Iowa City Math Circle Handouts

Trigonometry
Ananth Shyamal, Divya Shyamal, Kevin Yang, and Reece Yang
August 22, 2020

1 Definitions
In this section, we will define the six fundamental trigonometric functions along with
their inverses. The reader is likely to be familiar with these definitions, in which case
they can skip them, but we will present them for the sake of clarity and completeness.

For any right triangle, let x 6= 90◦ be an angle of the triangle. Furthermore, let a
be the length of the leg opposite x, b be the length of the leg adjacent to x, and c be the
length of the hypotenuse. Then we define sin x = ac , cos x = cb , and tan x = ab . In other
words, the sine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite leg to the length of
the hypotenuse, the cosine of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent leg to
the hypotenuse, and the tangent of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite
leg to the length of the adjacent leg. This is commonly remembered by the acronym
"SOHCATOA".

Next, we define csc x = sin1 x , sec x = cos1 x , and cot x = tan1 x . These definitions are useful
for algebra involving the standard trigonometric functions. Finally, we define the inverse
trigonometric functions. For example, if sin x = y, then we say x = sin−1 y = arcsin y.
This extends to the other five basic trigonometric functions as well.

Notice that in a degenerate right triangle, the hypotenuse is equal in length to one
leg, so both the sine and cosine functions have a maximum value of 1. This will help
us determine the domains of trigonometric functions.

In the next section, we’ll see that trigonometric functions can actually also take on
negative values, as the sides of a triangle can have negative length based on their ori-
entation with respecting to the coordinate axes.

1
2 Graphing Trigonometric Functions
In this section, we focus on the graphs of trigonometric functions. We will plot the
functions on the standard coordinate plane, except the values on the x-axis represent
angles in radians. For those who aren’t familiar with this, one radian is defined to be
equal to 180
π
degrees. This means that π radians is equal to 180◦ and 2π radians is equal
to 360◦ .

First, we consider the graph of the function y = sin x. Its domain is all real num-
bers and its range is −1 to 1. From the definitions in the previous section, we can’t
see how the function can take on negative values. However, let’s see how this makes
sense by the following "picture". Suppose we choose a circle centered at the origin and
any point on that circle, also drawing the radius to that point. Then we form a right
triangle with the radius in such a way that one leg lies on the x-axis and the other is
parallel to the y-axis. Some examples are shown in Figure 13.1.

Now, if the leg on the x-axis lies on the negative portion of the axis, its given a negative
length; otherwise its length is positive. Likewise, if the leg parallel to the y-axis contains
points with non-positive y coordinates, the leg is associated with a negative length. Us-
ing this notion of edge length, we see how the trigonometric functions, including sine,
can produce negative values. It’s easy to see that the maximum absolute value of sin x
is 1, because a leg of a right triangle is always shorter than the hypotenuse.

p1

θ1

θ2
θ3

p3

p2

Figure 1: The figure shows the right triangles created by three points p1 = (3, 4), p2 =
(−4, −3), and p3 = (3, −4). The legs of these right triangles with non-positive length
are colored in blue, and the others are shown in red. We see that sin θ1 = sin θ2 = 45
and sin θ2 = − 35 .

Its also easy to see that the domain and range of y = cos x are the same as y = sin x.

2
We plot them on the same axis to show their similarities.

cos x
1

sin x
−2π − 3π −π − π2 π
2
π 3π 2π
2 2

−1

Figure 2: The figure shows the plots of y = sin x (in blue) and y = cos x (in red) on
the interval [−2π, 2π].

From these graphs, we make several other observations.

• Both sin x and cos x are periodic, and have a period (the length of the smallest
interval that the function repeats) of 2π units.

• The graph of y = sin x is essentially a shift of y = cos x to the right by π2 units.

This observation comes in handy because it provides us with a useful trigonometric
identity, as discussed in the following section/
√
• The two curves only intersect at the points of the form π4 + kπ, 22 for all integers
 

k. This occurs precisely when we have a 45-45-90 isosceles right triangle.

• The graph of y = cos x is symmetric across the y-axis, giving us an important

identity we will use in the next section.

Next, we discuss the plot of tan x. As we will see shortly, it has some commonalities
with the graphs of the sine and cosine functions in terms of its periodic nature, but also
is quite different because of its asymptotic properties.

