained by completely removing the resistance in the
diverter circuit.

(ii) Armature diverter

In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, avariable resistance (called armature
diverter) is connected in parallel withthe armature as shown in Fig
• The diverter shunts some of the linecurrent, thus reducing the armature current.

Now for a given load, if Ia isdecreased, the flux Φ must increase .Since ,

the motorspeed is decreased.

• By adjusting the armature diverter, any speed lowerthan the normal speed can be
obtained.
(iii) Tapped field control
In this method, the flux is reduced (and hence speedis increased) by decreasing the
number of turns of the series field winding as shown in Fig
• The switch S can short circuit any part of the field winding, thus decreasing the
flux and raising the speed.
• With full turns ofthe field winding, the motor runs at normal speed and as the field
turns arecut out, speeds higher than normal speed are achieved.

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(iv) Paralleling field coils.
This method is usually employed in the case of fanmotors. By regrouping the field coils
as shown in Fig. (5.9), several fixedspeeds can be obtained.

Armature-resistance control
• In this method, a variable resistanceis directly connected in series withthe supply
to the complete motor asshown in Fig.

• This reducesthe voltage available across thearmature and hence the speed falls.
• By changing the value of variableresistance, any speed below thenormal speed can
be obtained.
• Thisis the most common methodemployed to control the speed of d.c. series
motors.
• when full load current of the motor passes through this resistance, there is a
considerable loss of power in it.
Speed Control of Compound Motors:
• Speed control of compound motors may be obtained by any one of the
methodsdescribed for shunt motors.
• Speed control cannot be obtained throughadjustment of the series field since such
adjustment would radically change theperformance characteristics of the motor.

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UNIVERSAL MOTOR
17. Explain the construction and working of an universal motor.
• An universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run on either
DC or single phase AC supply.

Fig 3.26 universal motor

• These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in
series), and hence produce high starting torque.
• They run at lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same
voltage, due to the reactance voltage drop which is present in AC and not in DC.
Construction Of Universal Motor:
• Construction of a universal motor is very similar to the construction of a DC
machine. It consists of a stator on which field poles are mounted. Field coils are wound
on the field poles.

• However, the whole magnetic path (stator field circuit and also armature) is
laminated. Lamination is necessary to minimize the eddy currents which induce while
operating on AC.
• The rotary armature is of wound type having straight or skewed slots and
commutator with brushes resting on it.
• The commutation on AC is poorer than that for DC, because of the current
induced in the armature coils. For that reason brushes used are having high resistance.

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Working Of Universal Motor
• A universal motor works on either DC or single phase AC supply. When the
universal motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor.
• When current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The
same current also flows from the armature conductors.
• When a current carrying conductor is placed in an electromagnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force, or torque, the rotor starts
to rotate. The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule.
• When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque. Because,
armature winding and field winding are connected in series, they are in same phase.
Hence, as polarity of AC changes periodically, the direction of current in armature and
field winding reverses at the same time.
• Thus, direction of magnetic field and the direction of armature current reverses in
such a way that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors remains
same. Thus, regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motor works on the same principle
that DC series motor works.
Speed Torque Characteristics

Fig 3.27 speed torque characteristics

• By increasing the torque, the motor speed can be decreased.

Applications Of Universal Motor

• Vacuum cleaners, drink and food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.
• The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders, railway
systems etc.

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STEPPER MOTOR
18. Explain the construction and working principle of different types of stepper
motors. (MAY 2018)
• A stepper Motor is basically a synchronous Motor. In a stepper motor, there are no
brushes.
• This motor does not rotate continuously; instead it rotates in the form of pulses or
in discrete steps. That is why it is called stepper motor.
• There are different types of motors available on the basis of steps per rotation, for
example-12 steps per rotation, 24 steps per rotation etc.
• We can control or operate Stepper motor with the feedback or without any
feedback. A simple image of stepper motor is shown in above picture.
Types of Stepper Motor:
The Stepper Motors are of following types:
• Permanent Magnet
• Variable Reluctance.
• Hybrid Stepper Motor

Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor

• The Working and Construction of the Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor is
given below:
Construction
• The permanent magnet type stepper motor has a stator, that is made of
electromagnets.
• The rotor that is of Permanent Magnet, therefore this motor is called permanent
magnet type stepper motor.
Working
• When supply is given to the stator, the winding of stator is energized and hence
produces magnetic field.
• As described above, the rotor is made up of permanent magnet. That is why it
tends to follow the revolving field. Thus, a stepper motor works.
• The speed or torque of a permanent magnet type motor is changed by the number
of poles used in stator.
• If we use a large number of poles in stator then the speed of motor will increase
and if we use a less number of poles then the speed will decrease.
• The diagram of Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor is given below:

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Figure.4.45 Permanent Magnet Type Stepper Motor

Variable Reluctance Motor:
• In Variable reluctance stepper motor, we use a nonmagnetic iron core rotor, which
has winding on its surface.
• The stator is same as used in the Permanent Type Stepper Motor.
Working:
• When we give supply to the stator, a magnetic field is induced in the stator
winding which causes an e.m.f. induction in the rotor's winding.
• Thus, a magnetic field is also set up in the rotor which tends to follow the
magnetic field of stator.
• The diagram of Variable reluctance stepper motor is given below:

Figure 4.46 Variable Reluctance Motor

• The speed control method is almost same as in the permanent magnet type motor.
In this motor, we can increase the speed by increasing the number of poles of stator as
well as by increasing the number of teeth of rotor and vice versa.
Hybrid Type Stepper Motor:
• The Hybrid type motor, as the name suggests is a mixture of both the above types.
This consists a rotor which is magnetic and as well as teethed. The diagram of the
construction of this motor is shown below:

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Figure 4.47 Hybrid Type Stepper Motor

• The rotor of this type of motor is made up of two rotors joining like a shaft of
motor.
• One of them is for north and other is for South Pole. These poles arrange in
alternative manner as they designed in such a manner.
Applications of stepper motors:
• Linear actuators, linear stages, rotation stages, goniometers, and mirror mounts
• Commercially, stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, scanners, computer
printers, plotters, slot machines, image scanners, compact disc drives, intelligent
lighting, camera lenses, CNC machines and, more recently, in 3D printers.
BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
19. Explain the construction and working principle of Brushless DC motor.
• Conventional dc motors are highly efficient and their characteristics make them
suitable for use of servomotors.
• However their only drawback is that they need a commutator and brushes which
are subject to wear and require maintenance.
• When the functions of commutator and brushes were implemented by solid state
switches, maintenance free motors were realized.
• These motors are known as brushless dc motors.
CONSTRUCTION:
• The construction of modern brushless motor is very similar to the ac motor known
as the permanent magnet synchronous motor. The main parts of brushless dc motor are
• Stator
• Rotor
Stator:
• Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with slots in its inner periphery.
• The slots are accommodated either in closed or open distributed armature
winding.

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• This winding is to be wound for a specified number of poles.
• The winding is connected to DC supply through power electronic switching
circuits.
Rotor:

• Rotor is made up of permanent magnet. The number of poles of the rotor is same
as the number of poles of the stator.
• The rotor shaft carries a rotor position sensor.
• A position sensor provides information about the position of the shaft at any
instant for the controller which sends signals to the electronic commutator.
Principle of operation:

• The schematic diagram of the brushless dc motor is shown in the figure. It also
shows the three phases of the stator and rotor with d and q axes.
• The stator is connected to a variable voltage current source through an indicator
and an inverter comprising six SCRs (S1 to S6).
• Diodes are connected across SCRs to protect these from the voltage induced in the
armature coil undergoing commutation position sensors placed on the rotor.
• Which cause the SCRs to be fired in sequence so as to be in synchronism with the
rotors mechanical position.

Fig 4.48: Brushless DC motor

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• The armature winding of a stator draws the current from the inverter circuit. The
current distributions in the stator winding depend upon rotor position and the devices
turn on.
• The m.m.f perpendicular to the permanent magnet flux is setup. Then the
armature conductor experiences a force. The reactive force develops a torque in the rotor.
• If the torque is more than the opposing fractional and load torque, the motor
starts. It is self-starting motor.
• As the motor picks up, then there exists a relative speed between permanent field
and armature conductors.
• As per faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in the
conductors. This emf oppose a cause, as a result, the developed torque is reduced.
• Finally the rotor will attain a steady state when the developed torque is equal to
the opposing load torque. Thus the motor attains steady state condition.

