• Cell – Is the building unit of an

organisms.
• Unicellular organisms are made
up of one cell eg amoeba, yeast
bacteria, algea…
• Multicellular organisms are made
up of many cells eg animals,
plants…
• Cells are very tiny (Microscopic)
and cant be seen with naked eye.
They can only be seen using
microscope.
 History of the microscope
• 1650 – Zacharias Jansen and his father
Hanns formed simple microscope. *(1585-
1632) (Netherlands)

• -It had 2 lenses at both ends of a metal

barrel.
• 1665 – Robert Hooke made a compound
microscope
• 1700 – Antony Van Leeuwenhoeck
developed an advanced light microscope
that could be used to see nucleus of
cell.
• 1930-1946 – Electron microscope was
developed by Ruska & Knoll (Germany)
Zacharias Jansen
Antony Van Leeuwenhoeck
Ruska
Zacharias Jansen Microscope
 THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

• Function of parts of light microscope

1) Base – Provide firm and steady support.
-Bears the weight of the microscope.
2) Limb/arm – Supports the body tube and stage.
3) Stage – A flat platform where specimen on a
slide is placed for viewing.
Light microscope
• 4. Clips – Are 2 and are for holding the
microscope slide in position on the stage.
• 5. Mirror – Reflects light through the
diaphragm and condenser to the specimen on
the stage.
• 6. Diaphragm – An aperture that regulates the
amount of light passing through the condenser
to illuminate the specimen on the stage.
• 7. Condenser – Concentrates the light from
diaphragm to the specimen on the stage.
• 8. Body tube – Is barrel that holds revolving
nose piece and the eye piece.
• 9. Coarse adjustment knob – For focusing the
specimen by moving the body tube up and
down for longer distance.
• 10. Fine adjustment knob – For sharper
focusing of specimen by moving body tube up
and down for shorter distance.
• 11. Revolving nose piece – Holds the objective
lenses in position and can rotate to allow
interchange of the objective lens in use.
• 12. Objective lens – Magnifies the specimen.
(There are 3 types of objectives – Low power,
medium power, and high power)
• 13. Eye piece – Has lens that magnifies further
the image formed by objective lens.
Light microscope
 Handling and care of microscope

• When carrying microscope, one hand should

hold the base and the other hand should hold
the arm.
• Don’t place microscope close to the edge of
table or bench.
• Avoid touching the lens and mirror with your
fingers.
• Use lens tissue paper dipped in alcohol to
clean the lenses.
• Do not wet any part of microscope.
• Low power objective should be clicked into
position every before and after use of
microscope.
• After use clean microscope with soft cloth or
tissue paper and store in its case in a dry dust
free place.
Light microscope
Light microscope
Identify the parts of microscope A-Z

STATE THE FUNCTIONS OF PARTS A - Z

Identify the parts of microscope 1-14

STATE THE FUNCTIONS

OF PARTS 1 - 14
 How to use a microscope.
• Microscope is placed on the bench with stage
facing away from you.
• Get the low power clicked into position and adjust
it to lowest level using coarse adjustment knob.
• Open the diaphragm fully.
• Adjust mirror to reflect light into microscope as
you view through the eye piece till you see the
field of view bright.
• Place the slide with the specimen at the centre
point of the stage and hold it with the clips.
• Adjust the coarse adjustment knob slowly to
move the body tube upward slowly as you
view through the eye piece till you see the
focused image. (This is called focusing).
• Adjust fine adjustment knob slowly to get
sharp focus of image.
• If you want a large magnification, then click in
the medium power objective and focus using
coarse adjustment knob followed by fine
adjustment knob.
• For higher magnification, click in the high
power objective and focus this time using only
the fine adjustment knob to obtain sharper
focus of image.
Try to explain how the Hooke’s microscope used to work
Some cells as seen in light microscope
 Calculating microscope magnification
• The following formula is used:

Total Eye piece lens

= X objective lens magnification
Magnification magnification

• Always put capital times sign X before

the answer. (Not small x)
- Don't put units
• Complete the table below on magnification:

