CCN Viva Questions

1. What is a computer network?

●​ A computer network is a group of interconnected devices (computers, servers,

switches, etc.) that can communicate and share resources (files, internet,
printers, etc.).
●​ These devices are linked using communication channels such as cables,
radio waves, or infrared signals.

2. Give one use of computer networks.

●​ One use of a computer network is sharing information and resources.

○​ Example: Multiple computers in an office sharing a single printer or
accessing shared documents on a server.

3. What are the types of computer networks?

●​ LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area like a home,
school, or office.
●​ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a city or a large campus.
●​ WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large areas such as countries or
continents, like the Internet.
●​ PAN (Personal Area Network): Small network for personal devices (e.g.,
Bluetooth).
●​ CAN (Campus Area Network): Interconnects LANs within a limited
geographical area like a university.

4. What is LAN?

●​ LAN stands for Local Area Network.

●​ It is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited area such as
a home, school, or office building.
●​ It usually has high data transfer rates and low latency.
●​ Example: Computers connected within a school computer lab.

5. What is MAN?
 ●​ MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network.
●​ It connects multiple LANs within a city or a large campus.
●​ It is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN.
●​ Example: A network connecting different branches of a bank within a city.

6. What is WAN?

●​ WAN stands for Wide Area Network.

●​ It connects computers over large geographic distances.
●​ It often uses public networks like telephone lines or satellite links.
●​ Example: The Internet is the largest WAN.

7. What is a network topology?

●​ Network topology is the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes, etc.)

in a computer network.
●​ It describes how devices are physically or logically connected.
●​ Types include bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid topologies.

8. What is a star topology?

●​ In star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

●​ The hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
●​ Advantages: Easy to install and manage, failure of one device doesn't affect
the rest.
●​ Disadvantage: If the central hub fails, the whole network goes down.

9. What is a bus topology?

●​ In bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus).
●​ Data sent by one device travels through the entire cable.
●​ Advantages: Easy to set up, requires less cable.
●​ Disadvantages: Difficult to troubleshoot, performance drops with more
devices, and if the main cable fails, the network fails.

10. What is a ring topology?

 ●​ In ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices,
forming a circular pathway for signals.
●​ Data travels in one direction or sometimes both (dual ring).
●​ Advantage: Data packets travel at great speed.
●​ Disadvantage: Failure of one device can affect the whole network unless it’s a
dual ring.

11. What is a mesh topology?

●​ A mesh topology connects each device to every other device in the

network.
●​ It provides high redundancy and reliability, but it's costly and complex.
●​ Used in critical systems like military or banking networks.

12. What is addressing in networking?

●​ Addressing is assigning a unique identifier to each device in a network

to enable communication.
●​ It ensures data reaches the correct destination.

13. What are the types of addressing?

●​ MAC Address (Physical Address): Unique hardware address

assigned to network interfaces.
●​ IP Address (Logical Address): Used in layer 3 for identifying devices
across networks.
●​ Port Number: Identifies specific processes or services on a device.
●​ URL/Domain Name: Human-readable address resolved to IP
addresses.

14. Why do we need layered protocol architecture?

●​ It simplifies design, implementation, and troubleshooting.

●​ Allows interoperability and standardization.
●​ Enables each layer to focus on specific functions.
15. How many layers are there in the OSI model?

●​ There are 7 layers in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model.

16. Name the layers of the OSI model.

1.​ Application
2.​ Presentation
3.​ Session
4.​ Transport
5.​ Network
6.​ Data Link
7.​ Physical

17. What is the TCP/IP model?

●​ It is a 4-layer model used for data communication over the internet.

●​ Layers: Application, Transport, Internet, Network Access.

18. How does TCP/IP differ from OSI?

●​ OSI has 7 layers; TCP/IP has 4.

●​ OSI is a theoretical model; TCP/IP is more practical and widely
implemented.
●​ OSI separates presentation/session layers, while TCP/IP combines
them into the application layer.