3
 − 3π −π − π2 0 π
2
π 3π
2 2

Figure 3: The figure shows the plot of y = tan x (in blue) on the interval − 3π , 3π .
h i
2 2

Now, we will complete our analysis of the tangent function by analyzing some key
features of its graph.

• It’s periodic with a period of π. The cycles of the graph are centered on kπ, for
all integers k.

• The graph contains the asymptotes x = (2k+1)π 2

for all integers k. Moreover, tan x
approaches ∞ as x approaches the asymptote from the left, and tan x approaches
−∞ as x approaches the asymptote from the right. From this, we can also con-
clude that when x = (2k+1)π
2
, the tangent function is undefined. This is expected
since
(2k+1)π (2k+1)π
sin sin
   
(2k + 1)π
!
2 2
tan =  = = undefined.
2 cos (2k+1)π 0

2

From Figure 13.1 and the graphs of the singe, cosine, and tangent functions, we see
that

• In Quadrant I, all of the three functions are non-negative.

• In Quadrant II, only the sine function is non-negative.

• In Quadrant III, only the tangent function is non-negative.

• In Quadrant IV, only the cosine function is non-negative.

These are very useful in not only determining the sign of certain trigonometric expres-
sions but also to help us derive identities in the following section. One may find the

4
pneumonic "All Silver Tea Cups" useful to remember in which quadrants these three
functions are non-negative.

Next, we briefly discuss the graphs of the inverse functions of sine, cosine, and tan-
gent. The most important thing to grab from these graphs are their domains and
ranges.

sin−1 x
π/2
tan−1 x

−1 1 cos−1 x

−π/2

Figure 4: The figure shows the plots of y = sin−1 x (in red), y = cos−1 x (in blue), and
y = tan−1 x (in green) on the interval [−1, 1].

From the above graph, we said the domains of sin−1 x and cos−1 x are [−1, 1], and
hthe domain of tan−1 x is [−∞, ∞]. Furthermore, the range of sin−1 x and tan−1 x are
− π2 , π2 , and the range of cos−1 x is [0, π]. Now, one may question how we obtained
i

these curves from the parent trigonometric functions. They can be obtained by reflect-
ing a half-period across the line y = x (which provides us with the inverse).

Finally, for completeness, we include the graphs of csc x, sec x, and cot x. As expected,
they are periodic and have asymptotic behavior.
2 2 2

1 1 1

−2π − 3π −π − π2 −2π − 3π −π − π2 −2π − 3π −π − π2

2 2 2

−1 −1 −1

−2 −2 −2

Figure 5: The figure shows the plots of y = csc x (in blue), y = sec x (in red), and
y = cot x (in green) on the interval [−2π, 2π].

Our final topic for this subsection is plotting transformations if trigonometric functions.
We will only elaborate on graphing transformations of the sine function, as it can

5
easily be generalized to transformations of other trigonometric functions. We therefore
consider the function
y = a sin(bx + c) + d.
Now, we introduce the following useful terms that help us describe the plot of a sinu-
soidal function.

• The amplitude of a sinusoidal function is the height of each peak from the x-axis.

• The period is the distance between peaks, or the length of the repeating portion
of the graph.

• The frequency of a sinusoidal curve represents how often the function repeats. By
this definition, we see that the frequency can be expressed as the reciprocal of the
period, and has units of cycles per unit of time (which represents the unit of the
x-axis).

We plot several functions of this form to give you an idea of how a, b, c, and d impact
the graph.

−2π − 3π −π − π2 π
2
π 3π 2π
2 2

−5

Figure 6: The figure shows the plots of y = sin(2x+2)+2 (in blue), y = 2 sin(2x+2)+2
(in red), y = 3 sin(2x + 2) + 2 (in green), and y = 4 sin(2x + 2) + 2 (in light blue). More-
over, we started with the base function y = 2 sin(2x + 2) + 2 and changed the parameter
a. By doing this, we see that increasing a increases the amplitude, which corresponds to
a vertical stretch. Likewise, decreasing a decreases the amplitude, vertically shrinking
the graph. Thus, we conclude that the a is the parameter representing/determining the
amplitude.