EYE PIECE LENS OBJECTIVE LENS TOTAL

MAGNIFICATION MAGNIFICATION MAGNIFICATION
X5 X4 X20
X15 X600
X10 X100
X10 X5
100 1000
 Plant cell as seen under light microscope

Tonoplast Cytoplasm
Cell wall
Nucleus
Cell membrane

Sap vacuole

Chloroplast
Animal cell as seen under light microscope
 The electron microscope
• Has higher magnification and resolving power.
It uses a beam of electrons and computer
systems.
 Differences between light and electron microscope
Light microscope Electron microscope
1. Specimen is 1. Specimen is
illuminated by light illuminated using a
beam of electrons
2. Specimen being 2. Specimen being
viewed can either be viewed is dead.
alive or dead.
3. Specimen is placed 3. Specimen is placed
on glass slide. on a copper grid in a
vacuum.
4. Staining is done using 4. Staining is done using
coloured dyes like heavy metals like lead.
iodine and bromothymol
blue.
 Light microscope Electron microscope
5. Uses glass lenses for 5. Uses electromagnetic
magnification. lenses for
magnification.
6. Has low 6. Has high
magnification power magnification power
(X50 to X1500) (X500,000)
7. The image is viewed 7. Image is viewed
directly indirectly on a screen.
8. Has low resolving 8. Has high resolving
power. power.
• Magnification power of microscope – Is the
ability of a microscope to make small
specimen to appear larger.
• Resolving power of microscope – Is the ability
of a microscope to make closely spaced parts
of specimen appear separate.
 The electron
microscope
DETAILS NOT NECESSARY
 The electron microscope
DETAILS NOT
NECESSARY
The electron microscope
Animal cell as seen by the electron microscope
Plant cell as seen by electron microscope
 The cell organelles
• Are the sub-units of a cell.
• They include: Cell membrane, cell wall,
cytoplasm, mitochondria, Endoplasmic
reticulum, Ribosomes, Lysosomes, Golgi
bodies, Centrioles, Chloroplasts, Vacuoles,
Nucleus.
• Qn – Which of these organelles can be seen
with light microscope.
1) Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)
- Is semi-permeable or selectively permeable
ie allows some substances to get in and out of
cell and not others.
- It is made of 2 phospholipid layers
sandwiched between 2 protein layers. (ie has
lipid bilayer)
Structure of cell membrane
Structure of cell membrane
Structure of cell membrane
• Adaptations of cell membrane.
i. Has pores that allow for passage of substances
in and out of the cell.
ii. Protein carriers have sites for attachment of
substances to be transported in and out of cell.
iii. Is flexible thus can allow for slight enlargements
of cell.
iv. The phospholipid and protein carriers regulate
movement of substances in and out of cell.
v. Has 3 layers that gives it strength and so can
enclose and protect cell contents.
2. Cytoplasm
• Is a fluid medium that offers site for
biochemical reactions in cell.
• Is where substances like glycogen, fat droplets,
starch, salts etc are stored.
• Is fluid medium where other cell organelles are
suspended.
• It undergoes cytoplasmic streaming to allow
substances to move around the cell.
• 3. Mitochondria (Singular – mitochondrion)
• Role: Is site for respiration.
• (Is site for 2nd phase of aerobic respiration called
Kreb’s cycle)
• Adaptations of mitochondria.
a) Has cristae that increases surface area for
attachment of respiratory enzymes.
b) Matrix has enzymes for respiration.
c) Thin inner and outer membranes to reduce
diffusion distance for faster passage of
substances in and out of mitochondria.
Mitochondra
Mitochondra
• Cells of tissues that are more active have more
mitochondria so as to produce more energy for
their activities eg muscle cells, liver cells,
nerve cells…
4.Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Are a series of interconnected channels that are
attached to the nuclear membrane.
• There are 2 types of ER namely:
a) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
b) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• Lack ribosomes.
• Role: For synthesis of lipids.
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• Has ribosomes attached to their surface.
• Role: Has channels/cisternae for transport of
proteins.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
5.Ribosomes
• Are spherical in shape.
• Located on endoplasmic reticulum though
some are found in cytoplasm.
• Role: Site for synthesis of proteins.
6. Lysosomes
• Are spherical sac like structures
• They are bound by a single membrane
• They are located in the cytoplasm.
• Role: They contain lytic enzymes which digest
and break down large molecules in cell, old
organelles and even entire cell.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes
7. Golgi bodies (Golgi apparatus)
• Are stalks of flattened tube like sacs.
• Are bound with membrane.