19. What is the function of the physical layer?

●​ Transmits raw bits (0s and 1s) over a physical medium like cables or air
(radio waves).
●​ Deals with voltages, pin layout, signal timing, etc.

20. Name three transmission media.

 1.​ Twisted Pair Cable
2.​ Coaxial Cable
3.​ Fiber Optic Cable

21. What is wireless transmission media?

●​ Wireless transmission media carry data through the air using radio
waves, microwaves, or infrared.
●​ Common in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and satellite communication.

22. What are transmission impairments?

●​ Issues that degrade signal quality during transmission:

○​ Attenuation: Signal strength loss.
○​ Noise: Unwanted signals interfering with transmission.
○​ Distortion: Signal shape changes over distance or medium.

23. What are interconnecting devices?

●​ Devices used to connect different network segments:

○​ Router: Connects different networks.
○​ Switch: Connects devices within the same network.
○​ Hub, Bridge, Gateway, Modem

24. What is multiplexing?

●​ Multiplexing is a method of sending multiple signals over a single

channel.
●​ Types: TDM (Time Division), FDM (Frequency Division), WDM
(Wavelength Division)

25. What is data link control?

 ●​ Refers to techniques used to ensure reliable transmission of data
frames between two nodes in a network.
●​ Includes framing, error detection, and flow control.

26. What is framing?

●​ Framing is the process of dividing data into frames for easier

transmission and error detection.
●​ Each frame contains headers, payload, and sometimes trailers.

27. What is flow control?

●​ Flow control manages the rate of data transmission between sender

and receiver to prevent buffer overflow.
●​ Methods: Stop-and-Wait, Sliding Window

28. What is error control?

●​ Error control ensures that data is received correctly and intact.

●​ Includes error detection, correction, and retransmission of corrupted
data.

29. What is ARQ?

●​ ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest) is an error control method where

the sender automatically retransmits data if an error is detected or
acknowledgment is not received.

30. What is piggybacking in data link layer?

●​ Piggybacking is a technique where the acknowledgment of received

frames is included with outgoing data frames instead of sending
separate ACKs, improving efficiency.
31. What is HDLC?

1.​ HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) is a bit-oriented protocol for communication
over point-to-point and multipoint links.
2.​ It operates at the Data Link Layer of the OSI model.
3.​ It provides both connection-oriented and connectionless services.
4.​ Ensures error detection and flow control through frame checking and
acknowledgment.

32. What are HDLC frame types?

1.​ Information (I) Frame – Carries user data and control information related to data
flow.
2.​ Supervisory (S) Frame – Provides control information like acknowledgment and flow
control.
3.​ Unnumbered (U) Frame – Used for link management (e.g., setting up or terminating
connections).
4.​ Each frame contains specific fields: Flag, Address, Control, Information, FCS.

33. What is ALOHA?

1.​ ALOHA is a simple communication scheme in which each source sends data
whenever it has data to send.
2.​ No channel sensing is done before transmission.
3.​ If a collision occurs, the sender waits a random time before retransmitting.
4.​ Efficiency of Pure ALOHA is around 18.4%.

34. What is slotted ALOHA?

1.​ Slotted ALOHA improves the efficiency of Pure ALOHA.

2.​ Time is divided into slots, and transmission can only start at the beginning of a time
slot.
3.​ Reduces the chance of collision.
4.​ Maximum efficiency is about 36.8%.

35. What is CSMA?

1.​ CSMA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access.

2.​ Before transmitting, a device checks if the channel is idle.
3.​ If the channel is busy, it waits; otherwise, it transmits.
4.​ Reduces collisions compared to ALOHA.
36. What is CSMA/CD?

1.​ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.

2.​ Used in wired networks like Ethernet.
3.​ Listens to the channel before and during transmission.
4.​ If a collision is detected, the transmission is stopped and retried after a random delay.

37. What is CSMA/CA?

1.​ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance.

2.​ Used in wireless networks (e.g., Wi-Fi).
3.​ Devices signal intent to transmit using RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send).
4.​ Reduces collisions by waiting a random backoff time even if the channel is idle.

