Institut Universitaire et Stratégique de l’Estuaire

Estuary Academic and Strategic Institute(IUEs/Insam)

sous la tutelle académique des Universités de Buéa, de Douala et de Dschang

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNIQUES (ICT)

DEPARTMENTS//OPTIONS
Dept. of MEDICAL AND BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES
Options: NUS,MIT,PHT,MID,PHY,MLS

COURSE PARTICULARS
Course code: NUS127, MLS237…
Course title: Information and Communication Techniques – ICT
N0. of Units :2
Course Duration: ……hrs
Course Status: Compulsory.
Course email: [email protected]
Prerequisite: Functioning Laptop
Course Link:

COURSE INSTRUCTOR
Mr. M. N. ANYANG
Dept. of ELECTRICAL-ELECTRRONIC AND POWER ENGINEERING
Phone: +237671007111…\\+237699994319
Email : [email protected]
GENERAL OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this course students are to be able to apprehend the following
concept:

➢ Computer architecture.
➢ Understand and be able to give basic definitions relating to computer studies.
➢ Number systems and binary arithmetic
➢ Components of a computer (hardware/software)
➢ OS
➢ MSword
➢ MSexcel
➢ MS-PP
➢ Operations on Spreadsheets
➢ Operations on Statistical table (Input of command function, creation of graph,
output exportation etc.)
➢ Presentation and work analysis using EPI software
➢ Concepts of computer networks
➢ Computer security.

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SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of chapter one, students are to be able to apprehend the following
concept:

➢ Computer architecture.
➢ Understand and be able to give basic definitions relating to computer studies.
➢ Number systems and binary arithmetic
➢ Components of a computer (hardware/software)
➢ OS
➢ MSword
➢ MSexcel
➢ MS-PP

Upon completion of chapter two students are expected to:

✓ Analyze data using spreadsheet

✓ Represent data graphically using MS Excel
✓ Produce/Prepare Presentations using Power Point
✓ Creation of the statistical tables
✓ Creation of questionnaires using Epi Info

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 CHAPTER ONE

TECHNIQUES OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION 1

1.1 COMPUTER BASICS

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
In computer fields computer architecture is a set of rules and ways that explain the functionality,
organization and implementation of computer systems. Some definition of computer architecture
and organization describes the capabilities and programming of a computer model but not a
particular implementation

The term computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic

and electromechanical components. By itself a computer has no intelligence and is referred
to as hardware. A computer can’t be used until it is connected to other parts of a computer
system and software installed.

1.1.2 HISTORY

THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS AND COMMUNICATION I-

DEFINITIONS:
Computer: A computer is an electronic programmable machine that store and process data to
produce information. Similarly, the act of performing or controlling operation by computer is
known as computerization.
Computer Science:This is thestudy of mathematics and technology of computers and their
applications. Data:This term refers to something that can be process by a computer.Data can
be: text, son, video, image or numbers.
Information: Information is the result of a combination of data.

II- HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF MACHINES AND

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 PROCESSING SYSTEMS
The term processing system refers to the way to process data by machines like calculators or
computers. The idea to create computer began with people who wanted an easy way to calculate
numbers. To become what it is today, the computer has gone through several inventions. The
evolution of the computer can be divided into two main eras: The mechanical era and the
electronic era.
A- The mechanical Era
This is the era when people calculated numbers using mechanical machines likeAbacus,
Schickard machine, Pascaline calculator, Stepped Reckoner. These machines were used
to make arithmetic calculations like addition, multiplication, subtraction or division. In 1822,
Charles Babbage designed his first mechanical machine called Difference Engine. In 1833
Babbage designed another machine called Analytic Engine that could be programmed to
evaluate any formula expressible in terms of arithmetic operations. The electronic computers
that are use today are based on the principles of Analytic Engine. This is why some people
refer to Charles Babbage as the father of Computer Science. After Analytic machine, Digital
computer was invented by George Boole then Hermann Hollerith invented a mechanical
calculating machine called Hollerith’s Calculator. Before the 1920s, the term “computers”
was the name giving to the human clerks that performed calculation. After 1920s, the term
“computing machine” referred to any machine that performed the work of a human computer.

B- The Electronic Era

In electronic era, some electronic machines like ABC, Z3, Colossus were invented.
Similarly in 1946, the first general-purpose programmable electronic computer called
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was built by John Eckert. Other
computers like EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic computer), UNIVAC I
(Universal Accounting Computer I) were invented. In 1965, the first commercial
supercomputer known as Control Data 6600 was developed. Four years later, the project of
building of the first computer network called ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Agency Network) was started. In 1971, Ray Tomlinson of ARPANET sent the world’s first
e-mail. In 1975 compact Disc was invented. In 1981, Microsoft Corporation released a
powerful operating system called MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) for the
IBM personal computer. In 1983, Internet was defined as the collection of computers
communicating via TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol). In 1991
the World Wide Web (WWW) was launched. In 1994 Intel Corporation released the first
Pentium Processor.

EVOLUTION AND TYPES OF COMPUTERS

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 I- EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
The evolution of computer in classifying in five generations such as:
1- The First Generation or Vacuum tube generation (1944-1958): These computers
use punched cards and magnetic tapes for their input and output media and hundreds of vacuum
tubes for their main memory. They were generally very slow and produced a lot of heat. Example:
ENIAC, UNIVAC.
2- The Second Generation or Transistor Generation (1959-1963): In replacement of
Vacuum Tubes, this generation of computers used Transistors and some others devices for the
computer’s electrical system. Magnetic cores formed part of the main memory and removable
magnetic disk packs were introduced as storage devices. This generation was more reliable and
significantly faster and smaller in size thanthose of the first generation.

3- The Third Generation or Integrated circuit Generation (1964-1970): These

computers used circuits built on a single piece of silicon called chip. This generation started
supporting multiprogramming (processing more than one program at a time). In this generation,
the size of computer still decreased further while the speed of operation and reliability increased.

4- The fourth Generation or Electronic Generation (1971-Present: This generation

of computers uses Large Scale Integration (LSI) circuits. The capacity and speed of operation of
the computer increase tremendously.

5- The Fifth Generation or Virtual Intelligence Generation (Present-

Future): In this generation of computers, we would expect to see change that would lead to
the following:
A further decrease in size of the computer,
A computer with virtually unlimited memory,
A computer with even greater speed of operation, A computer which is more efficient,
A computer that would use less power and produce less heat A real-time computer
The initial document of computer architecture was the correspondence between Charles Babbage
and Ada Lovelace that described the analytic engine.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers are broadly classified into two categories depending upon the logic used in their design
as:
1. Analog computers:

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In analog computers, data is recognized as a continuous measurement of a physical property like
voltage, speed, pressure etc. Readings on a dial or graphs are obtained as the output, ex. Voltage,
temperature; pressure can be measured in this way.

2. Digital Computers:

These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are programmable. They process data by
way of mathematical calculations, comparison, sorting etc. They accept input and produce output
as discrete signals representing high (on) or low (off) voltage state of electricity. Numbers,
alphabets, symbols are all represented as a series of 1s and Os.

Digital Computers are further classified as General Purpose Digital Computers and Special
Purpose Digital Computers. General Purpose computers can be used for any applications like
accounts, payroll, data processing etc. Special purpose computers are used for a specific job like
those used in automobiles, microwav es etc.

Another classification of digital computers is done on the basis of their capacity to access memory
and size like:

• Small Computers:

Microcomputers: Microcomputers are generally referred to as Personal Computers (PCs). They

have Smallest memory and less power. They are widely used in day to day applications like office
automation, and professional applications, ex. PC- AT, Pentium etc.

Note Book and Laptop Computers: These are portable in nature and are battery operated. Storage
devices like CDs, floppies etc. and output devices like printers can be connected to these
computers. Notebook computers are smaller in physical size than lap top computers. However,
both have powerful processors, support graphics, and can accept mouse driven input.

Microcomputer

Notebook or Laptop Handheld Computer Small Computers

• Hand Held Computers:

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These types of computers are mainly used in applications like collection of field data. They are
even smaller than the note book computers.

• Hybrid Computers:

Hybrid Computers are a combination of Analog and Digital computers. They combine the speed
of analog computers and accuracy of digital computers. They are mostly used in specialized
applications where the input data is in an analog form i.e. measurement. This is converted into
digital form for further processing. The computers accept data from sensors and produce output
using conventional input/output devices.

• Mini Computers:

Mini computers are more powerful than the micro computers. They have higher memory capacity
and more storage capacity with higher speeds. These computers are mainly used in process control
systems. They are mainly used in applications like payrolls, financial accounting, Computer aided
design etc. ex. VAX, PDP-11

• Mainframe Computers:

Main frame computers are very large computers which process data at very high speeds of the
order of several million instructions per second. They can be linked into a network with smaller
computers, micro computers and with each other. They are typically used in large organizations,
government departments etc. ex. IBM4381, CDC

• Super Computers:

A super computer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive computer which is used for
complex tasks that require a lot of computational power. Super computers have multiple processors
which process multiple instructions at the same time. This is known as parallel processing. These
computers are widely used in very advanced applications like weather forecasting, processing
geological data etc. ex. CRAY-2, NEC - 500, PARAM.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

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Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern world.
Some of the major application areas include:

1 Scientific, Engineering and Research:

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are used in areas which require
lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, weather forecasting, and complex mathematical and
engineering applications. Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing
(CAM) help in designing robotics, automobile manufacturing, automatic process control devices
etc.

2. Business:

Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts are all the areas of
business and industry where computers are used to a great extent. Database management is one of
the major area where computers are used on a large scale. The areas of application here include
banking, airline reservations, etc. where large amounts of data need to be updated, edited, sorted,
searched from large databases.

3 Medicine:

Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient data like , pulse rate, blood
pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis. Modern day medical equipment are highly
computerized today. Computers are also widely used in medical research.

4 Information:

This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet, networks are all
based on computers.

5 Education:

The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students develop the habit of
thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving techniques. CDs on a variety of
subjects are available to impart education. On line training programs for students are also

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becoming popular day by day. All the major encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now
available in the digital form and therefore are easily accessible to the student of today. Creativity
in drawing, painting, designing, decoration, music etc. can be well developed with computers.

6 Games and Entertainment:

Computer games are popular with children and adults alike. Computers are nowadays also used in
entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS

Advantages of Computers:

• Speed: The speed of a computer is measured in terms of the number of instructions that
it can perform or execute in a second. The speeds of computers are measured in milli-seconds
(10~3 sec), micro-seconds (10*6 sec), and nano-seconds (10~9sec). Computers are superfast
machines and can process millions of instructions per second. Smaller computers can execute
thousands of instructions per second, while the more complex machines can execute millions of
instructions per second.

• Accuracy: Computers are very accurate. They are capable of executing hundreds of
instructions without any errors. They do not make mistakes in their computations. They perform
each and every calculation with the same accuracy.

• Efficiency: The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age. The computers can
perform repeated tasks with the same efficiency any number of times without exhausting there
selves. Even if they are instructed to execute millions of instructions, they are capable of executing
them all with the same speed and efficiency without exhaustion.

• Storage Capability: Computers are capable of storing large amounts of data in their
storage devices. These dev ices occupy very less space and can store millions of characters in
condensed forms. These storage devices typically include floppy disks, tapes, hard disks, CDs etc,
the data stored on these devices can be retrieved and reused whenever it is required in future

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• Versatility: Computers are very versatile. They are capable not only of performing
complex mathematical tasks of science and engineering, but also other non- numerical operations
filing air-line reservation, electricity bills, data base management etc.

Limitations of Computers:

Although the computers of today are highly intelligent and sophisticated they have their own
limitations. The computer cannot think on its own, since it does not have its own brain. It can only
do what is has been programmed to do. It can execute only those jobs that can be expressed as a
finite set of instructions to achieve a specific goal. Each of the steps has to be clearly defined. The
computers do not learn from previous experience nor can they arrive at a conclusion without going
through all the intermediate steps. However the impact of computers on today’s society in
phenomenal and they are today an important part of the society.

1.1.3 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Definition: Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and
hardware technology standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In short, computer
architecture refers to how a computer system is designed and what technologies it is compatible
with.
It is a frame work and fundamental description of the requirements and design implementation for
the various parts of a computer focusing largely on the way the central processing unit CPU
performs internally and accesses addresses in the memory.

There are three categories of computer architecture, and all work together to make a machine
function

SYSTEM DESIGN
System design includes all hardware parts of a computer, including data processors,
multiprocessors, memory controllers, and direct memory access. It also includes the graphics
processing unit (GPU). This part is the physical computer system.