• Located close to cell membrane.
• Role:
i. Packaging and transport of glycoproteins.
ii. Formation of lysosomes.
iii. Formation of secretory vessicles.
iv. Formation of glycoproteins.
• Note:- Cells of glands that are involved in
secretions have more Golgi bodies eg salivary
gland, pancreas, gastric glands etc.
Golgi bodies (Golgi apparatus)
Golgi bodies, RER, SECRETION
Golgi bodies, RER, SECRETION
8. Centrioles
• Are rod shaped
• Located next to the nucleus.
• Role:
i. Play role in cell division.
ii. Formation of cilia and flagella.
(Plant cells lack centrioles)
Centrioles
9. Vacuoles
• Are spherical saclike spaces in cell cytoplasm
filled with a fluid.
• They have a membrane called tonoplast.
• Plants have one large vacuole called sap
vacuole while animal cells have small
scattered vacuoles.
• Contractile vacuoles form and are used for
excretion of excess water in organisms like
amoeba. (ie in osmoregulation)
• Role:
i. Storage of salts, sugars and other soluble
substances.
ii. Contribute to osmotic properties of cell due
to the soluble stored substances.
10. Nucleus
• Role: Controls all activities of the cell.
• Has two membranes with nuclear pore for
passage of substances in and out of nucleus.
• Has a fluid called nucleoplasm.
• Has hereditory materials called
chromatin/chromosomes/genes that determine
characteristics of organisms.
• Has nucleolus that manufactures ribosomes.
Nucleus
Animal cell as seen by the electron microscope
Nucleus
• Eukaryotic cell – Is cell that has nuclear
membrane eg cells of animals, plants, fungi,
protoctista
• Prokaryotic cell – Is cell that lacks nuclear
membrane eg cells of members of kingdom
Monera (Bacteria)
• NOTE: All the 10 cell organelles above are
found in both plant and animal cells. Plant
cells have additional organelles namely cell
wall, chloroplasts…
• Cell wall:
• Is made of cellulose that makes it firm and
strong.
• Role:
a) Give plant cell a definite shape.
b) Protects plant cell.
c) Gives mechanical support to plant cell.
d) Allows gases and other substances to pass in
and out of plant cell.
e) Prevents plant cell from bursting after taking
in water and swelling.
• Chloroplasts:
• Is egg shaped and found in cells of green parts
of plant eg leaves.
• Role: Site for photosynthesis.
• Adaptations/Role of parts of chloroplast
i. Grana has chlorophyll for trapping light
energy.
ii. Stroma fluid has enzymes for light dark stage
of photosynthesis.
iii. Thin membranes to reduce diffusion distance
for faster movement of substances in and out
of chloroplast.
Chloroplasts:
Chloroplasts:
Outline 5 Differences between plant and animal
cell using the diagram below:
 Difference between plant and animal cell
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1. Larger in size 1. Smaller in size
2. Have definite shape 2. Indefinite shape
3. Has a cell wall 3. Has no cell wall
4. Has a large central 4. Has several small
vacuole scattered vacuoles.
5. Nucleus is located at 5. Nucleus centrally
the periphery. located.
6. Some have 6. Lack chloroplasts.
chloroplasts.
7. Store food inform of 7. Store food in form of
starch, oils and proteins. glycogen, and fats.
8. Lacks centrioles. 8. Has centrioles
9. Cytoplasm located at 9. Cytoplasm distributed
periphery. throughout the cell
 Preparation of temporary slide.
• Cut an onion bulb into 4 quarters.
• Obtain inner fleshy leaf of onion bulb.
• Snap the leaf backward then use forceps to
obtain a peeling.
• Use scissors cut the peeling to a square
measuring 0.5cm X 0.5cm.
• Put a drop of water on a clean microscope
slide then put the peeling and spread it out
uniformly.
• Add a drop of solution of iodine or
bromothymol blue on the peeling. (This is
called staining)
• Put a cover slip on the peeling in a slanting
manner then lower it gently over the peeling
using mounting needle to prevent trapping of
air bubbles.
• View under low power, then medium power of
microscope as described earlier.
• Qn-Why is a drop of water added?
• Ans - To prevent drying of specimen
• To have cells take in water, enlarge and so
become easy to view.
• Qn – What is staining and what is it’s
importance?
• Ans - To colour the tissue cells of specimen for
clear viewing and distinguishing of different
parts of specimen.
 Estimating size of cell
• Place a transparent ruler on microscope stage.
Focus the millimeter marks side of ruler.
• Determine the diameter of field of view in mm
then micrometer (µm)
• ( 1mm=1000 µm)
• Remove the ruler and replace it with a microscope
slide with onion peeling.
• Stain it using Iodine or Bromothymol blue.
• View the onion cells in microscope.
• Count number of cells along the diameter of field
of view.
Ruler with cm and mm calibrations.
 Field of view and diameter of field of view