38. What is controlled access?

1.​ In controlled access, a device can transmit only when it is permitted.

2.​ Eliminates collisions by scheduling transmissions.
3.​ Methods include polling, token passing, and reservation.
4.​ Ensures fair access to the medium.

39. What is the network layer?

1.​ The network layer is the 3rd layer in the OSI model.
2.​ Responsible for logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing.
3.​ Determines the best path for data transfer.
4.​ Provides services such as packet forwarding, fragmentation, and reassembly.

40. What is circuit switching?

1.​ A dedicated communication path is established between two devices.

2.​ The path remains reserved for the duration of the communication.
3.​ Used in traditional telephone networks.
4.​ Provides consistent data rate and latency but is less efficient for bursty data.

41. What is packet switching?

1.​ Data is divided into small packets before being sent.

2.​ Each packet may take a different path to the destination.
3.​ Packets are reassembled at the receiving end.
 4.​ Efficient and suitable for bursty data like the Internet.

42. What is virtual circuit switching?

1.​ A logical path (virtual circuit) is established before data transfer.

2.​ All packets follow the same path in sequence.
3.​ Combines benefits of circuit and packet switching.
4.​ Example: Frame Relay, ATM.

43. What is datagram switching?

1.​ Each packet (datagram) is treated independently.

2.​ Packets can take different routes to reach the destination.
3.​ No prior path is established.
4.​ Example: IP (Internet Protocol).

44. What is routing?

1.​ The process of selecting a path for traffic in a network.

2.​ Done by routers using routing algorithms.
3.​ Aims to find the best route based on metrics like cost or distance.
4.​ Can be static (manually set) or dynamic (automatically adjusted).

45. What is link-state routing?

1.​ Routers share information about their links with all other routers.
2.​ Each router builds a complete map of the network.
3.​ Uses Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the shortest path.
4.​ Example: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).

46. What is distance vector routing?

1.​ Routers share information with their direct neighbors.

2.​ Each router keeps a table (vector) of distances to all destinations.
3.​ Uses Bellman-Ford algorithm.
4.​ Example: RIP (Routing Information Protocol).

47. What is least-cost routing?

 1.​ Chooses the route with the lowest total cost.
2.​ Cost can be based on distance, delay, bandwidth, etc.
3.​ Optimizes resource usage and network efficiency.
4.​ Used in both link-state and distance-vector algorithms.

48. What is BGP?

1.​ Border Gateway Protocol is used to exchange routing info between autonomous
systems (AS).
2.​ A path vector protocol – maintains path info for each route.
3.​ Key protocol for Internet routing.
4.​ Ensures policy-based routing between organizations.

49. What is OSPF?

1.​ Open Shortest Path First is a link-state routing protocol.

2.​ Divides the network into areas to manage routing efficiently.
3.​ Uses Dijkstra’s algorithm for shortest path calculation.
4.​ Fast convergence and widely used in large enterprise networks.

50. What is IPv6?

1.​ The latest version of the Internet Protocol, replacing IPv4.

2.​ Uses 128-bit addresses, allowing vastly more IP addresses.
3.​ Supports features like auto-configuration and improved security.
4.​ Written in hexadecimal and separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8::1).

✅ 51. Types of IPv6 Addresses

1.​ Unicast – Sent to a single, specific receiver (like a unique home address).
2.​ Multicast – Sent to multiple receivers at once, but only to a group that wants the
data.
3.​ Anycast – Sent to the nearest (in terms of routing distance) receiver in a group.
4.​ No Broadcast – IPv6 removes broadcast; uses multicast instead for efficiency.