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INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE (ISA)
This includes the functions and capabilities of the central processing unit (CPU). It is the embedded
programming language and defines what programming it can perform or process. This part is the
software that makes the computer run, such as operating systems like Windows on a PC or iOS on
an Apple iPhone, and includes data formats and the programmed instruction set.

MICROARCHITECTURE
Microarchitecture is also known as computer organization and defines the data processing and
storage element and how they should be implemented into the ISA. It is the hardware
implementation of how an ISA is implemented in a particular processor.

1.1.4 LAYERS OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Every architecture of a computer has 6 layers

✓ Electrical and electronic component level

Almost all modern computer devices are built from simple electric components such as resistors,
transistors, a capacitor which works on suitable power supply.

✓ Digital logic level

All the basic operations of the machine are provided at this level. The basic elements at this level
can store, manipulates and transmit data in simple binary form. These logic elements are called
gates which are constructed from small number of transistors and other components.

✓ Micro programmed level

In this level a sequence of micro instruction constitute the micro programming which we call
firmware, which is permanently stored in the ROM (read only memory). At the early stages of
computer evolution, the microprogramming level was built from a combination of digital logic
components.

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The use of microprogramming levels enables manufacturers to produce a family of processors all
of which process the same set of machine instructions at the machine level which differs in terms
of construction and speed.

✓ Machine level

Several hardware levels are presented in machine level. These are the basic elements of the
computer. They are processor, input/output devices, main memory, auxiliary storage etc.

✓ System software level

The program that directs the internal operation of a computer system is called system software.

✓ Application program level: The program that directs the computer to solve user-oriented
problems are called application software

1.1.5 TYPES OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Given below are the types of Computer Architecture:

1. VON-NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

This architecture is proposed by john von-Neumann. Now a day’s computer we are using are based
on von-Neumann architecture. It is based on some concepts.

The memory we have a single read/write memory available for read and write instructions and
data. When we talk about memory, it is nothing but the single location which is used for reading
and writing instructions for the data and instructions are also present in it. Data and instructions
are stored in a single read/write memory within the computer system.

Each memory has multiple locations and each location has a unique address. We can address the
contents of memory by its location irrespective of what type of data and instructions are present in
the memory, because of which we can read or write any data and instructions. Execution always
occurs in a sequential manner unless the change is required. For example, suppose we are
executing an instruction from line 1 to line 10 but now we required to execute line 50 instead of
line 11 then we jump to instruction 50 and execute it.

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 Fig 1: Von-Neumann Architecture

There is a bus (address bus/data bus/control bus) used for the instruction and data code execution.
Input device takes data or instruction and the Central processing unit (CPU) performs one
operation at a time, either fetching data or instruction in/out of the memory. Once the operation is
done it is sent to the output device. Control and logic units for processing operations are within the
central processing unit.

2. HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
Harvard architecture is used when data and code is present in different memory blocks. A separate
memory block is needed for data and instruction. Data can be accessed by one memory location
and instruction can be accessed by a different location. It has data storage entirely contained within
the central processing unit (CPU). A single set of clock cycles is required. The pipeline is possible.
It is complex to design. CPU can read and write instructions and process data access. Harvard
architecture has different access codes and data address spaces that is, the instruction address zero
is not the same as data address zero. Instruction address zero identifies 24-byte value and data
address zero identifies 8-byte value which is not the part of the 24-byte value.

Modified Harvard architecture is like a Harvard architecture machine and it has a common address
space for the separate data and instruction cache. It has digital signal processors that will execute
small or highly audio or video algorithms and it is reproducible. Microcontrollers have a small

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number of programs and data memory and it speeds up the processing by executing parallel
instructions and data access.

We can observe in the below image, there are separate data and instruction memory that is a bus
available to perform operations. It is contained entirely within the Central processing unit. It can
perform Input/output operation simultaneously and it has a separate arithmetic and logic unit.

Figure 2: Harvard Architecture

1.1.6 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO ICT

1. Computing
Computing is the process of using computer technology to complete a given goal-oriented task.
Computing may encompass the design and development of software and hardware systems for a
broad range of purposes - often structuring, processing and managing any kind of information - to
aid in the pursuit of scientific studies, making intelligent systems, and creating and using different
media for entertainment and communication.

It also has specific meanings depending on the context and field in which it is used. For example,
cloud computing, social computing, ubiquitous computing, parallel computing and grid computing
all fall under the umbrella of the general meaning of computing while still having a specific
purpose and definition separate from each other. Essentially, these are different applications of
computing.

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Computing is any activity that uses computers to manage, process, and communicate information.
It includes development of both hardware and software. Computing is a critical, integral
component of modern industrial technology. Major computing disciplines include computer
engineering, software engineering, computer science, information systems, and information
technology.

No matter how you define it, though, computing all boils down to one big fundamental question:
What can be successfully automated?

2. Information

Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics

✓ Timely − Information should be available when required.

✓ Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
✓ Completeness − Information should be complete
3. Computer

Computer: A computer is an electronic programmable machine that store and process data to
produce information. Similarly, the act of performing or controlling operation by computer is
known as computerization

4. Data

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner,

which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or electronic
machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special
characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

5. Program

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Computer program, detailed plan or procedure for solving a problem with a computer; more
specifically.

6. Software

The term computer software refers collectively to the programs or group of programs that are
used in the computer system. Programs are the set of detail and related instructions that tells the
computer what to do one step at a time. Companies that produce software are called software
house. Software is often divided into two major groups i.e. system software and application
software. It is prohibited by law to copy, use or sell software that is copyrighted. This is referred
to as piracy. Software can be purchased or acquired as shareware, freeware, public domain
software and open source.
1. FREEWARE; this is a software that is available free of charge but still having copyright
restriction.
2. SHAREWARE; this is a copyrighted software that is distributed free of charge but
requires users to pay a fee in order to receive technical help, or upgrades.
3. PUBLIC DOMAIN SOFTWARE; this is a software that is not protected by any
copyright law and thus may be duplicated by anyone at will.
4. OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE; this is a software where the source code is available to
the user and they agree that any user can improve on it.
Software is often packaged on CD-ROMs and diskettes and we can also pay and download them
from the internet.

1.1.7 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

This is the software that controls the operation of the computer and application software that it
runs. It main components include; the Operating System, Utility programs, Language translators,
the editor, device drivers, programming tools, loaders and linkers. System software starts up the
computer and function as the principal coordinator of all hardware’s components and application
software programs.

a) OPERATING SYSTEM

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This is a software that controls and manages all hardware and software operation in a computer
system. The operating system is thus the master program that runs the computer behind the scene
while you work. Some well- known examples of operating system includes; MS Windows, MS
DOS, Mac O.S, Linux, UNIX.

FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

Obviously, the O.S for standalone microcomputer system will be very much simpler than those
of the supercomputer which is controlling hundreds of terminals and running many different kinds
of jobs simultaneously. Nevertheless, all O.S perform certain basic functions including;
1. MEMORY MANAGEMENT: Most computers nowadays are capable of holding several
programs in the memory simultaneously so that users can switch from one application to
another. This allows for multitasking which is the act of running different application or
task simultaneously. The O.S allocates memory for each application, as well as to itself.
2. MANAGING PROGRAMS AND DATA: The O.S locates and accesses files and
programs requested by users and other programs. Some of the ways O.S manages
operations more efficiently are multitasking, multiprogramming, time sharing,
multiprocessing and batch processing.
3. MANAGEMENT OF COMPUTER RESOURCES: The O.S coordinates and manages
computer resources (hardware’s and software’s). In general, it acts like an interface
between hardware-software, software-software.
4. RESOURCE ALLOCATION AND SCHEDULING: In larger computers, which are
capable of running several programs at once (multiprogramming), the O.S is responsible
for allocating processing time, memory and input-output resources to each one.
5. BANKING STORE MANAGEMENT: The O.S controls the transfer of data from
secondary storage (eg disk) to main memory and back. Therefore, it acts like an interface
between the secondary storage and the memory.
6. MAINTAIN DISK DIRECTORY: The O.S maintains a directory of the disk so that files
and free space can be quickly located for used by the processor.
7. INTERUPT HANDLING: The O.S detects many different kinds of interrupts, for
example, a user pressing the Enter key on the keyboard for long, a printer sending a

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 message that it is out of paper, hardware or software malfunction.
Interrupts: this is the ability of a computer to respond to any unpredictable work that is
send to them. The interrupt feature enables a computer to suspend whatever it is doing
and switch to something else in respond to an interruption. The suspended work is stored
in a stack using a technique called LIFO (last in first out) i.e. what is recorded last in a
stack is the first to be used.
8. ALLOWS A USER TO COMMUNICATE WITH THE COMPUTER: It acts like an
interface between the computer and the user. The Graphic User Interface allows the user
to communicate with the hardware’s and software’s.
9. MANAGES SECURITY: Many O.S allocates certain rights to users. A user can only
have access to a computer system on entering a password.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

O.S can be classified in to different types or kinds, some of which are described below. Looking
at the sizes and the different functions of the computer, we can see the need of different types of
O.S.
1. MAINFRAME O.S: This O.S is for mainframes. These are very large computers
with so many terminals and of about 1000 disk with thousands of gigabytes of data.
Mainframe O.S offers three kinds of services; batch, transaction processing and time
sharing system.
✓ A batch system: It supports batch processing. Here, there is increase in through put (i.e.
the total number of jobs completed per unit time) and reduces the turnaround time (i.e.
time between job submission and job completion) since a batch of several jobs can be loaded
and executed at the same time. Electric bills are usually processes in batches.
✓ Transaction processing system handles large number of all requests such as in a
reservation system where each unit of work is small but the system must handle thousands
or hundreds per second.
✓ Time sharing allows multiple remote new jobs to be done on the computer at once time
such as querying a database.

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 2. SERVER OPERATING SYSTEM: They run on servers, which are very large PC,
workstations, or even mainframes. They serve multiple users at the same time over a network
and allow the users to share hardware’s and software’s. Examples includes; Win 2000, UNIX,
Linux etc.

3. MULTIPROCESSOR O.S: Allows many users (people) simultaneously to used

resources of the central computer such as a mainframe computer, or super computer. Multi
user O.S processes all information requested and determines. For example; the order in which
documents are printed on the printer, which last will receive priority for CPU processing etc.
network O.S falls in this category.

4. NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM: This O.S is required when a number of

computers are connected together in a network. It controls who logs onto the network by
means of user names and passwords, in other to protect the data and programs stored on the
network.

5. PERSONAL COMPUTER OPERATING SYSTEM: This type is designed for a single

user at a time, using personal technology devices such as smart phone, notebook computer,
personal digital assistance (PDA), and desktop computers. e.g. MS Windows Vista, Mac
Q8X, Linux.

6. REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEM: They are characterized by four requirements.

✓ They have to support application programs which are non-sequential in nature, i.e.
programs which do not have a START-PROCESS-END structure.
✓ They have to deal with sequential events which happen in parallel and at unpredictable
moment in time (e.g. a user clicking a mouse button).
✓ The have to carry out processing and produce a response within a specific interval of time.
✓ Some systems are safety critical, meaning they must be fail-safe and guarantee a response
within a specific time interval.
✓ Multithreading: Supports several simultaneous tasks within the same application.

b) UTILITY PROGRAMS

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This is a type of system software designed to support application programs, O.S or the
computer user.
Examples include;
1. Disk management programs: These are programs used for formatting and
defragmenting storage disk. E.g. Scandisk.
2. Data recovery programs: These are programs used for recovering deleted or damage
(corrupted files).
3. Data compression programs: This program makes the data or information more
compact, reduce the size or space occupied by the data. E.g WinZip, WinRAR etc

4. Anti-virus program: This programs detect and eliminates computer viruses and other
unwanted software’s in your computer.