Advantages:
• They require little or no maintenance.
• They have a much larger operating life.
• No field winding.
• Better ventilation.
• Regenerative braking is possible.
• High speed operation.
• No mechanical commutator.
Disadvantages:
• Require rotor position sensors.
• Motor field cannot be controlled.
• Require power semiconductor switching circuits.
Applications:
• Laser printer
• Hard disk drive
• Automotive applications.
• Robotics applications.
• Textile and glass industries.

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2MARKS:
1. State the law of conservation of energy.
According to the law of conservation of energy, “Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another form”.
2. Classify the two types of DC machines.
DC machines can be classified into two types.
✓ DC generator
✓ DC motor
3. What is a DC generator?
A DC generator is an electromechanical device which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
4. What is the principle of generator?
When the armature conductor cuts the magnetic flux, emf is induced in the
conductor.
5. State Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction.
It states that “whenever the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an emf is
always induced in it”.
6. State Fleming’s Right hand rule.
The thumb, forefinger & middle finger of right hand are held so that these fingers
are mutually perpendicular to each other, then forefinger gives the direction of the
lines of flux, thumb gives the direction of the relative motion of conductor and middle
finger gives the direction of the emf induced.
7. How will you find the direction of force produced using Fleming’s left hand
rule?
The thumb, forefinger & middle finger of left hand are held so that these fingers
are mutually perpendicular to each other, then forefinger gives the direction of
magnetic field, middle finger gives the direction of the current and thumb gives the
direction of the force experienced by the conductor.
8. The outer frame of a DC machine serves double purposes, what are they?
• It acts as a mechanical support for the machine
• Magnetic circuit is formed through the core
9. List the main constituents of stator of DC machine.
• Stator
• Rotor
Stator parts
1. Yoke
2. Pole core
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3. Pole shoe
4. Field coils
Rotor parts
1. Armature
2. Commutator
3. Brushes
10. What is the purpose of yoke in DC machine?
• It acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine and provides mechanical support
for the poles
• It carries magnetic flux produced by the poles
11. Express the emf equation of DC generator (OR) write the equation for emf
induced DC machine.[MAY 2018]
EMF generated in DC generator

Where Ф-Flux/pole in Weber

Z- Total number of armature conductors
P- Number of poles
N- Speed in rpm
A - Number of parallel paths
12. What are the different methods of excitation of DC generator?
Depending upon the source from which the exciting current the DC machines is
classified into two types.
• Separately excited DC generator
• Self-excited DC generator
▪ Series generator
▪ Shunt generator
▪ Compound generator
• Long shunt Compound generator
• Short shunt Compound generator
13. Distinguish between shunt and series field coil construction in DC machine.
SHUNT FIELD SERIES FIELD
Field winding is connected across the The field winding is connected in series
armature. with the armature.
It has more number of turns with thin wire. It has less number of turns with thick
wire.
It has high resistance. It has low resistance.

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14. What is a DC compound generator?
Compound generator is one of the self-excited DC generators. In that, there are
two field windings, one of them is connected across the armature and other is
connected in series with the armature winding.
15. List the conditions of self-excitation of DC generator.
There must be a sufficient residual flux in the field poles.
 The field terminals must be connected in such a way that the field current
increases flux in the direction of residual flux.
 The field circuit resistance should be less than the critical field resistance.
 The generator should run at the rated speed.
16. State the conditions under which a DC shunt generator fails to excite.
 There may not be any residual magnetism in the field system.
 The field winding connection may be such that it may not assist the voltage to get
build up.
 The total field circuit resistance is more than the critical field resistance.
 The break or opening in the field or armature circuit.
17. Compare lap winding and wave windings used for DC machine armature.

LAP WINDING WAVE WINDING

It is suitable for high current, low voltage It is suitable for high voltage, low current
generator. generator.
Number of parallel paths A=P Number of parallel paths A=2

18. Mention the application of a differentially compound generator.

It is a constant current generator and finds a useful application as an arc welding
generator where the generator is practically short-circuited every time the electrode
touches the metal plates to be welded.
19. Define commutation.
The process of reversal of current in the armature coils by means of brushes and
commutator bars is called commutation.
20. Specify the functions of the commutator in a DC machine?[MAY 2018]
 Commutator is used for the rectification of the e.m.f induced in the armature
conductors as they are alternating in nature.
 It is cylindrical in shape and is made up of copper and the copper segments are
insulated from each other by a thin layer of mica.
 The commutator segment is connected to armature conductor with copper strip.