✅ 52. TCP 3-Way Handshake Steps

1.​ SYN – Client initiates connection with a "SYN" message (synchronize).
2.​ SYN-ACK – Server replies with both SYN and ACK (acknowledgment).
3.​ ACK – Client responds with an ACK, completing the handshake.
4.​ Connection Established – Both ends are now ready to send data securely.
✅ 53. TCP State Transition Diagram
1.​ Represents TCP connection life cycle – Shows how TCP moves through states
like LISTEN, ESTABLISHED, CLOSED.
2.​ Triggered by events – Like sending/receiving SYN, ACK, FIN packets.
3.​ Helps understand reliable connection flow – From connection setup to
termination.
4.​ Important states – SYN_SENT, SYN_RECEIVED, FIN_WAIT, TIME_WAIT,
CLOSE_WAIT.

✅ 54. What is UDP?

1.​ User Datagram Protocol – A connectionless transport layer protocol.
2.​ No handshake or reliability – Packets may get lost or arrive out of order.
3.​ Very fast – Low overhead makes it ideal for time-sensitive data.
4.​ Used in streaming/gaming – Perfect for video calls, online games, DNS queries.

✅ 55. When is UDP preferred over TCP?

1.​ Low latency needed – Ideal for real-time applications.
2.​ No need for connection setup – Quicker communication start.
3.​ Tolerates some data loss – Acceptable in games, video, VoIP.
4.​ Multicast/Broadcast support – Unlike TCP, UDP supports this.

✅ 56. What causes congestion in a network?

1.​ Too much data traffic – More packets than the network can handle.
2.​ Limited bandwidth – Pipes too narrow for the data load.
3.​ Buffer overflows – Routers/switches can’t store all incoming packets.
4.​ Bad routing decisions – Inefficient paths overload certain network parts.

✅ 57. What is congestion control?

1.​ Techniques to manage traffic flow – Prevents overload on the network.
2.​ Maintains performance – Avoids packet drops and delays.
3.​ Implemented in TCP – Via window size and retransmission strategies.
4.​ Essential for stability – Especially in large networks like the internet.
✅ 58. Techniques of Congestion Control
1.​ Slow Start – Begins with a small congestion window, grows exponentially.
2.​ Congestion Avoidance – Gradually increases window to avoid overload.
3.​ Fast Retransmit – Quickly resends lost packets upon duplicate ACKs.
4.​ Fast Recovery – Maintains efficiency without dropping to slow start.

✅ 59. What does the Application Layer do?

1.​ Top OSI layer – Closest to the end user.
2.​ Interfaces with user apps – Like browsers, mail clients, file sharing tools.
3.​ Handles data formatting & encryption – For communication readiness.
4.​ Uses protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP – Enables real-world tasks.

✅ 60. Examples of Application Layer Protocols

1.​ HTTP – Loads websites in browsers.
2.​ FTP – Uploads/downloads files between computers.
3.​ SMTP – Sends emails from client to server.
4.​ DNS – Resolves domain names to IP addresses.

✅ 61. What is HTTP? (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

1.​ Used for web communication – Transfers data (text, images, videos) between web
browsers and servers.
2.​ Stateless protocol – Each request is independent; no memory of previous
interactions.
3.​ Works on port 80 (HTTP) / 443 (HTTPS) – HTTPS is the secure version using
encryption.
4.​ Supports GET, POST, PUT, DELETE methods – Defines how data is sent/retrieved.

✅ 62. What is FTP? (File Transfer Protocol)

1.​ Used to transfer files – Between computers over the internet or a network.
2.​ Requires client-server model – Client uploads/downloads files from an FTP server.
3.​ Uses port 21 for control – Port 20 may be used for data transfer (in active mode).
4.​ Can use authentication – Username and password required, though anonymous
FTP exists.
✅ 63. What is SMTP? (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
1.​ Used for sending emails – From email clients to servers or between servers.
2.​ Operates over TCP port 25 – Also uses ports 587 (submission) or 465 (SSL).
3.​ Part of application layer – Handles only sending, not receiving.
4.​ Works with POP3/IMAP – For email retrieval after SMTP sends the email.

✅ 64. What is DNS? (Domain Name System)

1.​ Translates domain names to IP addresses – Like www.google.com →
142.250.183.36.
2.​ Hierarchical system – Includes root servers, TLD servers (.com, .org), and local
DNS.
3.​ Reduces memorization – Users don't need to remember numeric IPs.
4.​ Works on port 53 (UDP) – Sometimes uses TCP for larger data transfers.