5. Screen savers: It is a moving designed that comes on after a set time passes with no
activity on the monitor screen. It helps to protect your work from intruders and keep the
screen from sitting for too long with one picture on it, in which this can caused a
permanent shadow on older monitors.

c) COMPUTER VIRUS: A computer virus is a type of malicious code or program written

to alter the way a computer operates and is designed to spread from one computer to another.
A virus operates by inserting or attaching itself to a legitimate program or document that
supports macros in order to execute its code. In the process, a virus has the potential to cause
unexpected or damaging effects, such as harming the system software by corrupting or
destroying data

TYPES of virus

1. Trojan horse: It is a program that has the appearance of having a useful and desired
function. It starts causing damage when launch. It neither replicates nor copies itself. It
may be send by someone or carry by another program in the form of joke programs.
2. Worms: it damages the security of a computer, duplicates itself and causes
malfunctioning of the computer. It can be transmitted from one system to another, shared

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 affected programs or from the internet.
3. Boot sector virus: it attaches itself to the boot sector of the computer hard disk that
contains the boot files such as comman.com, config.sys, autoexec.bat.
4. Macro-viruses: They use another application programs such macros to distribute itself.
They affect documents such as MS Word, MS Excel etc.
5. Memory residential viruses: Reside in the computer volatile memory (RAM). They are
initiated from a virus which runs on the computer and they stay in memory after its
initiating program closes.
6. Polymorphic virus: It replicates itself and changes it digital signature. This makes it
difficult for less sophisticated anti-virus software to detect it.
7. Log: Bombs/time bombs: These are viruses which are programmed to initiate at a
specific data, when a specific event occurs or at a specific time.
8. Rootkit virus: This is an undetectable virus which attempt to allow someone to gain
control of a computer system.

d) PROGRAMMING TOOLS
This program helps in configuring and maintaining other programs in the computer. E.g VScode

e) DEVICE DRIVERS
It is a small system program that is added to an O.S to allow the computer communicates with
new hardware like printers, sound cards, scanners etc. this program can be added directly on an
O.S when producing it or comes with the hardware as an additional program on diskettes, CDs
etc.

f) SERVERS
This is a program that provides other computers on a network with information. It is mostly in
server computers of a client-server network.

g) LORDERS
This system software translates and transfer programs from storage disk to main memory for
execution.

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h) LINKERS
This system software builds a complete executable or processed program form two or more
segments of a machine language program.

i) OPERATING SYSTEM PLATFORMS

1. MS WINDOWS: The early versions of MS Windows, including Win 3.1 and 3.11, where
not full O.S. Because Win 3.1 was not an actual O.S, DOS has to be loaded into the memory first
when the machine is switch on. One primary objective of Win 3.1 was to allow multi-tasking
(allowing a user to have several applications running simultaneously and to switch between
them). MS Win 95, 98,2000, NT, Me, these are full O.S offering true multi-tasking and taking
full advantage of the 32-bit and 64-bit architecture of newer PCs. Other improvements include a
complete redesigned interface, and the ability to used long file names rather than being restricted
to 8 characters. It also provides “plug and play” support designed to make it easier to install
peripherals such as a new printer.
2. MACINTOSH OPERATING SYSTEM: Apple Mac. Computers uses Apple’s
unique O.S. it supports a GUI similar to MS Windows O.S although their look and feel is a
little different with the latest release of Mac. O.S. you can even enter your password by
speaking it in a way that matches how you originally recorded.
3. LINUX: This is an alternative O.S for most computers. It has the advantage of
being free of charge and can be downloaded from the internet. This is because it is an open
source software.

j) USER INTERFACE
It provides the means for you to communicate with the computer. It is the environment you see
when you turn on your computer and it may consist of the cursors, prompts, icons, menus etc. It
may be command driven, menu driven, graphical or voice recognition.

CHARACTERISTICS OF USER – FRIENDLY INTERFACE

1. Consistency: Each part of the software should behave the same way as the other.

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2. Color for the user interface should be carefully chosen.
3. Sound should be an option which should be turn off by a user who does not want it.
4. Help facilities should be included to assist the user.

✓ The command-driven (line) interface: The command driven interface allows the user to
type in a string of characters to issue commands in exactly the correct way, to perform any
operation. This allows more complex commands to be entered than by using a mouse. This is
slower for an average user, since he/she has to remember many commands in order to use the
software. DOS is an example of a command driven interface. A DOS prompt appearing on a
blank screen shows which drive and folder are current or active. Eg. C:\Windows>. To change
drive, the user types the drive specification ending with a column (:) and an Enter key. E.g.
C:\windows>d: Enter, this changes from the C prompt (C :\) to the D:\ prompt. You can load
folder by typing cd folder name Enter. I.e. from D:\cd windows Enter to D:\windows>. You
can off load a folder by typing cd..Enter. i.e. D:\windows>cd..Enter.

✓ The menu driven interface.

In this case, lists of commands or options are available within a program which allows the
user to make a selection by using either the mouse or keyboard. Examples include; MS
Windows, Apple Macintosh Operating System.

✓ Graphic user interface (GUI)

This uses pictorial figure or graphics called icons to represents tasks, functions and
programs. An input device such as the mouse is used. Example MS Windows.

✓ Voice Recognition interface.

Here, you speak directly to the computer. It is very important and useful for handicapped
people with limited movement. Microphones are used for audio input

k) COMPUTER PROCESSING:
An action or series of actions that a microprocessor, also known as a central processing unit
(CPU), in a computer performs when it receives information is referred to as computer processing.

TYPES OF PROCESSING
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1. Real Time Processing: Here, time is the key factor. This processing method is used when it
is essential that the input request is dealt with quickly enough so as to be able to control and
output property. E.g. Traffic light, car engine etc.
2. Transaction processing: In transaction processing, inputs are recorded by the computer, but
it deals with them after a short delay. It spends that delay handling other inputs and managing
data movements. E.g. ordering books online.
3. Batch processing: With batch processing, inputs are not processed until a certain number
have occurred or a set time has passed. So they are stored until the system comes online to
process the data in one “batch”. Batch process is usually fully automatic unlike real-time or
transactional processing which is interactive.
E.g. a stock control program may store records of every item sold in a shop that day. Then at
the end of each day, it calculates what needs to be ordered.

1.1.8 APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE

This is a software designed to help computer users perform or accomplish specific task, such as
writing a letter, tracking income and expenses, calculating income, tax, payroll, stock control.
They can be classified in three main classes; Tailor made software, General purpose software and
Specialist software.
1. Tailor made software: This software is designed or written specifically to meet the needs
of a particular company or organization. It might be written by the staff of the organization
or a company hired to do so. It is done only by companies with large computer department,
or in cases where application packages are not available. They are also called bespoke
software.

2. General purpose packages: This type of software is not specific to a particular type of
business. Most of them are sold as packages, including a CD containing the software and
manuals to help you get started and to be used as a reference. They are also known as generic
software. Examples include; word processor, spreadsheets, database, presentation etc.
3. Special purpose packages: These are software designed to be used for specific tasks such
as company payroll, stock control system, appointment system. They are developed by a

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 manufacturer in view of providing all of the features that they anticipate a company might
need. Specialist application packages are generally not available in shops and they often
have to be purchased directly from the specialist firm. They are also called off-the-shelf.
When an organization decides to computerizes an area of its business, a decision has to be
made whether to buy an off-the-shelf package or have software specially written (bespoke).

A) INTEGRATED SOFTWARE

The main productivity tools used by organization include word processing, spreadsheets,
database, presentation, and graphics and communications software.
Integrated package or software combine features from all five of these products. They offered
capabilities from all these packages in a single product at a relatively low price, and data could
be transferred between applications. However, a single integrated package (e.g. Microsoft work)
has fewer and less sophisticated features than are found in separately purchased packages.
They exist now software suites, which are “bundles” of all related software packages that are sold
together as one package. Examples; MS Office, Lotus smart suite.

ADVANTAGES OF INTEGRATED PACKAGES AND SUITES

I. Less expensive than buying software separately.

II. You can import and export data from one package to another.
III. The packages have the same look and feel.
IV. They have the same shortcut keys used for various operations e.g. F7 for spelling check.

B) PRODUCTIVITY TOOLS

This software make users more productive when performing a general task such as word
processing, spreadsheets, personal finance, presentation, graphics, database management, group
collaboration, desktop and personal information management, integrated and web browsing
application.
1. Word Processing Software: This is an application software that allows you to create,
Edith, format, store and print documents such as letters, reports etc. E.g. MS Word,

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 WordPad, Notepad.
2. Spreadsheet software: This is an application software that allows you to work with
numbers, calculation and create graphs. They are used for accounting, cash flows,
budgeting etc. they have the ability of constantly updating it data without the user having
to do any calculations. E.g. MS Excel.
3. Personal Financial software: It allows you to keep tracks of income and expenses, write
checks, and plan financial goals. This software can carry out the following functions;
tracking of income and expenses, check book management, reporting, income tax
calculation.
4. Web authoring software: This is an application software that helps to create, design
and develop web sites. The Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) allows you to specify
the content to appear on you web site and formatting of the content.
5. Graphic software: This is a software that allows you to create, Edith, store and print
photos and graphics of different sizes, colors etc. E.g. Paint, Adobe Photoshop,
Firework, Photo Impression etc.
6. Web browser and E-mail software: A web browser is an application software used for
viewing web pages and moving between them while e-mail software is that software
used for electronically communicating with other people. Example of web browsers;
Internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape etc

7. Desk top publishing program: This is an application software that extends work-
processing software by including design and formatting techniques to enhance the layout
and appearance of documents. They are used for designing newspapers and publishing.
E.g. MS Publisher, Adobe PageMaker etc.
8. computer Aided Design (CAD) and manufacturing (CAM); This is a graphic
software, but very advance and engineers, architects used it to produce high quality
technical drawing, drawn to scale. The sort of diagrams produced by these packages
includes plans of houses, maps, circuit diagrams, engineering drawing e.g. Auto CAD.
9. Sound and video software: This is an application software use for creating, and editing
audio (sound) and video e.g. Ulead video editing studio.
10. Presentation programs: This is a software that used graphics, data/information from
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 other software tools to communicate or make a presentation to others. E.g. MS
PowerPoint.
11. Database program; this is a software that allows you to arrange, modify, and extract
information from a database (logical collection of files). A database is a collection of
interrelated file in a computer system. These files are organized according to their
common elements so that they can easily be retrieved.

1.1.9 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING OR EVALUATING A SOFTWARE

PACKAGE

The most important point to enable you select a software package is how well the software meet
your needs. The following factors should be considered when choosing good software;
1. Functionality: The software should be able to support all that the user or institution needs.
2. Performance: This has to tell how well the required features of the software can perform
assigned tasks.
3. Compatibility or Resource requirement: There is a need to consider hardware
compatibility before proceeding to install any software.
4. Interface designed and usability: The user interface should be friendly enough to
accommodate and ease working on it.
5. Portability of data: This is the ability to run the same program on different types of
computer
6. Support: There should be tutorials, books, and some time, training courses available to
users. Upgradeability: New upgrade patches to remove bugs should be a good ability
from the software developer.
7. Robustness: This refer to the extent to which the software will run using the volumes of
data generated by the different users without crashing or causing errors. It will be crucial
to make the software function during testing with the volume of data that is likely to be
used.
8. Cost: The cost of installation of the new software, training, licensing, upgrade and
additional hardware will need to be considered.

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Differences between Software and a Program

1. Software contains many programs while a program is just a small part of software.
2. Software has license, label and paten while a program does not.
3. Software can be bought from the market while a program cannot.

1.1.10 HARDWARE:
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system.
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as the monitor,
mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound
cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can be touched

Figure 3: Parts of a Computer Unit

a) Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral piece of computer hardware equipment to provide data and control
signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information appliance.
Input device Translate data from form that humans understand to one that the computer can work
with. Most common are keyboard and mouse

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 Figure 4: Input Device

Example of Input Devices:-

1. Keyboard 2. Mouse (pointing device) 3. Microphone

4. Touch screen 5. Scanner 6. Webcam

7. Touchpads 8. MIDI keyboard 9.
10.Graphics Tablets 11.Cameras 12.Pen Input
13.Video Capture Hardware 14.Microphone 15.Trackballs

16.Barcode reader 17.Digital camera 18.Joystick

19.Gamepad 20.Electronic Whiteboard 21.
Table 1: Input Devices

b) CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes. Regarding
computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.
The CPU is comprised of three main parts:

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 ✓ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations. Arithmetic
calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operation like
compare numbers, letters, or special characters

✓ Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components.

1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.
2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the
hardware to perform the requested operation.

✓ Registers: Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage area".

c) Memory

Although many types of memory in a computer exist, the most basic distinction is between primary
memory (Internal Memory), often called system memory, and secondary memory (External
Memory), which is more commonly called storage.

The key difference between primary and secondary memory is speed of access.

✓ Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU on the
computer motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary memory very quickly
indeed. It is used to store data that the CPU needs imminently so that it does not have to
wait for it to be delivered.

✓ Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate storage

device, such as a hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD), which is connected to the
computer system either directly or over a network. The cost per gigabyte of secondary
memory is much lower, but the read and write speeds are significantly slower.

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 Figure 5: Types of Memory

Over several periods of computer evolution, a wide of array of computer memory types has been
deployed, each with its own strengths and weaknesses.

A. Primary Memory Types: RAM and ROM

There are two key types of primary memory:

1. RAM, or random access memory
2. ROM, or read-only memory
Let’s look in-depth at both types of memory.

1. RAM
The acronym RAM stems from the fact that data stored in Random Access Memory can be
accessed – as the name suggests – in any random order. Or, put another way, any random bit of
data can be accessed just as quickly as any other bit.