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21. What is the purpose of Commutator?
Commutator is used to convert the alternating emf (AC) generated in the armature
winding into direct voltage (DC).
22. Differentiate self and separately excited DC generators.

SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR SEPERATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR

The field winding is excited by an emf The field winding is excited by separate DC
induced in the armature conductors. source.
23. Give the circuit model for DC shunt generator and write down the current
and voltage equation.
Ia=IL+Ish
Eg= V+IaRa+Brush drop
V=Eg-IaRa- Brush drop
24. What are the causes for drop in terminal voltage?
Eg= V+IaRa+Brush drop
V=Eg-IaRa- Brush drop
1. Armature circuit resistance drop.
2. Brush contact drop.
3. Demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.
4. Weakening of field current.
25. What is the function of carbon brush used in DC generators?
The function of the carbon brush is to collect current from commutator and supply
to external load circuit and to load.
26. Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in DC
generator?
Even after the field current is reduced to zero, the machine is left out with some
flux as residue so emf is available due to residual flux.
27. Name any two application of DC series generator.
o Booster
o Constant illumination
o Constant current source
in determining heating, temperature rise, rating & efficiency of transformers, machines &
other A.C run magnetic devices.
28. How does DC motor differ from DC generator in construction?
➢ Generators are normally placed in closed room and accessed by skilled operators
only. Therefore on ventilation point of view they may be constructed with large opening
in the frame.
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➢ Motors have to be installed right in the place of use which may have dust,
dampness, inflammable gases, chemical etc. to protect the motors against these
elements the motor frames are used partially closed or totally closed or flame proof.
29. Define armature reaction in DC machines? What are its effects?
The interaction between the main flux and armature flux cause disturbance called as
armature reaction.
30. Define pole pitch.
It is the distance measured in terms of number of armature slots (or armature
conductors) per pole.
31. Define back pitch.
It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the two sides of a
coil at the back of the armature.
32. Define front pitch.
It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the coil sides
attached to any one commutator segment.
33. Define commutator pitch.
The commutator pitch is the number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of
the winding. It is denoted by YC.
34. Why the external characteristics of DC shunt generator is more drooping
than that of a separately excited generator?
In separately excited generator, Ia= IL and , Ish is not supplied by armature. In DC shunt
generator, Ia = IL +Ish hence the drop IaRa is more than in separately excited generator.
Hence the external characteristics of DC shunt generator is more drooping than that of a
separately.
35. What is a DC motor?
A DC motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
36. What is the principle of motor?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force
tending to move it.
37. How will you find the direction of force produced using Fleming’s left hand
rule?
The thumb, forefinger & middle finger of left hand are held so that these fingers are
mutually perpendicular to each other, then forefinger gives the direction of magnetic
field, middle finger gives the direction of the current and thumb gives the direction
of the force experienced by the conductor.

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38. Mention the significance of back emf.
Eg= V-IaRa.

Ia=

i. Back emf in a DC motor makes the motor self-regulating.

ii. During no-load conditions, it makes the armature current to be low.
iii. During heavy load conditions, it makes the armature current to be high.
39. What do you mean by back emf in DC motor?
 While a machine is functioning as a motor, the conductors are cutting flux and
that is exactly what is required for generator action to take place.
 This means that even when the machine is working as a motor, voltages are
induced in the conductors.
 This emf is called as back emf or counter emf.
40. List the types of Dc motor.
 Separately excited Dc motor.
 Self-excited Dc motor.
a. Series motor.
b. Shunt motor.
 Compound motor.
i. Long shunt Compound motor.
ii. Short shunt Compound motor.
41. When a 4 point starter is required in DC motor?
 In a four-point starter, the circuits of no-volt release coil and shunt field are
independent and so the operation of no volt release is affected due to variation of field
current.
 Whenever the speed of the shunt motor is varied by field control method, there 4
point starter is required. 3 point starter is not suitable for this application.
42. What is the necessity of having starter with DC motor? What is the need for
starter in Dc motor?
 Starters are used in DC motors to limit the starting current within about 2 to 3
times of the rated current.
In starters, 2 protective devices are also used.
 Over-load protection.
 No voltage protection.
43. List the different methods of speed control in D.C shunt motor.
 Armature control
 Flux or field control