✅ 65. What is LAN? (Local Area Network)

1.​ Covers small geographical area – Like a home, office, school.
2.​ Connects computers and devices – For sharing resources like files and printers.
3.​ Usually high-speed – Typically uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
4.​ Privately owned – Controlled by the user or organization.

✅ 66. Types of LAN Technologies

1.​ Ethernet (wired) – Most common; uses cables and switches.
2.​ Wi-Fi (wireless LAN) – Uses radio waves for device communication.
3.​ Token Ring – Rare, passes a token to control access to the network.
4.​ FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) – Uses fiber optics; used in specialized
environments.

✅ 67. What is Ethernet?

1.​ Popular LAN technology – Uses cables for device interconnection.
2.​ Works on data link and physical layers – Of OSI model.
3.​ Uses MAC addresses – For unique device identification.
4.​ Standardized as IEEE 802.3 – Defines speeds, frame formats, etc.
✅ 68. What is Fast Ethernet?
1.​ Improved Ethernet – Supports data transfer at 100 Mbps.
2.​ Backward compatible – With original 10 Mbps Ethernet.
3.​ Uses Cat 5/5e cables – Over twisted-pair copper wires.
4.​ Still uses IEEE 802.3u standard – Subset of the main Ethernet standard.

✅ 69. What is Gigabit Ethernet?

1.​ Provides 1000 Mbps speed – Much faster than Fast Ethernet.
2.​ Ideal for heavy data usage – Like video editing, servers, etc.
3.​ Uses Cat 5e/Cat 6 cables – Over twisted pair or fiber optics.
4.​ Standard: IEEE 802.3ab (for copper), 802.3z (for fiber) – Defines how it works.

✅ 70. What is IEEE 802.11?

1.​ Wireless networking standard – Defines Wi-Fi communication rules.
2.​ Covers multiple versions – Like 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax (Wi-Fi 6).
3.​ Specifies radio frequency bands – Such as 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.
4.​ Controls data transmission and security – Includes encryption like WPA/WPA2.

✅ 71. What is Bluetooth?

1.​ Bluetooth is a wireless technology for short-range communication between
devices.
2.​ Operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, typically up to 10 meters (varies by class).
3.​ Used in devices like headphones, keyboards, phones, and IoT gadgets.
4.​ Supports point-to-point and point-to-multipoint communication.

✅ 72. What is a VLAN? (Virtual LAN)

1.​ A VLAN allows a single physical network to be divided into multiple logical
networks.
2.​ Devices in different VLANs cannot communicate unless through a router.
3.​ Created using managed switches and configured via software.
4.​ Helps in better traffic management, segmentation, and security.

✅ 73. Why are VLANs used?

1.​ Improves network performance – Reduces unnecessary broadcast traffic.
 2.​ Enhances security – Limits communication between user groups.
3.​ Simplifies network management – Logical grouping of users/devices.
4.​ Increases flexibility – Users can be grouped by department, not location.

✅ 74. What is the benefit of network modularity?

1.​ Simplifies design and maintenance – Each module can be developed or fixed
independently.
2.​ Promotes reusability – Common modules can be reused in different networks.
3.​ Enhances scalability – Easy to add or remove components.
4.​ Supports troubleshooting – Problems can be isolated to specific modules.

✅ 75. What is encapsulation in networking?

1.​ Encapsulation is the process of wrapping data with protocol information at each
OSI layer.
2.​ Each layer adds its own header (and sometimes trailer).
3.​ Helps in data flow across networks by providing structure and control.
4.​ Example: Application data → Transport header → Network header → Data Link
header.

✅ 76. What is decapsulation?

1.​ Decapsulation is the reverse of encapsulation – removing headers/trailers as data
is received.
2.​ Occurs at the receiver’s side, from Physical up to Application layer.
3.​ Each layer reads and removes its respective header.
4.​ Ensures correct data delivery to the intended application.