The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is very fast, it can be
written to as well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in RAM memory is lost when it loses
power) and, finally, it is very expensive compared to all types of secondary memory in terms of

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cost per gigabyte. It is because of the relative high cost of RAM compared to secondary memory
types that most computer systems use both primary and secondary memory.

Data that is required for imminent processing is moved to RAM where it can be accessed and
modified very quickly, so that the CPU is not kept waiting. When the data is no longer required it
is shunted out to slower but cheaper secondary memory, and the RAM space that has been freed
up is filled with the next chunk of data that is about to be used.

Types of RAM

✓ DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory, and it is the most
common type of RAM used in computers. The oldest type is known as Single Data Rate
(SDR) DRAM, but newer computers use faster dual data rate (DDR) DRAM. DDR comes
in several versions including DDR2 , DDR3, and DDR4, which offer better performance
and are more energy efficient than DDR. However different versions are incompatible, so
it is not possible to mix DDR2 with DDR3 DRAM in a computer system. DRAM consists
of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell.

✓ SRAM: SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory, and it is a particular type of
RAM which is faster than DRAM, but more expensive and bulker, having six transistors
in each cell. For those reasons SRAM is generally only used as a data cache within a CPU
itself or as RAM in very high-end server systems. A small SRAM cache of the most
imminently-needed data can result in significant speed improvements in a system

The key differences between DRAM and SRAM is that SRAM is faster than DRAM – perhaps
two to three times faster – but more expensive and bulkier. SRAM is usually available in
megabytes, while DRAM is purchased in gigabytes. DRAM uses more energy than SRAM because
it constantly needs to be refreshed to maintain data integrity, while SRAM – though volatile –
does not need constant refreshing when it is powered up.

✓ Double Data Rate SDRAM. DDR SRAM is SDRAM that can theoretically improve
memory clock speed to at least 200 MHz.

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 ✓ Double Data Rate 4 Synchronous Dynamic RAM. DDR4 RAM is a type of DRAM that
has a high-bandwidth interface and is the successor to its previous DDR2 and DDR3
versions. DDR4 RAM allows for lower voltage requirements and higher module density.
It is coupled with higher data rate transfer speeds and allows for dual in-line memory
modules (DIMMS) up to 64 GB.

✓ Rambus Dynamic RAM. DRDRAM is a memory subsystem that promised to transfer up

to 1.6 billion bytes per second. The subsystem consists of RAM, the RAM controller, the
bus that connects RAM to the microprocessor and devices in the computer that use it

2. ROM
ROM stands for read-only memory, and the name stems from the fact that while data can be read
from this type of computer memory, data cannot normally be written to it. It is a very fast type of
computer memory which is usually installed close to the CPU on the motherboard.

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in the
memory even when it receives no power – for example when the computer is turned off. In that
sense it is similar to secondary memory, which is used for long term storage.

When a computer is turned on, the CPU can begin reading information stored in ROM without the
need for drivers or other complex software to help it communicate. The ROM usually contains
“bootstrap code” which is the basic set of instructions a computer needs to carry out to become
aware of the operating system stored in secondary memory, and to load parts of the operating
system into primary memory so that it can start up and become ready to use.

ROM is also used in simpler electronic devices to store firmware which runs as soon as the device
is switched on.

Types of ROM

ROM is available in several different types, including PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

✓ PROM: PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and it is different from
true ROM in that while a ROM is programmed (i.e. has data written to it) during the

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 manufacturing process, a PROM is manufactured in an empty state and then programmed
later using a PROM programmer or burner.

✓ EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and as the
name suggests, data stored in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM reprogrammed.
Erasing an EPROM involves removing it from the computer and exposing it to ultraviolet
light before re-burning it.

✓ EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory, and the distinction between EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can be
erased and written to by the computer system it is installed in. In that sense EEPROM is
not strictly read-only. However in many cases the write process is slow, so it is normally
only done to update program code such as firmware or BIOS code on an occasional basis

Confusingly, NAND flash memory (such as that found in USB memory sticks and solid state disk
drives) is a type of EEPROM, but NAND flash is considered to be secondary memory.

3. CACHE MEMORY

This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available to the processor than the
computer's main memory source. It is also called CPU memory because it is typically integrated
directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip with a bus interconnect with the CPU

B. SECONDARY MEMORY (External) TYPES

Secondary memory stores data or programs permanently in the computer even when power is cut
off. It comprises many different storage media which can be directly attached to a computer
system. These include:

✓ HARD DISK DRIVES (HDD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive,"
"hard drive," or "hard disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to large
amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.

✓ SOLID STATE DRIVES (SSDs): Have same capabilities as HHD with an addition
feature which is relatively high speed of communication.

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 ✓ Optical (CD or DVD) drives: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser
light as part of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Compact
discs (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVDs), and Blu-ray discs are common types of
optical media which can be read and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is the generic
name; drives are usually described as "CD" "DVD", or "Bluray", followed by "drive",
"writer", etc. There are three main types of optical media: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc.
CDs can store up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data and DVDs can store up to 8.4 GB of
data. Blu-ray discs, which are the newest type of optical media, can store up to 50 GB
of data. This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the floppy disk storage media (a
magnetic media), which only has a capacity of 1.44 MB.
CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs and Blu-ray drives come in rewritable drive types. RW drives
have all the functionality of their read-only counterparts but can also write data on the disk.
Write speeds are typically slower than read speeds to maintain stability; write processes
are highly sensitive to shock and can corrupt the disk beyond repair when forcibly
interrupted. While RW drives can write multiple times, writable disks come in one-time
write (R) and multiple-time write (RW) variations.

✓ Flash Disk
A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no mechanical platters or
access arms, but the term "disk" is used because the data are accessed as if they were on a hard
drive. The disk storage structure is emulated.

The table below gives a comparison between the Main memory RAM and Secondary memory
HDD

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 Table 2: Difference Btn RAM and HDD

d) OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results
of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which
converts the electronically generated information into human- readable form. The figure below
gives pictorial examples of output devices.

Figure 6: Output Devices

Example on Output Devices:

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 1. Monitor 2. LCD Projection Panels
3. Printers (all types) 4. Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
5. Plotters 6. Speaker(s)
7. Projector
Table 3: Output Devices
Note Basic types of monitors are:

a) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

b) Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD).
c) LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED).

Printer types:

1-Laser Printer.

2-Ink Jet Printer.

3-Dot Matrix Printer

Differences between RAM and ROM

ROM RAM
✓ Non volatile ✓ Volatile
✓ Fast ti read ✓ Fast to read and write
✓ Usually used in small quantities ✓ Used as system memory to store data
(including program code) that the CPU
needs to process imminently

✓ Cannot be written to quickly ✓ Relatively cheap per megabyte stored

compared to ROM, but relatively expensive
compared to secondary memory

✓ Used to store boot instructions or

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 firmware
✓ Relatively expensive per megabyte
stored compared to RAM

Table 4: Difference Btn RAM and ROM

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer networking is the connection of two or more computers to communicate and
share resources.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK
1. Application software: This consists of computer programs which network
users used to share information.
2. Network software: This consists of computer programs that establish
protocols or rules, for computers to communicate with one another.
3. Network hardware: This is made up of the physical components
that connect computers. Two important components are:
The transmission Medias that carried the computer signals.
The network adapter which access the physical media link computers.
CATEGORISATION OF NETWORKS
1. Architecture based classification or configuration:
This refers to the structural design that defines arrangement of the hardware, software
access method and protocol in the network.
- Peer-to-peer network: This is a network in which small number of computers
connected together, share resources and communicate with each other but with each
computer independently storing its own software and information and can access the
information on the other computers.
- Client-server network: This is the connection of two or more computers to
communicate and share resources in which one or more computers are servers and
provides services to other computers which are called clients.
Differences between server based and P2P Network
Peer-to-peer (P2P) Server based

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 1 Storage devices are distributed There is a central storage for all users at
over the the
entire network Server
2 Copies of network software may Copies of network software are held by
be held on the
individual computers. Server
3 There is no central computer, thus All nodes (client) rely on the server and
all users if
are inter dependent on each other the server goes down, all users are affected
4 Security is not centrally control. Used ID, password and access level
are control by a central computer which
can be
located in a very secure office
5 It work best with less than ten It can support hundreds or thousands
users and is of
easy and cheap to setup users.

2. SIZE BASED CLASSIFICATION:

The most popular classification of network is based on physical size or geographical
area covered by the network.
- Local Area Network (LAN): This is the network of computers in a small area, like a
room, building, campus and does not go beyond 3kms.
- Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): This is the interconnection of computers
within towns of a particular state, province or region. It can also be an interconnection
of two or more LANs within a state, province or region.
- Wide Area Network (WAN): This is a network that goes beyond cities, countries and
continents. It is also define as the network of networks would wide.

3. CLASSIFICATION BY TOPOLOGY:
This is the physical arrangement, layout or shape of a network. A node is any device
connected to a network. There are five main types of topology: star, Bus, Ring, Tree,
and Mesh.
- Star Topology: Here, each workstation or node or communicating device is
connected to the central computer, server or hub by means of its own unique link.
Advantages Disadvantages
1 It is very reliable since a failure in 1 If the server stops functioning,
one the

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 node will not affect the whole system whole system goes down.

2 Very few data collisions as each 2 Expensive to install because of

node the
have its own cable. amount of cables needed.
3 Good security since every 3 Extra hardware like hubs and
interaction switches
passes through the server. are needed.
4 It is easy to troubleshoot.
5 Nodes can easily be added

Nodes Nodes

HUB

Nodes Nodes

Star topology
- Bus Topology: Here, the nodes are connected to a main communicating line or central cable
(Bus). Each node monitors activities on the line and messages are detected by all nodes but are
accepted only by the node to which they are address. At each end of the Bus is a terminator. This
is a piece of hardware which prevents signals bouncing back and forth (echoes).
Advantages Disadvantages

1 Easy to install 1 A problem with the central cable is the

downfall of the whole system.

2 It is cheap to setup. 2 It is slow when many nodes

are
connected or over loaded.
3 Easy to add extra nodes 3 There is data collision.
4 Uses less cables than a star network 4 Low security since every node can see
all of the data in the network

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 5 Best choice for temporary
networks
System

nodes server

Terminator

Main cable (Bus)

- Ring Topology: Here, nodes are connected in a close loop or ring. Messages in a ring
network moves in one direction, from node to node. As a message travels around, each node
examines the destination address attached to the message. If the address is the same as the address
assigned to the node, the node accepts the message, otherwise it regenerates the signals and passes
the message along to the next node in the circle. Such regeneration allows a ring network to cover
long distances than the bus. When no data is being transmitted, an electronic token is sent around
the network. An electronic token is simply a special packet of data. If machines want to send a
message, the token is grabbed and the message is sent. In this way, no clash can occur.
-
Node

Node
Node

Node

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Advantages Disadvantages
1 It is fast since data flow in one direction 1 The downfall of one node is
the
downfall of the whole system.
2 No collision since data flows in one 2 If a cable breaks, the network fails.
direction

3 Cover long distances 3 slower since data have to move from

one node to another

4 Uses less cables than a star network

there for it is cheap to setup

- TREE TOPOLOGY: This combines the characteristics of BUS and STAR network
topology. It is being thought of as a network in which nodes are sub-network with a star
topology.
Advantages Disadvantages

1 It allows for expansion 1 If the backbone cable breaks, the

entire network goes down.

2 It is supported by several hardware and 2 It is difficult to configured and wire.

software vendors.

- MESH TOPOLOGY: This is a network where every device or node on the network is
physically connected to every other node on the network.
Advantages Disadvantages
1 If a cable fails, the system still function 1 Expensive to setup because of
the
used of so many cables.
2 The downfall of a node, does not 2 It is difficult to install
affect
the whole system
3 It is reliable and high performance

NOTION OF WORKGROUP AND NEIGHBOURHOOD

1. Workgroup: This is the collection of computers in a LAN that share common resources and
responsibility. It functions well only with fifteen or fewer computers as it become difficult to
administer if more computers are added.
2. Neighbourhood: This is replaced by “my network place” in Windows XP. It defines the

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 number of computers or devices in the network and the area covered by the network.