Given that the

lines are
1mm apart,
the Diameter
Of this field of
View = _______
 Field of view and number of cells along diameter

1. How many
Cells Can you
count Along the
Diameter of field
Of view?
(The black Line)
-Number of cells
Along diameter
= ______________
• Calculate the diameter/length of one cell using the
formula:

Diameter of field of view in µm

Diameter of cell =
No of cells a long diameter of field of view

• Note that the size/diameter calculated above is the

magnified size/diameter, the actual size of the cell
is much smaller and can be calculated using the
formula:
 Length/diameter of cell in µm
Actual diameter/size =
Total magnification

• 2. The microscope magnification

used was:
Eye piece = X15 Objective = X 5
• Calculate total Magnification
• Total magnf =______
• Now calculate actual size/diameter
of one cell using the formula:
Length/diameter of cell in µm
Actual diameter/size =
Total magnification
• Examples:
1. A student viewed 12 cells along a diameter of
field of view of 3mm.
• a) Calculate the diameter of one cell.
• b) If the total magnification that was used is
x40, calculate the actual diameter of one cell.
• (Always write the formula before calculating)
• Qn 2. A scientist counted 9 cells along a
diameter of field of view of 2mm using x40
objective and x15 eye piece of light
microscope.
• a) Calculate the diameter of one cell.
• b) Calculate the actual diameter of one of the
cells.
 Qn 3. Use the photomicrographs below to calculate:
a)Diameter of cell b) Actual diameter of cell
(The total magnification used is x200)

Note: Always write the formula followed by orderly calculation

Qn 3. Use the photomicrographs below to calculate:
a)Diameter of cell b) Actual diameter of cell
(The objective magnification used is x10 while the eye
piece magnification used is x15)

Note: Always write the formula followed by orderly calculation

 Cell specialisation
• Is the modification of structure of cell to make
it suitable for it’s function.
• Examples:
 a) Root hair cell forms an extension to increase
surface area for efficient uptake of water and
Mineral salts from soil in plants.

Xylem

Extension

Root hair cell

b) Xylem is hollow to create space for transport
of water in plants.
c) Guard cells are bean shaped to enable
opening of stoma in plants

Guard cell

Stoma open
d) Sperm cell has a tail to enable it swim.

*Ignore the labels on the diagrams.

e) Nerve cell is elongated to enable transmission
Of nerve messages from parts of body to and from
The body.

*Ignore the labels on the diagram.