6
 5

−2π − 3π −π − π2 π
2
π 3π 2π
2 2

−5

Figure 7: The figure shows the plots of y = 2 sin(x+2)+2 (in blue), y = 2 sin(2x+2)+2
(in red), y = 2 sin(3x + 2) + 2 (in green), and y = 2 sin(4x + 2) + 2 (in light blue). More-
over, we started with the base function y = 2 sin(2x + 2) + 2 and changed the parameter
b. By doing this, we see that increasing b decreases the period, which corresponds to
a horizontal shrink. Likewise, decreasing b increases the period, horizontally stretching
the graph. Thus, we conclude that the b is the parameter representing/determining the
period, which is equal to 2π b
(giving us an inverse relationship between the period and
b).

−2π − 3π −π − π2 π
2
π 3π 2π
2 2

−5

Figure 8: The figure shows the plots of y = 2 sin(2x+1)+2 (in blue), y = 2 sin(2x+2)+2
(in red), y = 2 sin(2x + 3) + 2 (in green), and y = 2 sin(2x + 4) + 2 (in light blue).
Moreover, we started with the base function y = 2 sin(2x + 2) + 2 and changed the
parameter c. By doing this, we see that increasing c shifts the graph more to the left.
Likewise, decreasing c shifts the graph to the right. Notice that these translations leave
the period and amplitude unchanged. Thus, we conclude that the c is the parameter
representing the phase shift, which is equal to ac leftwards (as a phase shift of zero
means that the function passes through the origin). Note that if ac is negative, then we
have a rightward shift.

7
 5

−2π − 3π −π − π2 π
2
π 3π 2π
2 2

−5

Figure 9: The figure shows the plots of y = 2 sin(2x+2)+1 (in blue), y = 2 sin(2x+2)+2
(in red), y = 2 sin(2x + 2) + 3 (in green), and y = 2 sin(2x + 2) + 4 (in light blue).
Moreover, we started with the base function y = 2 sin(2x + 2) + 2 and changed the
parameter d. By doing this, we see that increasing d shifts the graph upwards. Likewise,
decreasing d shifts the graph downwards. Thus, we conclude that the d is the parameter
representing the vertical shift.

3 Simple Trigonometric Identities

We start with the following classic identity, which serves as the foundation for many
other results. In this section, we will frequently reference identities by their symbolic
name (e.g. (P )). For completeness, we will give a proof for all the identities. You
should know these proofs, so you can derive it during an exam if you forget the identity.
However, it’s likely you won’t have time to do this on real exams so you should try to
memorize these identities.
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 (P )
Proof. Let h be the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs of length a and o, and angle
opposite the leg with length o to be θ. Then, it suffices to show
 2  2
o a
+ =1 ⇐⇒ o2 + a2 = h2 .
h h
This is simply the Pythagorean Theorem, so we finish the proof by simply traversing
these steps backwards.
Now, we can get the following identities by dividing (P ) by sin2 θ and cos2 θ, respectively.
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ (P 1)
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ (P 2)
Some more simple but useful results sum up the odd and evenness of the sine and cosine
functions, respectively, as follows.
sin(−θ) = − sin θ (O)
cos(−θ) = cos θ (E)

8
Proof. (E) can easily be seen by noticing that y = cos x is symmetric across the y-axis,
and (O) can be seen by noting that the graph of y = sin x can be rotated 180◦ to
produce the same curve. Both of these can also be observed from Figure 13.1, where
the x-component represents cos θ and the y-component represents sin θ.
Next, we state and prove the sine and cosine addition formulas in multiple ways. These
identities are really useful and help us derive other more, complicated identities.

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α (AS)

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β (AC)

Proof. We first prove this result using by complex numbers and Euler’s theorem. From
this, we have
e(α+β)i = cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β)
and

e(α+β)i = eαi · eβi

= (cos α + i sin α) (cos β + i sin β)
= (cos α cos β − sin α sin β) + i(sin α cos β + sin β cos α).

Thus, we can equate the imaginary and real parts of e(α+β)i in our first and second
equations to get the desired results.

Next, we present a geometric proof. The diagram that accompanies the proof is shown
below.