NETWORK LAYERS AND FUNCTIONS

NETWORK LAYERS FUNCTIONS
1 Physical layers Category and pill punch blocks
2 Data link layer Logic link control MAC address
3 Network layer Routing IP address packages
4 Transport layer TCP, segment
5 Session layer Session ID
6 Presentation Syntax, encryptions and compressions
7 Application layer HTTP, Telnet, SMTP(simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

Layer one: hardware connectivity and verification of physical connectors, technology,

baseband, broadband, synchronisation bits.
Layer two: It is divided into two sub-layers. The top layer is called the logic link control and
it provides the interface between the upper and lower layer. The bottom sub-layer is referred
to as the media access control (MAC). It is responsible for identifying how devices can access
the physical medium. It is where the MAC address is designed.
Layer three: Responsible for moving data between systems known as routing. It assigns IP
address. data at this layer is called segment while data at this level is called the frame.
Level four: It ensures delivery of data through a network. It ensures segmenting of data into
smaller blocks. It ensures error correcting flow control.
Layer five: It is responsible for the creation of session between communication devices and
assigning session ID.
Layer six: It is responsible for syntax, encryption and compression.
Layer seven: It provides an interface between application and the rest of the network.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Advantages:
1. It allows for the sharing of resources such as printers, disk storage, scanners etc, and
reduces expenses.

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2. It allows sharing of information on disk drives accessible by all users.
3. It allows electronic mails to be sent.
4. It is easy and cheap to set up new users and equipment.
5. It facilitates communication.
6. It allows of application programs on different computers.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to secure the system from hackers, novices etc.
2. May be slow if the network is overloaded.
3. Many users become so dependence on networks, such that if the server
developed a problem, they cannot run application programmes and communicate.
4. If the network stop working, hardware and software resources may be difficult
to access.
5. The performance of a network degrades as tropics increases.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A SIMPLE COMMUNICATION NETWORK

1. A modem: A modem (modulation-demodulation) is a device that converts analogue

signals (modulation) from the telephone line to digital and digital signals from the
computer to analogue for the telephone line (demodulation). A modem may be internal to
your computer hardware or external as an additional input/output device.
2. Telephone line: Telephone lines are designed to transmit analogue signals in a form of
sound waves.
3. Network interface card (NIC): This provides the physical connection between the
network and the nodes or devices. It link one computer or device with others on the
network.
4. Hub: This is a hardware that provides a point where channels are interconnected in a
communication centre. A hub allows computers and other devices on a network to share
data packets. Each computer is connected to a “point” on the hub.
5. A port: This is a point of connection on computer hardware, motherboards and other
devices. We have the male (pin) and female (holes) ports which take the female and male
head or connector respectively e.g. PS2 port,serial port, parallel port and there are other
ports like the USB port, network port etc.

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6. A bridge: This is a device that can split a large network into two smaller and more efficient
networks. A bridge is therefore that device that link two networks of the same protocol or
level.
7. Gate way: This is a device that connects networks of dissimilar architecture or protocol.
It connects networks of different level.
8. Switch: A switch or concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for
cables from different nodes (clients, servers, printers etc.).
9. Router: It transfers data from one network to another intelligently. This is because, as a
packet comes into the router, its destination address is examined and a direct connection
is made and the packet is send. A hub is said to be “dull” because it receives the packet
and send it to the network for the destination machine to search for itself.
10.Repeaters: This is a device that is used to regenerate and electrically amplifies the signals
in a network. This is because the signals fade as they travel long distances.
11.Network cables: This is the medium through which information usually moves from one
network device to another e.g. Twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, optic fibre etc.
12.Firewall: This is a piece of hardware or software that prevents unauthorised access or
going against network policies.
13.Multiplexers: it combines more than one input signal into a single stream of data that can
be transmitted over a single communication channel while demultiplexer will split the
signals in to its separate channels. The act of transferring several different signals over a
single channel is called multiplexing.
14.Network server: This is a computer(s) in a network that provides other computers with
services.
15.Proxy server: This is a break connection between sender and receivers and prevents
hackers from obtaining internet addresses from a private network.
16.Work station: This is a node in a network which can handle local data processing. It is
also called an intelligent terminal.
17.Dumb terminal: This is a workstation which cannot handle local data procession. It relies
on the main server for all its processing.

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 18.Handshaking: This is an automated process of negotiation between devices that want to
communicate or share resources in a communication channel.
TYPES OF NETWORK CONNECTION
1. Point to point connection: This is a type of connection where by a direct line links two
devices.
2. Multipoint connection: This is the link between three or more devices in a network.
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Network protocol is a set of rules that governs network
computers when communicating, e.g. Ethernet, Token ring, local talk. Any computer that can
access a network must have a protocol stack, that provides the software or rules that enables
computers to communicate e.g. TCP/IP.
1. ETHERNET: It uses an access method called CSMA (carrier sense multiple
access) collision detection.
In an Ethernet network, computers listen to the network before sending anything. If the
network is clear, the computer will transmit, if not, it will wait and try latter. If two or
more computers try to transmit at the same time, collision occurs. They have to back
off and wait until the line is clear.
2. Token ring: In this type of protocol, the signals leave one computer to another in a ring.
The ring has a token which moves round it. If a computer wishes to transmit data, it seizes
the token on the ring and attached its data. The token moves round the ring with the data
until it finds the computer with the address on the data.
DATA COMMUNICATION
This is the transmission of data from one computer to another or from one device to
another. A communication device is therefore any machine or device that helps or assists
data communication. Communication software refers to software that makes it possible
to transmit data.
Data transmission: It always involves at least a source, channel or medium for
transmission and a destination or receiver of the information. Several technical
properties affect data communication speed.

1. Bandwidth: This is the transmission capacity of a channel. It is measured in bits/second

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 (bps) where 1bps = 1band.
- Voice band: This is the rate of transmission of a telephone line.
- Medium band: This is the transmission capacity of special lines used mainly with
micro and mainframe computers.
- Broadband: This is the bandwidth of microwave, satellites, coaxial and optic fibres
channels. Used for very high speed computers.
2. Serial and parallel data transmission.

- Serial data transmission: Here, bits flow in series or continuous stream. It is mostly
used in telephone lines and their connectors are called serial ports.
- Parallel data transmission: Here, bits flow through separate lines simultaneously. It
is limited over short distances and is used to send information to the printer by the
CPU.
3. Direction or mode of flow: There are three directions or mode of data flow in a data
communication system: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.
- Simplex: Here, data flow in one direction. It is not frequently used today.
- Half-duplex: Here, data flows in both direction but not simultaneously. Data flows in
only one direction at any one time. It is mostly used to link microcomputers by
telephone lines to others.

- Full-duplex: Here, data flows in both directions simultaneously. It is the fastest and
the most efficient. It requires special equipment and is primarily for mainframe
communications.
DATA TRANSFER CHECK
- Parity checks: This is a check where an extra bit (parity bit) is transmitted with
each character to make the number of bits set to 1 even or odd.
- Checksum: It is a single element send with each block of data transmitted produce
by adding the entire element in the block and check on receipt.
- Finally self-correcting codes.

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TELECOMMUNICATION

This is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of

communication. Example of communication devices are; television, radios,
telephones, computers etc.
Medium for data communication or transmission
A transmission medium in any network can either be bounded (wire) or unbounded
(wireless).

1. Bounded transmission medium: These are transmission medium which are physical,
existing and tangible.
i. Twisted pair cables: It is made up of four or eight copper wires, each insulated in a
plastic, then twisted around each other in braided pairs and bound together in another
layer of plastic insulation.
- Unshielded twisted pair cables are covered with only a plastic coating from outside
interface.
- Shielded twisted pair cables are encased in a metal case or sheath. Shielding protects
the signals from distortion by external radiation.
ii. Coaxial cables: This is a high frequency transmission cable made up of a central
conductor, surrounded by an insulating material. The second conductor is a wire mesh
shields which surrounds the insulator. Finally, the whole system is covered by an outer
insulator which can be made up of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The cables have a
broader bandwidth and suitable for audio, video and data transmission. It is widely
used for cable TV and some networks. Data moves through a coaxial cable in a serial
manner. Because of this mode of transmission, coaxial cables are slower in
transmitting data but can transmit data over long distances.
iii. Fibre optic cables: This is a thin strand of glass that transmit pulsating beam of light
instead of electric frequencies. It uses the principle of total internal reflection. When
one end of the strand is exposed to light, the strand carries the light all the way to the
other end. This transmission uses beams of light at the speed of light, making it to be

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 very fast. Fibre is usually described with a pair of numbers e.g. 54.2/102micron
glass.
This first number is the diameter of the fibre and the second, the diameter of the cover
that protects the fibre.
2. Unbounded transmission medium: They are intangible and are not restricted by
physical geographical area. Because of this, they are suitable for WAN’s connection.
Examples are:
- Radio waves: They transmit data in space using radio signals.

- Microwaves: They are also known as terrestrial microwaves. They transmit

data using very high frequency radio signals.
Advantages of radio and microwaves

- Carry large amount of data due to their high frequencies.

- Cheap in coverage compare to other methods.
- Used small antennas because of their high frequency and short wavelength.
Disadvantages

- They are disturbed by solid objects, rain, snow and fog.

- They are reflected from flat surfaces like water, metals etc.
- They split around solid objects.
- Infrared: This is the method of transmitting data through the atmosphere using
light.
It is not bound by the limitation of electricity.

- Wifi: wireless fidelity.

- WAP is also a Wireless Application Protocol.

- Wimax: it is a technology standard for long-range wireless networking

METHODS OF DATA TRANSMISSION
Asynchronous transmission: With this type of transmission, one character at a time is send, with
each character being preceded by a start bit and followed by a stop bit. The start bit alerts the

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receiving device to receive. It also signals the receiver of the band rate of the coming character so
that it can set up its band rate to that level. The stop bit signifies the end of a character. The last bit
before the stop bit is called the parity bit.
Synchronous transmission: Here, there is no start and stop bit. Timing signals (usually the
computer internal clock) control the rate of transmission. Mainframe computers use this type of
transmission.
REQUIREMENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF A DATA
COMMUNICATION NETWORK
1. Performance: A communication network must deliver data in a timely manner. The time
taken for a network to deliver data at the request of user is known as it respond time. If
the time is small, the network’s performance is high else, it is low.
2. Reliability: The reliability of a network is measured by the mean time between failures.
A network that is incapable of maintaining its responds time is also unreliable.
3. Consistency: This is the ability of a network to maintain its responds time continuously
or keep it constant.

4. Recovery: This is the ability of a network to get back it working state and minimizes
lost of data after a failure.
5. Security: In a network, data must be protected, its security assured and its
integrity maintain.

INTERNET: This is the interconnection of networks or computers would wide to

communicate and share resources using a common rule called protocol. It is a good example
of the WAN. The term internet simple means inter-network and it is the largest in the world.
INTRANET: This is a network within an organisation where only members of the
organisation can have access to it. It is a close network.
EXTRANET: This is an intranet that has opened its doors to another intranet.
History of the Internet

In 1969, the US department of defence developed a network which could survive even after
a nuclear attack. This was known as the Arpanet. Technology and innovation brought the
Ethernet which connect LAN’s to the Arpanet. The Arpanet used a method of communication
protocol called the Nation Control Protocol (NCP). Changing time and technology replace

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 the NCP with TCP/IP. TCP converts messages into streams of packets at the sources and they
are converted back into messages at the destination. IP makes sure that the messages reach
their destination. With this innovation, more networks joined the Arpanet and the Arpanet
became a network of networks today known as the internet.
SERVICES OFFERED BY THE INTERNET
1. Communication:

i. E-mail: This is a paperless way of sending messages from one person to another using
the internet.

Advantages

- It is very fast.
- Messages can be send anytime, anywhere.
- A single message can be send to many people.
- It does not pass from hand to hand, so there is security.
- The receiver must not be physically present.
- Not only text can be send but also other data type like pictures, graphics etc
generally called attachment.
- Much data or information can be send at a particular time.
2. E-commerce:
Also known as electronic commerce, It is the buying and selling of goods over the
internet. Examples of e-commerce sits are e-bay, etc.
Types of e-commerce
i. Business to consumer (B2C): It involves the sales of products or services to the general
public or end user. It eliminates the middle man.
ii. Consumer to consumer (C2C): It involves individuals selling to individuals. This
often involved auction sales. Buyers and sellers never meet face to face.
iii. Business to business (B2B): It involves the sales of products or services from one
business to another. This is typically a manufacturer-supplier relationship.
The following are the most widely used B2C application;
- Online Banking (e-banking): This is the act of performing banking operations like
accessing account information, balancing check books, transferring funds, paying bills
and applying for loans online by consumers.

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 - Online stock trading (e-trading): This allows investors to research, buy, and sell
stocks and bonds over the internet. It is more convenient and less cost.
- Onlineshopping (e-retailing or e-tailing): Includes the buying and selling of a wide
range of consumers goods over the internet.
3. E-GOVERNMENT: refers to the use of information technologies by government agencies
that have the ability to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of
government. It can either be interaction between government and citizens (G2C),
government and business enterprises (G2B), and inter-agency or government relationships
(G2G).
Advantages;
- Less corruption.
- Increased transparency.
- Greater convenience.
- Revenue growth.
- Cost reductions.
Disadvantages;
- Low user security and confidentiality.
- Break in the network put the country in trouble.
E-HEALTH:e-Health is a relatively recent term for healthcare practice supported
by electronic processes and communication
Advantages;
- Low cost.
- Easily accessible.
- Very fast.
Disadvantages
- Low user privacy and confidentiality.
4. TELNET:
This is an internet standard or software that helps you connect to another computer on the
internet. It allows users to access a remote computer.
5. File transfer protocol (FTP): This is an internet standard or software that helps for

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transferring files.