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 Applied voltage control
44. Write the expression for speed of a Dc motor.[NOV/DEC 2015]

Where, (Ф)- Flux/pole

N-speed of the motor
V- input voltage
K-constant
armature current

armature resistance
Speed is directly proportional to back e.m.f(Eb) and inversely proportional to flux/pole
(Ф)
45. What is a self-excited DC machine?
The excitation current is needed for producing magnetic field in DC machine.
If the exciting current is drawn from the same source (armature) itself, then it is called
self excited Dc machine.
46. What for field coils are provided in DC machines?
In Dc machine, we are in need of magnetic field to produce e.m.f(generator) or force
(motor) in the conductor. Permanent magnet is not employed for this purpose in Dc
machines. Electromagnets are used.
47. How does a series motor develop high starting torque?
A dc series motor is always started with some load. Therefore the motor armature
current increases. Due to this, series motor develops high starting torque.
48. What is the need for starter in dc motors?
 When a dc motor is directly switched on, at the time of starting, the motor back
e.m.f is zero. Due to this, the armature current is very high.
 Due to the very high current, the motor gets damaged. To reduce the starting
current of the motor a starter is used.
49. What is prime mover?
The basic source of mechanical power which drives the armature of the generator is
called prime mover.
50. Mention the applications of series motor.
 Series motors are used where the load is directly attached to the shaft and where
there is no danger of the load is being thrown off.
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 It is used in electric trains, where the self weight of the train acts as load and for
cranes, hoists, fans, blowers, conveyors, lifts etc.
51. Mention the applications of compound motor.
Compound motors are used for driving heavy machine tools for intermittent loads
shears, punching machines.
52. State the various applications of DC motors.
Type of Characteristics Applications
Motor
Shunt Approximately constant For driving constant speed line
speed. Speed can be shafting lathes, centrifugal
controlled. Medium starting pumps, machine tools, Blowers
torque. (Up to 1.5 full load and fans, Reciprocating pumps.
torque)
Series Variable speed. Speed can For traction work. i.e. electric
be controlled. High Starting locomotives rapid transit systems
torque. trolley cars etc. cranes and hoists
Conveyors.
Cumulative Compound Variable speed. For intermittent high torque
Speed can be controlled. loads, for shears and punches,
High Starting torque. elevators, conveyors, heavy
planners, rolling Mills, ice
machines, printing press, air
compressors .

53. Write the power balance equation of a motor.

Multiplying both sides of the voltage equation by Ia we get power equation as,

This equation is called power balance equation of a DC motor.

54. Write the torque equation of a DC motor.
The torque equation of DC motor is

P= Number of poles.
Z = Number of conductors.
A= Number of parallel paths
Ia= Armature current.
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55. Why a dc series motor used to start heavy loads? Why DC series motor is
never started on no load?
 In case of a d.c. series motor, and on no load as is small hence flux
produced is also very small. According to speed equation,

As Eb is almost constant.
 So on very light load or no load as flux is very small, the motor tries to run at
dangerously high speed which may damage the motor mechanically.
 This can be seen from the speed-armature current and the speed-torque
characteristics that on low armature current and low torque condition motor shows a
tendency to rotate with dangerously high speed.
56. State the function of no volt coil of the starter.
 As the handle is gradually moved over to the final stud, the starting resistance is
cut out of the armature circuit in steps. The handle is now held magnetically by the no-
volt release coil which is energized by shunt field current.
 The no-volt coil is demagnetized and the handle is pulled to the OFF position by
the spring. Thus, the motor is automatically disconnected from the supply.
57. Mention the factor affecting the speed of DC motor.
The factors affecting the speed of a DC motor are,
 The flux Φ.
 The voltage across the armature.
 The applied voltage V.
58. State the advantages of flux control method used for controlling speed of DC
shunt motor.
 This is an easy and convenient method.
 It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field
rheostat due to relatively small value of Ish.
 The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the machine.