E B
β
α
O C
D

Note that we can create the above diagram for any angles α < β, regardless of whether
they are acute or obtuse. From angle chasing using the right angles from our construc-
tions, we have that ∠BAE = α. Using this, we see that
BC DE EB AE OC
sin α = = = , sin β = AB, cos α = = , and cos β = OB.
OB OB AB AB OB
9
Hence,
sin(α + β) = AD
= DE + EA
DE AE
= · OB + · AB
OB AB
= sin α cos β + sin β cos α
and
cos(α + β) = OD
= OC − DC
OC EB
= · OB − · AB
OB AB
= cos α cos β − sin α sin β,
as desired.
From these addition identities, we can easily get the following subtraction identities by
substituting −β in for β and using the odd-even properties of sine and cosine (namely
(O) and (E)).
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − sin β cos α (SS)
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β (SC)
Now, using the sine/cosine-addition/subtraction identities, we can get and prove the
corresponding identities for the tangent function.
tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) = (AT )
1 − tan α tan β
tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) = (ST )
1 + tan α tan β

Proof. Using the addition identities for sine and cosine, we have
sin(α + β)
tan(α + β) =
cos(α + β)
sin α cos β + sin β cos α
=
cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin α cos β+sin β cos α
 
cos α cos β
= 
cos α cos β−sin α sin β

cos α cos β
tan α + tan β
= ,
1 − tan α tan β
proving (AT ). To prove (ST ), we can substitute −β in for β and use the odd-even
identities.

10
Armed with the trigonometric addition identities, we can prove the following identities
that establish the cyclic nature of trigonometric functions.
π
sin(θ ± ) = ± cos θ, sin(θ ± π) = − sin θ, sin(θ ± 2π) = sin θ (CS)
2
π
cos(θ ± ) = ∓ sin θ, cos(θ ± π) = − cos θ, cos(θ ± 2π) = cos θ (CC)
2
Proof. Apply the trigonometric addition/subtraction formulas.
Next, we discuss the double-angle identities.

sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ (DS)

cos(2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 (DC)
2 tan θ
tan(2θ) = (DT )
1 − tan2 θ
(1)

Proof. (DS) and (DT ) are trivial cases of the trigonometric addition formulas with
α = β = θ. To prove (DC), we again use the cosine addition formula to get cos(2θ) =
cos2 θ − sin2 θ, but then we apply the Pythagorean trigonometric identity (P ) to get
the expression in terms of either all sines or all cosines.
Another set of identities that relate to the double-angle identities are the half-angle
identities.

1 − cos θ
s
θ
sin = ± (HS)
2 2
1 + cos θ
s
θ
cos = ± (HC)
2 2
θ sin θ
tan = ± (HT )
2 1 + cos θ

Proof. Substituting θ
2
for θ in the double-angle identity for cosine, we get

θ
cos θ = 2 cos2 − 1.
2
This can be easily manipulated to get (HC). We can also substitute in

θ θ
sin2 = 1 − cos2 ,
2 2
a reformulation of the Pythagorean identity, to the equation to get
θ
cos θ = 2 − 2 sin2 − 1.
2

11
Again, this quadratic can also be manipulated to get (HS). Now, using (HS) and
(HC), we have

θ sin 2θ
tan =
2 cos 2θ
1−cos θ
q
2
= ±q
1+cos θ
2

1 − cos θ
s
=±
1 + cos θ
v
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
u ! !
=
u
±t
1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ
v
1 − cos2 θ
u
=
u
±t
(1 + cos θ)2
sin θ
=± ,
1 + cos θ
as desired. Note that the plus-or-minus symbol in front of the expressions indicates
that we need to choose the angle/roots of the quadratic properly.

4 More Trigonometric Identities

The next set of trigonometric identities we discuss are called the product-to-sum identi-
ties, because they give us a simple way to transform a product of trigonometric functions
into a sum.

2 sin α sin β = cos(α − β) − cos(α + β) (P S1)

2 cos α cos β = cos(α − β) + cos(α + β) (P S2)
2 sin α cos β = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) (P S3)
2 sin β cos α = sin(α + β) − sin(α − β) (P S4)

Proof. By applying the trigonometric addition/subtraction identities to each of the

terms of the right hand sides of the identities, we can obtain the left-hand sides with
a little bit of manipulation. We leave the rest of the smaller details for the reader to
work through and as a checkpoint.

Checkpoint 4.1. Show that

2 sin α sin β = cos(α − β) − cos(α + β).

Next, we introduce the sum-to-product results, which serve a similar purpose as the

12
previous identities.
! !
α±β α∓β
sin α ± sin β = 2 sin cos (SP 1)
2 2
α+β
! !
α−β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos (SP 2)
2 2
α+β
! !
α−β
cos α − cos β = −2 sin sin (SP 3)
2 2

Proof. We only prove (SP 1), as the proofs of the other sum-to-product identities are
quite similar. From the sine addition and subtraction identities, we see that

α+β α−β α+β α−β

! !
sin α + sin β = sin + + sin −
2 2 2 2
! !
α±β α∓β
= 2 sin cos ,
2 2

as desired.