- Downloading: This is the process of receiving a file from another computer or the
internet.
- Uploading: This is the process of sending a file to another computer or to the internet.
- Plug-ins: these are software that are automatically loaded and operate as part of a
browser e.g. flash player. Some came with our browsers and others are installed as
separate software.
- Filters: there are software that helps parents and organisations to block certain sites
and to monitor the used of the internet and the web.
- Snoop wares: these are software that help to monitor and track usersactivities on a
computer.
- Spam: This is unwanted and unsolicited e-mail that may include a computer virus.
- Instant messaging: It extends e-mails to support live communication with friends and
other services.
- Discussion groups: Used e-mails to communicate with people who may have never
met face-to-face. Examples include; mailing lists (using list and subscription
addresses), newsgroups (using the useNet) and chat groups (using channels).
- E-leaning: this is the act of taking classes or studying online.
- The Web (WWW or World Wide Web): It was introduced in 1992 and it provides
a multimedia interface to the internet resources. It is commonly used for
communication, shopping, searching, education, entertainment etc. It combined
information like text, graphics animation, songs and gives the opportunity to surf it
easily.
- Web browsers: They allow your computer to be connected to the net or web and
giving you the opportunity to access explore and surf the web. Examples include
internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox etc.
- Uniform Resource Location (URL): This is a location or addresses to web resources.
Two parts are protocol and domain name. Domain code identifies type of organisation.
- HTML: These are commands to display web pages. It is a programming language.

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 The extension is html.
- Web server: this is a main computer on the internet that stores and shares electronic
documents.
- Applets: This is a special program linked to web pages typically written in java.-
- A website: This is a collection of electronic documents created using a program like
HTML and maintain by a single person or an organisation.
The pages of documents found in a website or site are called web pages.
You can move from one web page to another with help of a hyperlink or link.
Examples include;
i. Hypertext: This is a link that takes your to a web page that contains text.
ii. Hypermedia: This takes you to a page that contains multimedia.
The WWW uses a common protocol called hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP). Programs
that make working with the web and internet easier and safer are called web utilities.
SEARCH TOOLS

1. Search engines: They locate information on the web or internet in the fastest way, using
two search approaches:
- Keyword search: keyword(s) entered and list of links returns. Good for locating
specific information
- Directory search (index search): Selection made from a list of topics. Good for
locating general information.
2. Metasearch engines: These are programs that automatically submit your search request
to several search engines simultaneously. Duplicate sits are eliminated. It is time
consuming and duplicate can still be seen.
3. Specialized search engines: It focus on subject-specific websites.
TELECONFERENCING:
This is the used of telephone or e-mail by people to exchange information and ideas in
real time or online.
VIDEOCONFERENCING
This is a more advance teleconferencing. It is the use of a computer to send sound and

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 video images from one computer to another in real time. E.g. Holding meetings from
homes. To videoconference you need a computer with a large memory and a fast
processor, a digital video camera to capture the video pictures, a microphone or
telephone hand-set to capture the sound that goes with your pictures, access to an ISDN
or ADSL telephone line and finally, special videoconferencing software.
Advantages

1. You can communicate with other people over long distances and see them as well as
hear them.
2. Businesses can use videoconferencing to hold meeting which many people can be
involved in.
3. There is less need for people to travel, which saves money and helps the environment
by cutting down on pollution from cars.
4. Videoconferencing is more personal than just a telephone called.
Disadvantages

1. The hardware and software needed for a videoconferencing system are very expensive.
2. Not many people have videoconferencing systems, so the number of people that you
can communicate with is very limited.
3. There is no substitute for a face-to-face meeting. Eye contact and body language can be
as important in a business meeting as on your first date with someone.
TELEWORKING OR TELECOMMUTING
This is when people work from home instead of travelling to work and use methods of
electronic communication such as the telephone, fax machine, e-mail, the internet, audio
and videoconferencing to communicate with the outside world.
Advantages

1. Time isn’t wasted travelling to and from work.

2. Cars are kept off the roads which helps the environment.
3. Working at home is less stressful and it is much easier to concentrate.
4. Working hours are more flexible and can be fitted around other things that need

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 doing, such as collecting children from school.
5. People who live long distances away from each other can work together without having
to meet in person.
6. Businesses need smaller offices and spend less on light and heating.
Disadvantages

1. Workers may miss the company of their co-workers and feel isolated.
2. Having your workplace at home might mean that you end up doing too much work
and not having enough time off.
3. It is more difficult for managers to monitor and control the workforce.
A BLOG:A blog is basically a journal (items are posted on a regular basis and displayed in
reverse chronological order) that is available on the web. The activity of updating a blog is
“blogging” and someone who keeps a blog is a “blogger.”‘

CHAT ROOM:A chat room is a Web site, part of a Web site, or part of an online service,
that provides a venue for group of users with a common interest to communicate in real time.
Forums and discussion groups, in comparison, allow users to post messages but don't have
the capacity for interactive messaging.

A FORUM: is a place where people have the ability to start communication (in the form of
threads) and reply to other people's threads. A member of the community in the forum posts
a message, which is visible to everyone in that community. Once read, there is the option to
post a reply, which can also be visible to the community.

SOCIAL NETWORKING: A social network is a social structure made up of a set of social

actors (such as individuals or organizations) and a set of the dyadic ties between these actors,
e.g. Facebook, twitter etc.

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

This is someone or an organization who owns a group of computers (servers) which are connected
to the internet through high speed connection. They offer space and accounts for customers.

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Types of ISP
1. Commercial ISP: These are ISPs who offer internet connection for a periodic fees or
payment. It can be monthly. Examples include MTN, Orange, Camtel etc.
2. Online ISP: They provide internet services for a fees slightly higher than commercial ISPs
but they also provides custom contents (e-commerce) to their customers online e.g. AOL
(America On Line)
3. Education ISPs: They are primary schools, secondary and high schools, universities
which offer internet services to their students for free through their labs and any other
means. TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTION
1. Dial up connection: This is the connection to the internet using an existing telephone line.
It is common but very slow.
2. Integrated service digital network (ISDN): It also uses telephone lines but requires a
special connector provided only by the ISP.
3. Satellite communication: This is connection using a small disk called satellite dish which
sends and receive signals from the service provider network centre with the help of the
satellite.
4. Digital subscriber line (DSL): It also uses telephone lines but the signals are separated at
the entry point into home or office used.
5. Cable Connection: This is the connection to the net using television cable system e.g.
DSTV (Digital Satellite Television Cable).

NUMBER SYSTEMS AND INFORMATION

MEASUREMENT
1.2.1 NUMBER SYSTEM
Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system architecture,
every value that you are saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number
system.
Computer architecture supports following number systems.

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 ✓ Binary number system
✓ Octal number system
✓ Decimal number system
✓ Hexadecimal (hex) number system

a) BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value) represents
with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is 2, because it has only
two digits.

b) OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value) represents with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number system is 8, because it has
only 8 digits.

c) DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value) represents
with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal number system is 10,
because it has only 10 digits.

d) HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to F.
Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in this number
system. The base of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values.
Here A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 14, E is 15 and F is 16.

Number system Base(Radix) Used digits Example

Binary 2 0,1 (11110000)2

Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8

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 Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (240)10
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,
Hexadecimal 16 (F0)16
A,B,C,D,E,F
Table 5: Number systems
1.2.2 CONVERSIONS
1.2.2.1 DECIMAL TO OTHER BASE

1. DECIMAL TO BINARY
Decimal Number System to Other Base
To convert Number system from Decimal Number System to Any Other Base is quite easy;
you have to follow just two steps:
A) Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of target base system (in which you want
to convert the number: Binary (2), octal (8) and Hexadecimal (16)).
B) Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step last as a Most
Significant Bit (MSB). Solve Examples

1.2.2.2 BINARY TO OTHER

A) Multiply the digit with 2(with place value exponent). Eventually add all the multiplication
becomes the Decimal number.
1. BINARY TO DECIMAL

2. BINARY TO OCTAL
An easy way to convert from binary to octal is to group binary digits into sets of three, starting
with the least significant (rightmost) digits.

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 Binary: 11100101 11 100 10
= 1
01 100 10 Pad the most significant digits with zeros if
1 1 necessary to complete a group of three.

Then, look up each group in a table:

Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary = 011 100 101

Octal = 3 4 5 = 345 oct

3. BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
An equally easy way to convert from binary to hexadecimal is to group binary digits into sets of
four, starting with the least significant (rightmost) digits.
Binary: 11100101 = 1110 0101
Then, look up each group in a table:
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex

1.2.2.3 OCTAL TO OTHER

1. OCTAL TO BINARY
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to octal. Simply look up
each octal digit to obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits.

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 Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Octal = 3 4 5
Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

2. OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL
When converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal number
into binary and then from binary into hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345 octal into hex
(from the previous example)
Octal = 3 4 5

Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of four binary digits
(bits): Binary 011100101 = 1110 0101
Then, look up the groups in a table to convert to hexadecimal digits.
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 1000 100 101 101 110 110 111 1111

1 0 1 0 1 0
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex
Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals binary 011100101 equals
hexadecimal E5.

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3. OCTAL TO DECIMAL
The conversion can also be performed in the conventional mathematical way, by showing each
digit place as an increasing power of 8.
345 octal = (3 * 82) + (4 * 81) + (5 * 80) = (3 * 64) + (4 * 8) + (5 * 1) = 229 decimal OR
Converting octal to decimal can be done with repeated division.

1. Start the decimal result at 0.

2. Remove the most significant octal digit (leftmost) and add it to the result.
3. If all octal digits have been removed, you’re done. Stop.
4. Otherwise, multiply the result by 8.
5. Go to step 2.

Octal Digits Operatio Decimal Result Operatio Decimal Result

n n
345 +3 3 ×8 24
45 +4 28 ×8 224
5 +5 229 Done.

(345)8 =(229)10
1.2.2.4 HEXADECIMAL TO OTHER

1. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to
hexadecimal. Simply look up each hexadecimal digit to obtain the equivalent group
of four binary digits.
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

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 Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal = A 2 D E
Binary = 1010 0010 1101 1110 = 1010001011011110 binary

1's complement
The 1's complement of a number is found by changing all 1's to 0's and all 0's to
1's. This is called as taking complement or 1's complement. Example of 1's
Complement is as follows.

Binary Addition

It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of
binary addition.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in

the given column and a carry of 1 over to the next column.
Example − Addition

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2's complement
The 2's complement of binary number is obtained by adding 1 to the Least
Significant Bit (LSB) of 1's complement of the number.
2's complement = 1's complement + 1 Example of 2's Complement is as follows.

Rules of Binary Addition

0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 0, and carry 1 to the next more significant bit

For example,

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00011010 + 00001100 = 00100110 11 Carries
00011010 = 26(base 10)
+00001100 = 12(base 10)
00100110 = 38(base 10)

00010011 + 00111110 = 01010001 11111 carries

00010011 = 19(base 10)
+00111110 = 62(base 10)
01010001 = 81(base 10)

Rules of Binary Multiplication

0 X 0 = 0
0 x 1 = 0
1 x 0 = 0

1 x 1 = 1, and no carry or borrow bits

For example,
00101001 × 00000110 = 11110110 0010100 1 = 41(base 10)
×0000011 0 = 6(base 10)

0000000 0
0010100 1
0010100 1

001111011 0 = 246(base 10)

Binary Division

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Binary division is the repeated process of subtraction, just as in decimal division.
For example,
00101010 ÷ 00000110 = 1 1 1 = 7(base 10)

1.2.3 MEASUREMENT of INFORMATION

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The smallest unit of measurement used for measuring data is a bit. A single bit can
have a value of either 0 or 1. It may contain a binary value (such as On/Off or
True/False), but nothing more. Therefore, a byte, or eight bits, is used as the
fundamental unit of measurement for data. A byte can store 2 8 or 256 different
values, which is sufficient to represent standard ASCII characters, such as letters,
numbers and symbols.