59. State the disadvantages of flux control method used for controlling speed of
DC shunt motor.
 Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the total field
circuit resistance cannot be reduced below Rsh—the shunt field winding resistance.
 There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if
the flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.

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60. State the disadvantages of armature control method used for controlling
speed of DC shunt motor.
 A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full
armature current Ia.
 The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop
in the controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load.
 The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.
 This method results in poor speed regulation. Due to above disadvantages, this
method is seldom used to control the speed of shunt motors.
61. State the methods of speed control in DC series motor.
 Rheostat control.
 Applied voltage control.
 Flux control.
i. Flux diverter.
ii. Armature diverter.
iii. Tapped field.
iv. Series-parallel grouping of field coil.
62. Why DC series motor is not suitable for belt driven loads?
For belt driven loads, there is possibility of breaking of a belt causing no load condition
for the series motor. But on no load, dc series motor tries to run at dangerously high
speed and may get damaged. To avoid such situation, dc series motor is not suitable for
belt driven loads.
63. What is stepper motor?
➢ A stepper Motor is basically a synchronous Motor. In a stepper motor, there are
no brushes.
➢ This motor does not rotate continuously; instead it rotates in form of pluses or in
discrete steps. So, it is called as stepper motor.
64. Define step angle.
Step angle is defined as the angle through which the motor rotates for each
command pulse.it is denoted as β.
Β = (Ns-Nr/Ns.Nr) 360
65. Define resolution
It is defined as the no.of steps needed to complete one revolution of the shaft.
Resolution = no. of steps /revolution
66. Mention some applications of stepper motor.
➢ Floppy disc drives

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➢ Full step operation or single phase on mode is the one in which at a time only one
Quartz watch
➢ Camera shutter operation
➢ Dot matrix and line printers
➢ Small tool application i.e. robotics
67. What are the advantages and disadvantages of stepper motor?
Advantages:
➢ It can be driven in open loop without feedback
➢ It is mechanically simple
➢ It requires little or no maintenance.
Disadvantages:
➢ Low efficiency
➢ Fixed step angle
➢ Limited power output
68. What is meant by full step operation?
Phase winding is energized, due to which one stator winding is energized and
causes the rotor to rotate some angle.
69. What is meant by two phase mode of operation?
Two phase on mode is the one in which two phase windings are energized at a time,
due to which two stator windings are energized and causes the rotor to rotate through
some angle.
70. What is synchronism in stepper motor?
It is the one to one correspondence between the number of pulses applied to the
stepper motor and the number of steps through which the motor has actually moved.
71. What are the types of stepper motor?
The Stepper Motors are of following types:
• Permanent Magnet
• Variable Reluctance.
• Hybrid Stepper Motor
72. What is meant by micro stepping in stepper motor?
The methods of modulating currents through stator windings so as to obtain
rotation of stator magnetic field through a small angle to obtain micro stepping action
are known as micro stepping.
73. What are the advantages of micro stepping?
➢ Improvement in resolution.
➢ Dc motor like performance.
➢ Elimination of mid frequency resonance.
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➢ Rapid motion at micro stepping rate..
74. What are the advantages of brushless dc motors drives?
➢ They require little or no maintenance.
➢ They have a much larger operating life.
➢ No field winding.
➢ Better ventilation.
➢ Regenerative braking is possible.
➢ High speed operation.
➢ No mechanical commutator.
75. What are the disadvantages of brushless dc motors drives?
➢ Require rotor position sensors.
➢ Motor field cannot be controlled.
➢ Require power semiconductor switching circuits.
76. What are the applications of brushless dc motors?
➢ Laser printer
➢ Hard disk drive
➢ Automotive applications.
➢ Robotics applications.
➢ Textile and glass industries.
77. Define mechanical commutators.
➢ Its arrangement is located in the rotor.
➢ No of commutator segments are very high.
78. Define electronic commutators.
➢ Its arrangement is located in the stator.
➢ No of switching devices limited to six.
79. Why the BLDC motor is called electronically commutated motor?
The BLDC motor is also called electronically commutated motor because the phase
windings of BLDC motor is energized by using power semiconductor switching circuits.
Here the power semiconductor switching circuits act as a commutator.

80. What are the two types of rotor position sensors?

➢ Optical position sensor
➢ Hall effect position sensor

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