Checkpoint 4.2. Show that

α+β
! !
α−β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos .
2 2

Our next two identities are called the triple-angle identities, as they are just a simple
extension of the double-angle formulas.

sin(3θ) = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ (T S)

cos(3θ) = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ (T C)

Proof. To prove these identities, first apply the sin/cosine addition formulas using 3θ =
2θ + θ, and then use the double angles formulas to simplify the terms that include
sin(2θ) or cos(2θ). Further simplification gives us the desired results. We’ll leave the
details to the reader and the following checkpoint.

Checkpoint 4.3. Show that

sin(3θ) = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ.

Our final identity is called the triple-tangent identity. It gives us a way to simplify the
product of the tangent of three angles, given that these angles are part of the same
triangle. Therefore, it is be quite useful when we are applying trigonometric techniques
in geometry.

Given α + β + γ = π, tan α + tan β + tan γ = tan α tan β tan γ (T T )

13
Proof. Using the identity tan(π − θ) = − tan θ (oddness) and the sum identity for the
tangent function, we get
tan α = tan (π − (β + γ))
= − tan(β + γ)
− tan β − tan γ
= .
1 − tan β tan γ
Hence
(1 − tan β tan γ) tan α = − tan β − tan γ.
By expanding the left-hand side and rearranging, we get the desired result.

5 Trigonometric Functions in Geometry

Trigonometric functions have many useful applications in geometry. This is natural be-
cause our definition of trigonometric functions relied on the geometry of right triangles.
Our first result in called the Law of Cosines, because it relates the length of the sides
of any triangle to the cosine of one of its angles.
Theorem 5.1. (Law of Cosines) Let ∆ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b, and c,
and let the measure of the angle opposite the side with length c be denoted by C. Then,
we have
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C.
Proof. We create the following diagram.

A B

Moreover, we have a triangle ∆ABC (with AB = c, BC = a, and AC = b) and we just

drew the altitude from B, intersecting AC at point D. Now, we see that BD = a sin C
and CD = a cos C. Furthermore, we have AD = b − CD = b − a cos C. Applying the
Pythagorean Theorem on ∆ABD, we get
c2 = (b − a cos C)2 + (a sin C)2
= b2 − 2ab cos C + a2 sin2 C + cos2 C
 

= a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C,
as desired.

14
Next, we discuss a similar result call the Law of Sines. It relates the side lengths of a
triangle to its angles.
Theorem 5.2. Let ∆ABC be a triangle with side lengths BC = a, AC = b, AB = c,
and circumradius R. Then
a b c
= = = 2R.
sin A sin B sin C
Proof. We use the same diagram as the proof of the law of cosines. For convenience,
let BD = h. Then sin C = ha and sin A = hc .

From this, we get that sinc C = ca h

and sina A = ca
h
. Thus, sina A = sinc C . Now, we can
draw the altitudes from A and C and repeat the above calculations to get the respec-
tive equalities for the pairs of other sides. Now, we leave it as an exercise to the reader
to involve the 2R term. One possible hint is to drop down the perpendiculars from the
circumcenter to the sides of the triangle.
Checkpoint 5.1. Let ∆ABC be a triangle with BC = a and circumradius R. Show
that
a
= 2R.
sin A
From this proof, we can come up with another tidy result that can help us find the area
of a triangle quickly.
Theorem 5.3. Let ∆ABC be a triangle with legs with length a, b, and c, and the angle
in between them measuring C. Then the area of ∆ABC is 12 ab sin C.
Proof. We draw the altitude from B, letting its height be h. Then h = a sin C, so the
area of the triangle is
1 1
[ABC] = bh = ab sin C,
2 2
as desired.
These are definitely a helpful tool to have when solving geometry problems, but they
aren’t essential. This is because these laws were simply derived by drawing the altitudes
of a triangle, which anyways should be tried when stuck on a geometry problem. The
exercises later in this section and chapter serve as a way to practice your trigonometry
skills. Yes, you can solve these problems without trigonometry, but hone this skill so it
can be used effectively and efficiently when you are taking the actual exam.