Since most files contain thousands of bytes, file sizes are often measured
in kilobytes. Larger files, such as images, videos, and audio files, contain millions
of bytes and therefore are measured in megabytes. Modern storage devices can store
thousands of these files, which is why storage capacity is typically measured
in gigabytes or even terabytes. Larger units of measurement are usually reserved for
measuring the sum of multiple storage devices or the capacity of large data storage
networks.
Below is a list of all the standard units of measurement used for data storage, from
the smallest to the largest

UNIT VALUE SIZE

bit (b) 0 or 1 1/8 of a byte
byte (B) 8 bits 1 byte
kilobyte (KB) 10001 bytes 1,000 bytes
megabyte (MB) 10002 bytes 1,000,000 bytes
gigabyte (GB) 10003 bytes 1,000,000,000 bytes
terabyte (TB) 10004 bytes 1,000,000,000,000 bytes
petabyte (PB) 10005 bytes 1,000,000,000,000,000 bytes
exabyte (EB) 10006 bytes 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes

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 zettabyte (ZB) 10007 bytes 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes
yottabyte (YB) 10008 bytes 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes

NOTE: A lowercase "b" is used as an abbreviation for bits, while an uppercase "B"
represents bytes. This is an important distinction, since a byte is 8x as large as a bit.
For example, 100 KB (kilobytes) = 800 Kb (kilobits).

Figure 7: Information representation

Two words make a Double word but what exactly is a word? The length of a word
depends on the processor architecture. In a 16-bit system, a word is defined as two
bytes. In a 64-bit system, a word is eight bytes. A processor executes instructions,
accesses data in memory via addresses, and processes or represents numbers in
words or its multiples. Thus, programmers who write low-level code need to be
aware of the word size.

In C programming language, short must be at least 16 bits; long at least 32 bits;

and long long at least 64 bits.

1.2.4 PRESENTATION OF THE INTERNET

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The Internet is an increasingly important part of everyday life for people around the world. But if
you've never used the Internet before, all of this new information might feel a bit confusing at first.

Definition: The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices.
With the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone else in
the world, and do much more.

You can do all of this by connecting a computer to the Internet, which is also
called going online. When someone says a computer is online, it's just another way of saying it's
connected to the Internet.

The World Wide Web (www) usually called the Web for short is a collection of
different websites you can access through the Internet. A website is made up of related text,
images, and other resources. Websites can resemble other forms of media like newspaper articles
or television programs or they can be interactive in a way that's unique to computers.

The purpose of a website can be almost anything: a news platform, an advertisement, an online
library, a forum for sharing images, or an educational site like us!

Once you are connected to the Internet, you can access and view websites using a type of
application called a web browser. Just keep in mind that the web browser itself is not the Internet;
it only displays websites that are stored on the Internet.

It's important to realize that the Internet is a global network of physical cables, which can include
copper telephone wires, TV cables, and fiber optic cables. Even wireless connections like Wi-Fi
(Wireless Fidelity) and 3G/4G (3rd and 4th generation wireless technology) rely on these physical
cables to access the Internet.

When you visit a website, your computer sends a request over these wires to a server. A server is
where websites are stored, and it works a lot like your computer's hard drive. Once the request
arrives, the server retrieves the website and sends the correct data back to your computer. What's
amazing is that this all happens in just a few seconds!

One of the best features of the Internet is the ability to communicate almost instantly with anyone
in the world. Email is one of the oldest and most universal ways to communicate and share

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information on the Internet, and billions of people use it. Social media allows people to connect
in a variety of ways and build communities online.

There are many other things you can do on the Internet. There are thousands of ways to keep up
with news or shop for anything online. You can pay your bills, manage your bank accounts,
meet new people, watch TV, or learn new skills. You can learn or do almost anything online.

1.2.4.1 OPERATIONS WITH THE INTERNET

There's almost no limit to what you can do online. The Internet makes it possible to quickly find
information, communicate with people around the world, manage your finances, shop from home,
listen to music, watch videos, and much, much more. Let's take a look at some of the ways the
Internet is most commonly used today. Finding information online with billions of websites online
today, there is a lot of information on the Internet. Search engines make this information easier
to find. All you have to do is type one or more keywords, and the search engine will look
for relevant websites.

For example, let's say you're looking for a new pair of shoes. You could use a search engine to
learn about different types of shoes, get directions to a nearby shoe store, or even find out where
to buy them online!

There are many different search engines you can use, but some of the most popular
include Google, Yahoo!, and Bing.

Definition of Email

Short for Electronic Mail, email is a way to send and receive messages across the Internet.
Almost everyone who uses the Internet has their own email account, usually called an email
address. This is because you'll need an email address to do just about anything online, from online
banking to creating a Facebook account.

Definition of Social networking

Social networking websites are another way to connect and share with your family and friends
online. Rather than sharing with just a few people over email, social networks make it easier

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to connect and share with many people at the same time. Facebook is the world's largest social
networking site, with more than 1 billion users worldwide.

Definition of Chat and instant messaging

Chat and instant messaging (IM) are short messages sent and read in real time, allowing you to
converse more quickly and easily than email. These are generally used when both (or all) people
are online, so your message can be read immediately. By comparison, emails won't be seen until
recipients check their inboxes.

Examples of instant messaging applications include Yahoo Messenger and Google Hangouts.
Some sites, like Gmail and Facebook, even allow you to chat within your web browser.

Definition of Online media

There are many sites that allow you to watch videos and listen to music. For example, you can
watch millions of videos on YouTube or listen to Internet radio on Pandora. Other services,
like Netflix and Hulu, allow you to watch movies and TV shows. And if have a set-top streaming
box, you can even watch them directly on your television instead of a computer screen. All these
platforms host online media files

Definition of Everyday tasks

You can also use the Internet to complete many everyday tasks and errands. For example, you
can manage your bank account, pay your bills, and shop for just about anything. The main
advantage here is convenience. Rather than going from place to place, you can do all of these tasks
at home!

How to connect to the Internet

Once you've set up your computer, you may want to purchase home Internet access so you can
send and receive email, browse the Web, stream videos, and more. You may even want to set up
a home wireless network, commonly known as Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity), so you can connect
multiple devices to the Internet at the same time.

Types of Internet service

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The type of Internet service you choose will largely depend on which Internet service
providers (ISPs) serve your area, along with the types of service they offer. Here are some
common types of Internet service.

✓ Dial-up: This is generally the slowest type of Internet connection, and you should probably
avoid it unless it is the only service available in your area. Dial-up Internet uses your phone
line, so unless you have multiple phone lines you will not be able to use your landline and
the Internet at the same time.

✓ DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): DSL service uses a broadband connection, which makes
it much faster than dial-up. DSL connects to the Internet via a phone line but does not
require you to have a landline at home. And unlike dial-up, you'll be able to use the Internet
and your phone line at the same time.

✓ Cable: Cable service connects to the Internet via cable TV, although you do not
necessarily need to have cable TV in order to get it. It uses a broadband connection and
can be faster than both dial-up and DSL service; however, it is only available where cable
TV is available.

✓ Satellite: A satellite connection uses broadband but does not require cable or phone lines;
it connects to the Internet through satellites orbiting the Earth. As a result, it can be used
almost anywhere in the world, but the connection may be affected by weather patterns.
Satellite connections are also usually slower than DSL or cable.

✓ 3G and 4G: 3G and 4G service is most commonly used with mobile phones, and it
connects wirelessly through your ISP's network. However, these types of connections
aren't always as fast as DSL or cable. They will also limit the amount of data you can use
each month, which isn't the case with most broadband plans.

1.2.4.2 Choosing an Internet service provider

Now that you know about the different types of Internet service, you can do some research to find
out what ISPs are available in your area. If you're having trouble getting started, we recommend
talking to friends, family members, and neighbors about the ISPs they use. This will usually give
you a good idea of the types of Internet service available in your area.

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Most ISPs offer several tiers of service with different Internet speeds, usually measured
in Mbps (short for megabits per second). If you mainly want to use the Internet
for email and social networking, a slower connection (around 2 to 5 Mbps) might be all you need.
However, if you want to download music or stream videos, you'll want a faster connection (at
least 5 Mbps or higher).

You'll also want to consider the cost of the service, including installation charges and monthly
fees. Generally speaking, the faster the connection, the more expensive it will be per month.

Although dial-up has traditionally been the least expensive option, many ISPs have raised dial-
up prices to be the same as broadband. This is intended to encourage people to switch to
broadband. We do not recommend dial-up Internet unless it's your only option.

Hardware needed

Modem

Figure 8: Modem
Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional hardware to connect to the
Internet. The primary piece of hardware you need is a modem.

The type of Internet access you choose will determine the type of modem you need. Dial-up access
uses a telephone modem, DSL service uses a DSL modem, cable access uses a cable modem,
and satellite service uses a satellite adapter. Your ISP may give you a modem—often for a fee—
when you sign a contract, which helps ensure that you have the right type of modem. However,

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if you would prefer to shop for a better or less expensive modem, you can choose to buy one
separately.

Router

Figure 9: Router
A router is a hardware device that allows you to connect several computers and other devices to
a single Internet connection, which is known as a home network. Many routers are wireless,
which allows you to create a home wireless network, commonly known as a Wi-Fi network.

You don't necessarily need to buy a router to connect to the Internet. It's possible to connect
your computer directly to your modem using an Ethernet cable. Also, many modems include
a built-in router, so you have the option of creating a Wi-Fi network without buying extra
hardware.

The cloud

The cloud is the Internet more specifically, it's all of the things you can access remotely over the
Internet. When something is in the cloud, it means it's stored on Internet servers instead of your
computer's hard drive.

Why use the cloud?

Some of the main reasons to use the cloud are convenience and reliability. For example, if you've
ever used a web-based email service, such as Gmail or Yahoo! Mail, you've already used the
cloud. All of the emails in a web-based service are stored on servers rather than on your computer's
hard drive. This means you can access your email from any computer with an Internet connection.
It also means you'll be able to recover your emails if something happens to your computer.

Let's look at some of the most common reasons to use the cloud.

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 ✓ File storage: You can store all types of information in the cloud, including files and email.
This means you can access these things from any computer or mobile device with an
Internet connection, not just your home computer. Dropbox and Google Drive are some
of the most popular cloud-based storage services.

✓ File sharing: The cloud makes it easy to share files with several people at the same time.
For example, you could upload several photos to a cloud-based photo service
like Flickr or iCloud Photos, then quickly share them with friends and family.

✓ Backing up data: You can also use the cloud to protect your files. There are apps such
as Carbonite that automatically back up your data to the cloud. This way, if your
computer ever is lost, stolen, or damaged, you'll still be able to recover these files from the
cloud.

Web App

Previously, we talked about how desktop applications allow you to perform tasks on your
computer. But there are also web applications or web apps—that run in the cloud and do not
need to be installed on your computer. Many of the most popular sites on the Internet are actually
web apps. You may have even used a web app without realizing it! Let's take a look at some
popular web apps.

✓ Facebook: Facebook lets you create an online profile and interact with your friends.
Profiles and conversations can be updated at any time, so Facebook uses web app
technologies to keep the information up to date.

✓ Pixlr: Pixlr is an image editing application that runs in your web browser. Much
like Adobe Photoshop, it includes many advanced features, like color correction and
sharpening tools.

✓ Google Docs: Google Docs is an office suite that runs in your browser. Much
like Microsoft Office, you can use it to create documents, spreadsheets, presentations,
and more. And because the files are stored in the cloud, it's easy to share them with others.

Web Browser

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A web browser is a type of software that allows you to find and view websites on the Internet.
Even if you didn't know it, you're using a web browser right now to read this page! There are many
different web browsers, but some of the most common ones include Google Chrome, Internet
Explorer, Safari, Microsoft Edge, and Mozilla Firefox.

No matter which web browser you use, you'll want to learn the basics of browsing the Web. In this
lesson, we'll talk about navigating to different websites, using tabbed browsing,
creating bookmarks, and more.

We'll be using the Google Chrome web browser throughout this lesson, but you can use any
browser you want. Keep in mind that your browser may look and act a bit differently, but all web
browsers work in basically the same way.

URLs and the address bar

Each website has a unique address, called a URL (short for Uniform Resource Locator). It's like
a street address that tells your browser where to go on the Internet. When you type a URL into the
browser's address bar and press Enter on your keyboard, the browser will load the page
associated with that URL.

In the example below, we've typed www.bbc.com/travel into the address bar.

Links

Whenever you see a word or phrase on a website that's blue or underlined in blue, it's probably
a hyperlink, or link for short. You might already know how links work, even if you've never
thought about them much before. For example, try clicking the link below.

Hey, I'm a link! Click me!

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Links are used to navigate the Web. When you click a link, it will usually take you to a different
webpage. You may also notice that your cursor changes into a hand icon whenever you hover
over a link.

If you see this icon, it means you've found a link. You'll find other types of links this way too. For
example, many websites actually use images as links, so you can just click the image to navigate
to another page.

Review our lesson on Understanding Hyperlinks to learn more.

The Back and Forward buttons allow you to move through websites you've recently viewed.
You can also click and hold either button to see your recent history.