✅ 77. What is a MAC address?

1.​ MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique physical address assigned to
a network interface.
2.​ Typically 48-bit and written in hexadecimal (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
3.​ Assigned by the manufacturer and stored in hardware (NIC).
4.​ Used for local identification and communication within a network (Layer 2).

✅ 78. What is an IP address?

 1.​ IP address is a logical address used to identify devices on a network (Layer 3).
2.​ Two versions: IPv4 (32-bit) and IPv6 (128-bit).
3.​ Enables routing and communication across networks.
4.​ Consists of network and host portions – identifies location and device.

✅ 79. What is subnetting?

1.​ Subnetting divides a large IP network into smaller, manageable sub-networks
(subnets).
2.​ Helps in efficient IP address usage and reduces broadcast traffic.
3.​ Uses a subnet mask to distinguish between network and host.
4.​ Improves security, performance, and isolation.

✅ 80. What is a switch?

1.​ A switch is a Layer 2 networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN.
2.​ It uses MAC addresses to forward data only to the intended recipient.
3.​ Reduces collisions compared to hubs and improves efficiency.
4.​ Supports full-duplex communication, meaning devices can send and receive at the
same time.

✅ 81. What is a router?

1.​ A router connects multiple networks and directs data packets between them.
2.​ Works on OSI Layer 3 (Network layer).
3.​ Assigns IP addresses to devices and manages traffic routing.
4.​ Enables internet access by connecting a local network to an ISP.

✅ 82. What is a hub?

1.​ A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN.
2.​ Works on OSI Layer 1 (Physical layer).
3.​ It broadcasts data to all ports, regardless of destination.
4.​ Less efficient – leads to more collisions and slower performance.

✅ 83. What is the difference between switch and hub?

1.​ Switch sends data only to the intended recipient (based on MAC address), while
hub sends to all devices.
2.​ Switch works on Layer 2, hub on Layer 1.
 3.​ Switch is faster and more efficient, supports full-duplex; hub is slower, supports
only half-duplex.
4.​ Switch reduces network congestion; hub causes more collisions.

✅ 84. What is signal attenuation?

1.​ Signal attenuation is the loss of signal strength over distance.
2.​ Common in wired and wireless communication.
3.​ Caused by resistance, interference, or long cables.
4.​ Can lead to data loss, slow speeds, or communication failure.

✅ 85. What is jitter in networking?

1.​ Jitter is the variation in packet arrival time during transmission.
2.​ Affects real-time communication like video calls and gaming.
3.​ Caused by network congestion or improper routing.
4.​ High jitter results in choppy audio/video or lag.

✅ 86. What is latency?

1.​ Latency is the time delay between sending and receiving data.
2.​ Measured in milliseconds (ms).
3.​ Low latency = faster response; High latency = slower communication.
4.​ Important in applications like gaming, VoIP, and remote control.

✅ 87. What is bandwidth?

1.​ Bandwidth is the maximum data transfer capacity of a network.
2.​ Measured in bits per second (bps) – e.g., Mbps, Gbps.
3.​ Higher bandwidth = more data transferred per second.
4.​ Affects download/upload speeds and streaming quality.

✅ 88. What is a protocol?

1.​ A protocol is a set of rules for communication between devices.
2.​ Defines how data is formatted, transmitted, and received.
3.​ Examples: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, DHCP, DNS.
4.​ Ensures interoperability and reliable communication.
✅ 89. What is handshaking in networking?
1.​ Handshaking is the process of establishing a connection between two devices.
2.​ Ensures both devices agree on communication rules (speed, format).
3.​ Example: TCP 3-way handshake – SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK.
4.​ Provides synchronization and readiness confirmation.

✅ 90. What is the role of the presentation layer in OSI?

1.​ The presentation layer (Layer 6) handles data translation, encryption, and
compression.
2.​ Converts data into a readable format for the application layer.
3.​ Ensures data consistency across different systems.
4.​ Examples: JPEG, ASCII, SSL/TLS encryption.