Now, you may be wondering how we find the values of sine and cosine evaluated at
certain, commonly-occurring angles (shown in the below table). These values are de-
rived by noting geometric relationships (as with 45-45-90 and 30-60-90 right triangles)
and applying various trigonometric identities to these (e.g. double angle, half angle,
and trigonometric addition/subtraction). These in some cases may take a bit of com-
putation, so it’s worthwhile to memorize the sine and cosine of certain angles. These
angles will also be highlighted in the below table in bold. The values of sine and cosine
at other common angles in this table and in the range [0, 2π] can be found by applying
the periodic and odd-even identities.

15
 θ sin θ cos θ
0◦ √
0 1 √
3−1 1+√ 3
15◦ √
√ 2
2 q2 2√
5−1 5+ 5
18◦ 4 √8
1 3
30◦ q 2√ √2
5− 5 5+1
36◦ √8 √4
2 2
45◦ √2 2
3 1
60◦ q 2√ √2
5+ 5 5−1
72◦ √8 √4
1+√ 3 3−1
75◦ 2 2
√
2 2
90◦ 1 0

6 Problem Solving in Trigonometry

In this final section, we’ll illustrate some important problem solving skills in trigonom-
etry through a few examples.
Example 6.1. At how many points do the graphs y = sin x and y = cos x intersect in
the interval [−4π, 4π]?
Solution. One can simply plot both the sine and cosine functions and count the number
of intersection points. One can observe that there are two intersection points in the
interval [0, 2π]. We can use the fact that both sine and cosine have the same periods
to get that since there are four of these periods in the interval [−4π, 4π], our answer is
4·2= 8.

We can also approach the problem another way. This way may seem harder, but it
should test your understanding of the graph and properties of the tangent function.

If the two functions intersect at a point with x-coordinate x, then we must have
sin x = cos x. Now, we can’t have sin x = cos x = 0, because that violates the
Pythagorean trigonometric identity. Thus, we can divide both sides of sin x = cos x be
cos x to get tan x = 1.

Since the range of y = tan x in each period is [−∞, ∞] and each period of tan x is
strictly increasing and continuous, we can conclude that there exists exactly one solu-
tion x to the equation tan x = 1 in every period of the tangent function. Now, how
many periods are in the interval [−4π, 4π]? Since the period has length π, the number
(2k+1)π (2k+1)π
of solutions in the interval − 2 , 2 is 2k + 1. So the number of solutions in
h i

the interval − 7π , 7π is 7.
h i
2 2

Now, we are left with the two intervals −4π, − 7π and 7π , 4π ; how many solutions
h i h i
2 2
are in these two pieces? Again from the graph of the tangent function, the one solution

16
in each period is one the "right half" of the period. Since the first piece is a right half
of a period but the second piece is not, we get one additional solution in these two
intervals. Therefore, our answer is 7 + 1 = 8. 4
The previous example illustrated the usefulness of graphing trigonometric functions in
solving problems. The next example involves a more algebraic approach.

Example 6.2. Show that

α+β sin α + sin β

!
tan = .
2 cos α + cos β

Solution. First, notice that the left-hand side is in terms of tangents whereas the right-
hand side is in terms of sines and cosines. So one natural way to proceed is to substitute
each of the sine and cosine terms on the right-hand side by an equivalent expression in
terms of tangents. How do we do this? One way to do this is as follows:
x x
sin x = 2 sin cos
2 2
2 x x
= 2 cos tan
2 2
2 tan 2 x
=
sec2 x2
2 tan x2
= .
1 + tan2 x2

We can also get the substitution

1 − tan2 x
cos x = 2
1 + tan2 x
2

using similar techniques. We leave the details of deriving this identity as a later check-
point.

You may be wondering why we started off by using the Half-angle formula. We did this
because on the left-hand side of the desired equation, α+β
2
is essentially the sum of two
half angles.