The Refresh button will reload the current page. If a website stops working, try using the Refresh
button.

Tabbed Browsing

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Many browsers allow you to open links in a new tab. You can open as many links as you want,
and they'll stay in the same browser window instead of cluttering your screen with multiple
windows.

To open a link in a new tab, right-click the link and select Open link in new tab (the exact
wording may vary from browser to browser).

To close a tab, click the X.

To create a new blank tab, click the button to the right of any open tabs.

Bookmarks and History

If you find a website you want to view later, it can be hard to memorize the exact web
address. Bookmarks, also known as favorites, are a great way to save and organize specific
websites so you can revisit them again and again. Simply locate and select the Star icon to
bookmark the current website.

Your browser will also keep a history of every site you visit. This is another good way to find a
site you visited previously. To view your history, open your browser settings usually by clicking
the icon in the upper-right corner and select History.

Downloading Files

Links don't always go to another website. In some cases, they point to a file that can
be downloaded, or saved, to your computer.

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If you click a link to a file, it may download automatically, but sometimes it just opens within
your browser instead of downloading. To prevent it from opening in the browser, you can right-
click the link and select Save link as (different browsers may use slightly different wording,
like Save target as).

Sometimes you may want to save an image from a website to your computer. To do this, right-
click the image and select Save image as (or Save picture as).

Plug-ins

Plug-ins are small applications that allow you to view certain types of content within your web
browser. For example, Adobe Flash and Microsoft Silverlight are sometimes used to play
videos, while Adobe Reader is used to view PDF files.

If you don't have the correct plug-in for a website, your browser will usually provide a link to
download it. There may also be times when you need to update your plug-ins. Review our lesson
on Installing and Updating Plug-ins to learn more.

Downloading and Uploading

While exploring the Internet, you’ve probably encountered the

terms downloading and uploading. Downloading means receiving data or a file from the Internet
on your computer. Uploading means sending data or a file from your computer to somewhere on
the Internet.

These terms describe activities you may have already learned how to do. If you've ever opened an
example document in one of our tutorials, you've downloaded that file. If you’ve ever shared a
photo you took on Facebook or another social media site, you've uploaded that photo.

If you click the link, your browser should prompt you to select one of two methods for
downloading the file.

✓ Open with will download the file and load it immediately in the specified program.

✓ Save File will download it and save it to your hard drive.

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Either way, once you click OK, the download begins. Your browser will indicate the progress and
time remaining on the download.

Once the download is complete, either the file will be saved to your computer or it will open in the
program you selected.

Some browsers don’t always start this download process when you click the link to a file. In these
cases, you can right-click the link, then click Save Link As, then select a location to download the
file.

Uploading

If a site allows uploads, it will have an upload utility to help perform the file transfer. Each site
handles this process differently, but we’ll give some common examples. Usually, the site will have
help pages to walk you through the upload process.

Many sites have an upload button that opens a dialog box. For example, Facebook has a camera
icon that begins the upload process.

A dialog box will appear, prompting you to select a file. Browse to the location where your file is
stored, select it, and then click the Open button. Afterward, a progress bar tracking the upload
process will appear on the page.

Some sites support a drag-and-drop interface. For example, when logged in to Dropbox you can
drag the files from a folder on your computer and drop them into the browser window.

How to set up a Wi-Fi network

The Internet is a really powerful tool. It gives us access to all kinds of information at a moment's
notice think email, Google search, and Wikipedia. So there's something a little counterintuitive
about only being able to use the Internet when you sit down at a desktop computer. What if you
could use the Internet from anywhere in your home or office?

If you already have high-speed (broadband) Internet service at your house, it's pretty easy to create
your own home wireless network. Commonly known as Wi-Fi, a wireless network allows you to

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connect laptops, smartphones, and other mobile devices to your home Internet service without an
Ethernet cable.

Purchase a wireless router

Figure 10: Wireless Router

To create your own Wi-Fi network, you'll need a wireless router. This is the device that will
broadcast the Wi-Fi signal from your Internet modem throughout your house. Your Internet service
provider (ISP) may offer you a wireless router for a small monthly fee. If you've never set up a
Wi-Fi network before, this may be the easiest option.

Some Internet modems may already have a built-in wireless router, which means you won't need
to purchase a separate one.

Connect the cables as below

1. Once you've acquired a wireless router, you'll need to connect it to your existing Internet
modem.

2. Connect an Ethernet cable from your modem to the wireless router (there is usually a short
Ethernet cable included with your wireless router for this purpose).

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 3. Plug in the power cable for the wireless router.

4. Wait at least 30 to 60 seconds, and make sure the lights on your router are working
correctly.

Configure your router

Next, you'll need to use your computer to configure your router's default settings. This includes
setting a unique name and password for your wireless network.

1. Using your web browser, enter the router's default IP address into the address bar, then
press Enter. Your router's instructions should include this information, but some of the
most common addresses include 192.168.0.1, 192.168.1.1, and 192.168.2.1.

2. The router's sign-in page will appear. Again, the exact sign-in details should be included
with your router's instructions, but most routers use a standard user name and password
combination, such as admin and password.

3. Your router's settings page will appear. Locate and select the Network Name setting, then
enter a unique network name.

4. Locate and select the Network Password setting, and choose an Encryption option. There
are several types of encryption you can use, but we recommend WPA2, which is generally
considered to be the most secure.

5. Enter your desired password. Make sure to use a strong password to help ensure no one
else can access your network.

6. Locate and select the Save button to save your settings.

Connect!

That's it! Now you're ready to connect to your Wi-Fi network and make sure it's working. The
process for connecting to a Wi-Fi network will vary slightly depending on what type of computer
or device you're using, but any system will require these basic steps.

1. Locate your computer's network settings, and search for nearby Wi-Fi networks.

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 2. Select your network, and enter your password.

3. If the connection is successful, open your web browser and try navigating to a webpage
like www.google.com. If the page loads, it means your Wi-Fi connection is working
correctly.

Review Questions
Instructions: All questions carry equal marks, write only the letter corresponding to the write
answer where necessary. In section II give meaning of acronyms only do not give explanations.

1) Which of the following is a temporal storage device? (a) ROM (b) RAM (c) Hard drive (d)
Tape drive.
2) Which is considered the brain of a computer? (a) Motherboard (b) RAM (c) CPU (d) Power
Supply.
3) Which keyboard command is used to launch the start menu? (a) ALT + ESC (b) CTRL + ESC
(c) CTRL + TAB (d) SHIFT + ESC.
4) Firm ware is built using (a) RAM (b) ROM (c) Video memory (d) Cache memory.
5) Which is not an Operating system software? (a) Linux (b) MS Windows (c) MS OFFICE (d)
MS DOS.
6) Unprocessed entry into the computer system is called. (a) Information (b) data (c) Facts (d)
Record.
7) Which is the most important input device? (a) Flash (b) Mouse (c) keyboard (d) Joystick.
8) A suitable name for the computer startup process is (a) Switching on (b) booting (c) Run time
(d) System startup.
9) A printer is classified under (a) Input device (b) output device (c) External storage (d) none.
10) Laser jet is an example of (a) Computer (b) Scanner (c) Printer (d) Airplane.
11) A computer port is used to (a) communicate with hard disk (b) communicate with peripherals
(c) communicate with software (d) Download files.
12) The keyboard has how many sections? (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 5.
13) Which device can be likening for a computer system? (a) Fixed phone (b) Mobile phone (c)
Calculator (d) None.

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14) Printing a document provides a _______copy (a) Soft (b) Hard (c) Snapshot (d) Readymade.
15) The main memory of the computer is also called (a) internal storage (b) Hard disk (c) External
storage (d) Flash memory.
16) Most server machines are (a) Towers (b) Desktop (c) Four in one (d) Firmware.
17) Which is an English keyboard? (a) Azerty (b) Wertz (c) Qwerty (d) Phonrtic.
18) Which of the following media is the best to advertise a detergent? (a) Newspaper (b) Radio (c)
Television (d) Bill board.
19) The short cut key to display the print dialog box is (a) CTRL + P (b) ALT+P (c) SHIFT+P (d)
CTRL+P+D.
20) ________________________ refers collectively to the programs or group of programs that are
used in the computer system.
A) Virus B) Computer software C) Freeware D) Programs
21) Computer software is divided into ___________________ and ______________________
A) Application software and Freeware B) System software and Shareware C) System
software and Application software D) RAM and ROM software
22) ___________________ controls the operation of the computer and application software that it
runs.
A) System software B) Application software C) Open source software D)Shareware
23) It controls and manages all hardware and software operation in a computer system
A) Operating system B) Utility Programs C) Input D) Virus
24) ____________________ allows multiple remote new jobs to be done on the computer at one
time such as querying a database.
A) Time sharing B) Time booms C) Time allocator D) Space Time
25) The total number of jobs completed per unit time is called _____________________
A) Batch Processing B) Through Put C) Transaction Processing D) Time Sharing
26) An example of an Operating System is__________________
A) MS-Word B) MS-Excel C) MS-Access D) MS-DOS
27) This is a software where the source code is available to the user and they agree that any user
can improve on it.
A) Open Source software B) Public Domain software C) Shareware D) Freeware

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28) ______________________ Is a combination of software and hardware that makes up a
computer unit
A) Iphone 13 Pro Max B) TOSHIBA C) Computer Architecture D) System Design

Give the full meaning of the following acronyms

29) CPU
30) ALU
31) IMEI : International Mobile Equipment Identity
32) DVD-ROM-RW
33) MS-DOS
34) LIFO
35) Mac OS
36) RAM
37) GUI
38) HTML
39) CAD
40) LCD
41) SIM:
42) PDF:
43) PIXEL:
44) LASER:
45) SSD
46) MP3
47) GAFAM
48) FAANG
49) LAN

50) Give two examples of a Word processing application. 2mks

51) The device that supplies electricity to the motherboard is ________. 1mk
52) What is Multi tasking? 2mks
53) What is Emailing? 2mks

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54) WYSIWYG stands for_________ 1mks
55) State the name of the folder that stores video files on a CD. 1mk
56) List any two devices that can be used to back up data from a computer. 2mks
57) __________ is the area where icons are arranged on the computer. 1mk
58) The full meaning of the following (a) GUI (b) POST (c) CD-R (d) CD-RW (e) ALU (f)
LAN. 6mks
59) Define the following terms
(a) Window. 2mks
(b) Icon. 2mks
(c) Toolbar. 2mks
(d) Start button. 2mks
(e) Dialog box. 2mks
60) List any two output devices. 2mks

61) A) Define the internet (b) Explain five importance of the internet to a business. 6mks
62) Explain any three reasons why a user might have a failure delivery after sending a mail to a
friend through the internet. 3mks
63) What is the difference between formatting a document and formatting a hard drive? 4mks
64) Briefly explain three roles played by a server in a Local Area Network setup in a class room.
4mks
65) Explain how MP3 files can be copied from a CD to a newly created folder on the desktop.
3mks

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 PHASE TWO

Practical’s

Requirement for the chapter:

✓ This section shall be purely practical and as such all students are required to
be in possession of a full functioning laptop or be available during scheduled
classes at the computer lab.
✓ All required software’s will be made available to students by lecturer during
the first class. Students are required to come along with laptops for those who
have.

Content

2.1 Operations on Ms Word

2.2 Operations on Ms Excel
2.3 Operations on Ms Power Point
2.4 Operations with Epi Info
2.5 Preparation of database Using Excel
2.6 Presentation of Data using Spreadsheet
2.7 Graphical representation of data in Excel

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Review Exercise
1) You have been contracted by SAMCO LTD to prepare its PAYROLL for the month of
February 2020. The following data are given to you:

Employees: Kelvin Sako, EmeliEkema, Dina Sakwe, Fred Kolle and HilderTita
Basic Salary: 52.250 FRS, 34.500 FRS, 70.800 FRS, 44.600 FRS and 89.500 FRS
a) Present the data above using a spreadsheet application program 5mks
b) Transport Allowance is given to workers calculated at 4.5% of Basic Salary for those
earning below 50.000 FRS and 7% for those earning from 50.000 FRS. Write out
formulas to calculate Transport Allowance for each employee. 5mks

c) Housing Allowance is also given to works at a flat rate of 10% of Basic Salary plus
Transport Allowance. Write out formulas to calculate Housing Allowance for each
employee. 5mks
d) Write out formulas to calculate the Gross Salary for the workers. 5mks
e) Income Tax is calculated at 1.2% of Gross Salary if it is less than or equal 50.000 FRS
otherwise 2.5%. Also CNPS is calculated at 2.8% of Gross Salary. Write out formulas to
calculate the Income Tax and CNPS for the workers. 5mks
f) Determine the Net Salary for each employee. Write out your formulas. 5mks

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