91. What is the session layer responsible for?

1.​ The Session Layer (Layer 5 of OSI) manages sessions between applications—like
Zoom calls or file transfers.
2.​ It establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between devices.
3.​ Provides dialog control, determining who communicates and when (full-duplex or
half-duplex).
4.​ Adds synchronization points (checkpoints) to resume communication if interrupted.

92. What is a port number?

1.​ A port number identifies a specific process or service on a device using TCP or
UDP.
2.​ It allows multiple applications to use the same IP address without conflict.
3.​ Port numbers range from 0–65535 and are divided into:
○​ Well-known (0–1023)
○​ Registered (1024–49151)
○​ Dynamic/private (49152–65535)
4.​ Common examples: Port 80 (HTTP), 443 (HTTPS), 22 (SSH), 25 (SMTP).

93. What is NAT (Network Address Translation)?

1.​ NAT translates private IP addresses to a public IP for internet access.

2.​ It allows multiple devices on a LAN to share a single public IP, conserving IPv4
addresses.
 3.​ Enhances security by hiding internal IPs from the outside world.
4.​ Types include:
○​ Static NAT (one-to-one)
○​ Dynamic NAT (pool of IPs)
○​ PAT (Port Address Translation, many-to-one).

94. What is DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)?

1.​ DHCP automatically assigns IP address, subnet mask, gateway, and DNS to
network devices.
2.​ Removes the need for manual configuration of IP settings.
3.​ Works via a Discover → Offer → Request → Acknowledge (DORA) process.
4.​ Often used in home, enterprise, and ISP networks to manage IP allocation
dynamically.

95. What is ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)?

1.​ ICMP is used by network devices for diagnostics and error reporting.
2.​ It doesn’t transmit data but sends control messages like "host unreachable" or "time
exceeded".
3.​ Key tools like ping and traceroute rely on ICMP to work.
4.​ Helps network administrators troubleshoot connectivity and routing issues.

96. What is traceroute?

1.​ Traceroute is a diagnostic tool to trace the path data takes to reach a destination.
2.​ It sends packets with increasing TTL (Time to Live) values to identify each hop.
3.​ Shows each router (hop) on the path along with the delay (latency) in reaching it.
4.​ Useful for troubleshooting slow or broken connections, and spotting network
bottlenecks.

97. What is ping?

1.​ Ping tests connectivity between devices using ICMP Echo Request/Reply.
2.​ Measures round-trip time (RTT) to know how fast data travels between devices.
3.​ Helps detect if a host is reachable and responsive.
4.​ Common troubleshooting command: ping 8.8.8.8 (Google DNS) to test internet
access.
98. What is the use of SSL/TLS?

1.​ SSL (now replaced by TLS) secures data transmission over networks.
2.​ Provides encryption, ensuring data can't be read by hackers.
3.​ Also offers authentication and data integrity, confirming the server is legitimate.
4.​ Used in HTTPS, email, VPNs, and messaging apps to protect sensitive data.

99. What is tunneling in networking?

1.​ Tunneling allows encapsulating one protocol inside another to securely send
data.
2.​ Creates a virtual “tunnel” over a public network like the internet.
3.​ Common in VPNs to protect user identity and bypass restrictions.
4.​ Protocols include IPsec, GRE, L2TP, and OpenVPN for encrypted communication.

100. What is QoS (Quality of Service) in networking?

1.​ QoS manages network resources by prioritizing traffic based on type or application.
2.​ Ensures high priority for real-time data (VoIP, video calls) over less urgent traffic
(file downloads).
3.​ Uses traffic shaping, scheduling, and bandwidth reservation techniques.
4.​ Critical in enterprise networks for consistent performance and low latency.

101. What is a firewall?

1.​ A firewall is a security system that monitors and filters incoming and outgoing
traffic.
2.​ Works based on pre-defined rules to allow or block data packets.
3.​ Can be hardware-based, software-based, or cloud-based.
4.​ Protects networks from unauthorized access, malware, and cyberattacks by
controlling traffic at borders.