17
We now plug in the substitutions into the right-hand side of the desired equation to get
2 tan α 2 tan
β

sin α + sin β
2
1+tan2 α
+ 2
1+tan2 β2
= 2

cos α + cos β 1−tan2 α

2
+
1−tan2 β2
1+tan2 α
2 1+tan2 β2

2 tan α2 1 + tan2 + 2 tan β2 1 + tan2

   
β α
2 2
=
1 − tan2 1+ tan 2
2 β
+ 1 − tan2 1 + tan2
    
α β α
2 2 2

2 tan α2 + tan β2 1 + tan α2 tan β2

  

=
2 1 − tan2 tan2
 
α β
2 2

tan α2 + tan β2
=
1 − tan α2 tan β2
!
α β
= tan +
2 2
α+β
!
= tan ,
2
as desired. 4
Checkpoint 6.1. Show that
1 − tan2 x2
cos x = .
1 + tan2 x2
Our final example is a geometry problem, that can be solved simply using basic trigono-
metric results.
Example 6.3. In triangle ABC, AB = 4, BC = 6, and AC = 8. Squares ABQR
and BCST are drawn external to and lie in the same plane as ∆ABC. Compute QT .
Source: ARML
Solution. We aim to use the Law of Cosines on triangle ∆T BQ with respect to ∠T BQ.
To do this, we need to find ∠T BQ, T B, and BQ. Notice that since BCST and ABQR
are squares, BQ = AB = 4 and T B = BC = 6. Now, let ∠T BQ = x. By looking at
the angles incident at vertex B, we get that ∠CBA = 180 − x. Applying the Law of
Cosines to triangle ∆ABC with respect to ∠CBA, we get

82 = 62 + 42 − 2 · 4 · 6 cos(180 − x).

Solving for cos(180−x), we get cos(180−x) = − 14 . Using the identity that cos(180−x) =
− cos x, we get that cos x = 14 Now, we can apply the Law of Cosines on triangle ∆T BQ
with respect to ∠T BQ to get

QT 2 = 42 + 62 − 2 · 4 · 6 · cos x.
1
√
Plugging in cos x = 4
and solving for QT , we get QT = 2 10 . 4

18
7 Problems
1. ? In triangle 4JKL, tan K = 32 , angle J is right, and JK equals 2. What is KL?
Source: AoPS

2. ? Show that
csc2 (x) + sec2 (x) − cot2 (x) = 2 + tan2 (x)

3. ? Let ∆ABC have side lengths AB = 5, BC = 12, and AC = 13. Evaluate

sin(θ) ∗ cos(θ) ∗ tan(θ), where θ = ∠BAC.

4. ? Calculate sin( 12
π
) and cos( 12
π
).

5. ? Show that sec2 θ + csc2 θ = sec2 θ csc2 θ.

6. ? Show that
sin2 x − sin2 y = sin(x + y) sin(x − y).

7. ? Show that
2 sin x
tan 2x = .
sec x (cos4 x − sin4 x)
8. ? Show that
sin 3x + sin x
− cot x = .
cos 3x − cos x
9. ? Show that
2 tan x
sin 2x = .
1 + tan2 x
10. ? Evaluate the expression
tan 45◦ sec 74◦ tan 75◦ sin 26◦ cos 67◦
sin 23◦ cos 25◦ tan 40◦ tan 50◦ csc 65◦

11. ? What is sin 2x if csc2 x + sec2 x = 10?

√
12. ? Triangle ABC has side lengths AB = 5 2, BC = 9, and CA = 13. What is
the measure angle of ABC? Source: AoPS

13. ?? ABCD is a regular tetrahedron (right pyramid whose faces are all equilateral
triangles). If M is the midpoint of CD, then what is cos ∠ABM ?

14. ?? What is the maximum value a, such that in a sequence x1 , x2 , . . . , xa such that
there are no two numbers c and d that satisfy 0 ≤ 1+x
xc −xd
c xd
≤ 1?

15. ?? Given that x + y = 80◦ and tan x tan y + tan x − tan y + 1 = 0, find x.

16. ?? Given that (1 + sin t)(1√+ cos t) = 5/4, find the value of (1 − sin t)(1 − cos t),
Source: AIME, Ans: 13 4
− 10

19
17. ?? Triangle ABC is isosceles, with AB = AC and altitude AM = 11. Suppose
that there is a point D on AM with AD =√10 and ∠BDC = 3∠BAC. Find the
perimeter of 4ABC Source: AIME, Ans: 605 + 11
18. ?? Find the least positive integer n such that
1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + = .
sin 45◦sin 46 ◦ sin 47 sin 48
◦ ◦ sin 133 sin 134
◦ ◦ sin n◦
Source: AIME, Ans: 1
19. ?? For what values is tan(3θ) > 1?
20. ?? Show the following identities:
 