 Tissues
• Is a group of similar cells that carry out same
specific function.
• Example of tissues in plants include:
Epidermal, Parenchyma, Palisade, Xylem,
phloem, meristematic tissue etc
PLANT TISSUES
a) Epidermal tissue
- Is a thin layer of cells covering outer surface of
plant parts.
Role: Protection of inner parts of plant from
mechanical injury and infection.
b) Palisade tissue
These cells have chloroplasts with chlorophyll
Role: They carry out photosynthesis.
Vascular
tissue
c) Parenchyma tissue
-Are thin walled closely packed cells.
Role: i) Packaging of plant tissues thus making
plant firm.
ii) Storage of food.
d) Xylem tissue.
-Are hollow, lignified and dead cells.
Role: i) Transport of water.
ii) Supports the plant (Lignification makes them
firm and strong)

e) Phloem tissue
Role: Transport of food in plants.

NOTE: Phloem and Xylem form vascular tissue since

they are all concerned with transport of
substances in the plant.
Vascular tissue

Xylem

Phloem
 Animal tissues
• They include: Epithelial, Skeletal muscles,
blood tissue, connective tissue etc.
a) Epithelial tissue
Are cells that form a thin layer over surfaces of
other tissues.
Role: Protect inner tissues.
b) Muscle tissue
Made of elongated cells with fibres that contract
and relax.
Role: Bring about movement and locomotion through
it’s contractions and relaxations.
c) Blood tissue
Is a fluid consisting of red blood cells, white blood
cells, platelets and plasma.
Role: i) Transport of nutrients, gases, hormones etc
ii) Defend body against disease infections.
d) Connective tissue
Connective tissue cells have tough fibres.
Role: Binding, supporting and holding various tissues
and organs together in their positions.
 Organs
• Are various different tissues grouped together to form a
functional unit.
• Examples of organs in animals.
• Heart (Consist of tissues like muscle tissue, connective
tissue, blood tissue…)
• Kidney
• Eye
• Ear
• Brain
• Skin
• Liver
• Stomach
• Tongue
• Pancreas
• Testis, ovary, uterus, penis… Lungs
Examples of tissues in the stomach organ
• Organs in plants include:
• Leaves
• Roots
• Flowers
• Stem
Leaf as organ is made of tissues like epidermal,
palisade, vascular…

Vascular
tissue
 Organ system
• Is a group of organs that are coordinated and
synchronised to perform a specific function.
• Examples: (Name the organs that make up the
following organ systems:
• i) Reproductive system
• ii) Nervous system
• iii) Circulatory/transport system
• iv) Excretory system
• v) respiratory system…
• Organism – Is made of several organ systems
synchronized to form one independent living
functional unit.
• In descending order all these can be arranged
as follows:
• Organism
• Organ system
• Organ
• Tissue
• Cell
• Cell organelles
• NOTE:
• See photographs of cells, tissues,
organ, organ systems in Form one
KLB text book pg 20 – 35 or from
any other text book with appropriate
photographs.
• Draw them from the text book but
not from these coloured photos
(Most of them are not necessary)
Draw those that the teacher tells
you to draw.
• However make every effort to know
the cells, tissues, organ, organ
systems.
• Qn. Identify the organs in the
following organ systems:
Identify 5 organs in the organ system below

Excretory system
 Respiratory system
Identify 5 organs in the organ system below
 Digestive system
Identify 5 organs in the organ system below
Circulatory system
Identify 3 organs in the organ system below
 Female reproductive system
Identify 3 organs in the organ system below
 Organs, organ systems in organism

Use this photo to:

1.Name 10 organs
In humans

2.Name 6 organ
Systems in
humans
 ORGANISM

Use this photo to:

1.Name 10 organs
In humans

2.Name 6 organ
Systems in
humans
 ORGANISM

Identify 5 organ systems in the fish below

 ORGANISM
Identify 5 organ systems in the croc below
• NOTE: Ensure you study your text
books and add more information
to these notes from the text books
and from your teacher.
• Strictly follow your biology
teacher’s notes and guidelines
alongside these notes
• Also study diagrams from your
text book.
• Physically answer many
questions on these form one
topics and do practicals so as to
get well grounded in biology.
• Bio ni poa – You can pass it - YES