arccos x ± arccos y = arccos xy ∓ (1 − x2 ) (1 y2) (1)
q
−
 
arccos x ± arccos y = arccos xy ∓ (1 − x2 ) (1 − y 2 ) (2)
q

!
x±y
arctan x ± arctan y = arctan (3)
1 ∓ xy

21. ?? Triangle ABC has sides AB, BC, and CA of length 43, 13, and 48, respectively.
Let ω be the circle circumscribed around 4ABC and let D be the intersection of
ω and the perpendicular bisector of AC that
√ is not on the same side of AC as B.
The length of AD can be expressed as m n, where m and n are positive integers
and n is not divisible √by the square of any prime. Find the greatest integer less
than or equal to m + n. Ans, Source: Mock AIME Ans, 12
22. ?? (Tangent half-angle substitution) For x ∈ [−π, π], let t = tan(x/2). Show that
x t x 1
   
sin =√ and cos =√ .
2 1 + t2 2 1 + t2

23. Given tan θ sec θ = 1, find

1 + sin θ 1 − sin θ
− .
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ
Source: AoPS
24. ?? Find all solutions, in radians, to the equation cos 2x(1 + tan 2x) = 1.
25. ?? What’s the largest possible area of a triangle that has side lengths 6, 2, 020,
and x, where x is a real number, and why?
26. ?? Find the number of solutions to
1
 x
sin x =
2
on the interval (0, 100π). Source: AoPS

20
27. ?? Let S be the set of all real numbers x such that 0 ≤ x ≤ 2016π and sin x <
3 sin(x/3). The set S is the union of a finite number of disjoint intervals. Compute
the total length of all these intervals. Source: Math Prize For Girls Ans: 1008π

28. ?? Triangle ∆ABC has a property where tan A = 2 and tan B = 3, find the angle
value of C.

29. ?? For any angle 0 < θ < π2 , show that

0 < sin θ + cos θ + tan θ + cot θ − sec θ − csc θ < 1.

Source: HMMT

30. ? ? ? Find the minimum value of

| sin x + cos x + tan x + cot x + sec x + csc x|

for real numbers x.

31. ? ? ? Triangle ∆ABC has side lengths AB = 3, BC = 4, and AC = 5. A crease

is folded such that point A maps to A’. A’ lies on BC, such that A’B = 1. What
is the length of the crease?

32. ? ? ? Let f (x) = log10 (sin(πx) · sin(2πx) · sin(3πx) · · · sin(8πx)). The intersection
of the domain of f (x) with the interval [0, 1] is a union of n disjoint open intervals.
What is n? Source: AoPS

33. ? ? ? Find the number of solutions to the equation

tan(5π cos θ) = cot(5π sin θ)

where θ ∈ (0, 2π). Source: AoPS

34. ? ? ? Let S be the set of all real values of x with 0 < x < π2 such that sin x, cos x,
and tan x form the side lengths (in some order) of a right triangle.√Compute the
sum of tan2 x over all x in S. Source: Math Prize For Girls Ans: 2

35. ? ? ? Triangle ABC has positive integer side lengths with AB = AC. Let I be the
intersection of the bisectors of ∠B and ∠C. Suppose BI = 8. Find the smallest
possible perimeter of 4ABC. Source: AIME Ans: 108

36. ? ? ? If 6 tan−1 x + 4 tan−1 (3x) = π, compute x2 . Source: AoPS

37. ? ? ? If
sin x sin y cos x cos y
+ = 1 and + = 6,
cos y cos x sin y sin x
tan x tan y
then find tan y
+ tan x
. Source: AoPS

21
38. ? ? ? A tripod has three legs each of length 5 feet. When the tripod is set up,
the angle between any pair of legs is equal to the angle between any other pair,
and the top of the tripod is 4 feet from the ground. In setting up the tripod, the
lower 1 foot of one leg breaks off. Let h be the height in feet of the top of the
tripod from the ground when the broken tripod is set up. Then h can be written
in the form √mn , where m and n are positive integers and n is not divisible by the
√
square of any prime. Find bm + nc. Source: AIME Ans, 183

39. ? ? ? Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral with AB = BC = CD, AC 6= BD,

and let E be the intersection point of its diagonals. Prove that AE = DE if and
only if ∠BAD + ∠ADC = 120◦ . Source: BMO

40. ? ? ? Let α and β be angles for which

sec4 α sec4 β
+
tan2 β tan2 α
is defined. Find the minimum value of the expression. Source: AoPS

22