UNIT I

Introduction to Wireless Networks:- Applications, History, Simplified Reference Model,

Wireless transmission:- Frequencies , Signals, Antennas, Signal propagation, Multiplexing,
Modulation, Spread spectrum, Cellular Systems, Frequency Management and Channel Assignment,
types of hand-off and their characteristics

1. Introduction to Wireless Networks

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves,
satellites, or infrared light beams.
Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless networks.
They generally use radio waves for communication between the network nodes.
They allow devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network
coverage.

Types of Wireless Networks:-

 Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using wireless distribution
techniques.
 Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading over a metropolitan area.
 Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs and personal networks.

A communication device can thus exhibit one of the following characteristics:-

1. Fixed and wired:-

This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office.
Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile
usage.
The devices use fixed networks for performance reasons.
2. Mobile and wired:-
Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop from
one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the
telephone network and a modem.
3. Fixed and wireless:-
This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in his- torical buildings to avoid
damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup.
Another example is bridging the last mile to a customer by a new operator that
has no wired infrastructure and does not want to lease lines from a
competitor.
 4. Mobile and wireless:-
This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who can roam
between different wireless networks.
Most technol- ogies discussed in this book deal with this type of device and the
networks supporting them.
Today’s most successful example for this category is GSM with more than
800 million users.

Examples of wireless networks:-

 Mobile phone networks

 Wireless sensor networks
 Satellite communication networks
 Terrestrial microwave networks

Advantages of Wireless Networks:-

 It provides clutter-free desks due to the absence of wires and cables.

 It increases the mobility of network devices connected to the system since the devices need not
be connected to each other.
 Accessing network devices from any location within the network coverage or Wi-Fi hotspot
becomes convenient since laying out cables is not needed.
 Installation and setup of wireless networks are easier.
 New devices can be easily connected. Also, the number of equipment that can be added or
removed to the system.
 wireless networks very scalable.
 Wireless networks require very limited or no wires. Thus, it reduces the equipment and setup
costs.
  APPLICATIONS:-

Following is a list of applications in wireless communication:

1. Vehicles:-

Many wireless communication systems and mobility aware applications are used for following
purpose:

 Transmission of music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast
information are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5Mbit/s.
 For personal communication, a universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS)
phone might be available offering voice and data connectivity with 384kbit/s.
 For remote areas, satellite communication can be used, while the current position of the car
is determined via the GPS (Global Positioning System).
 A local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of information (information such as distance
between two vehicles, traffic information, road conditions) in emergency situations or to help
each other keep a safe distance. Local ad-hoc network with vehicles close by to prevent
guidance system, accidents, redundancy.
 Vehicle data from buses, trucks, trains and high speed train can be transmitted in advance for
maintenance.
 In ad-hoc network, car can comprise personal digital assistants (PDA), laptops, or mobile
phones connected with each other using the Bluetooth technology.
2. Emergencies:-

Following services can be provided during emergencies:

 Video communication:-

Responders often need to share vital information.

The transmission of real time situations of video could be necessary.

A typical scenario includes the transmission of live video footage from a disaster area
to the nearest fire department, to the police station or to the near NGOs etc.

 Push To Talk (PTT):-

PTT is a technology which allows half duplex communication between two users
where switching from voice reception mode to the transmit mode takes place with the use of
a dedicated momentary button.

It is similar to walkie-talkie.

 Audio/Voice Communication:-

This communication service provides full duplex audio channels unlike PTT.

Public safety communication requires novel full duplex speech transmission services
for emergency response.

 Real Time Text Messaging (RTT):-

Text messaging (RTT) is an effective and quick solution for sending alerts in case of
emergencies.

Types of text messaging can be email, SMS and instant message.

3. Business:-

Travelling Salesman:-

 Directly access to customer files stored in a central location.

 Consistent databases for all agents
 Mobile office
 To enable the company to keep track of all the activities of their travelling employees.

In Office:-

 Wi-Fi wireless technology saves businesses or companies a considerable amount of money

on installations costs.
 There is no need to physically setup wires throughout an office building, warehouse or store.
 Bluetooth is also a wireless technology especially used for short range that acts as a
complement to Wi-Fi. It is used to transfer data between computers or cell phones.

Transportation Industries:-

 In transportation industries, GPS technology is used to find efficient routes and tracking
vehicles.

4. Replacement of Wired Networks:-

Wireless network can also be used to replace wired network.

Due to economic reasons it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for weather forecasts,
earthquake detection, or to provide environmental information, wireless connections via satellite, can
help in this situation.

Tradeshows need a highly dynamic infrastructure, since cabling takes a long time and frequently
proves to be too inflexible.

Many computers fairs use WLANs as a replacement for cabling.

Other cases for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays in historical
buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
5. Location dependent service:-

It is important for an application to know something about the location because the user might
need location information for further activities.

Several services that might depend on the actual location can be described below:

 Location aware services: To know about what services (e.g. fax, printer, server, phone,
printer etc.) exist in the local environment.
 Privacy: We can set the privacy like who should get knowledge about the location.
 Information Services: We can know about the special offers in the supermarket. Nearest
hotel, rooms, cabs etc.

6. Infotainment: (Entertainment and Education) :-

Wireless networks can provide information at any appropriate location.

Outdoor internet access.

You may choose a seat for movie, pay via electronic cash, and send this information to a service
provider.

Ad-hoc network is used for multiuser games and entertainment.

7. Mobile and Wireless devices:-

Many mobile and wireless devices are available.

There is no precise classification of such devices, by sizes, shape, weight, or computing

power.

The following list of given examples of mobile and wireless devices graded by increasing
performance (CPU, memory, display, input devices, etc.)

Sensor:-

Wireless device is represented by a sensor transmitting state information.

1 example could be a switch, sensing the office door.

 If the door is closed, the switch transmits this information to the mobile phone inside the
office which will not accept incoming calls without user interaction; the semantics of a closed door
is applied to phone calls.

Embedded Controller:-

Many applications already contain a simple or sometimes more complex controller.

Keyboards, mouse, headsets, washing machines, coffee machines, hair dryers and TV sets
are just some examples.

Pager:-

As a very simple receiver, a pager can only display short text messages, has a tiny display,
and cannot send any messages.

Personal Digital Assistant:-

PDAs typically accompany a user and offer simple versions of office software (calendar,
notepad, mail).

The typically input device is a pen, with built-in character recognition translating
handwriting into characters. Web browsers and many other packages are available for these devices.

Pocket computer:-

The next steps towards full computers are pocket computers offering tiny keyboards, color
displays, and simple versions of programs found on desktop computers (text processing,
spreadsheets etc.)

Notebook/laptop:-

Laptops offer more or less the same performance as standard desktop computers; they use the
same software - the only technical difference being size, weight, and the ability to run on a battery. If
operated mainly via a sensitive display (touch sensitive or electromagnetic), the device are also
known as notepads or tablet PCs.
  History:-

The history of the wireless communications started with the understanding of magnetic and
electric properties observed during the early days by the Chinese, Roman and Greek cultures and
experiments carried out in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Year Description

1880 - Hertz-Radio Communication

1897 - Marconi- Radio Transmission

1933 - FCC (Federal Communication Commission)

1938 - FCC rules for regular services

1946 - Bell telephone laboratories 52 MHz

1956 - FCC - 450MHz (Simplex)

1964 - Bell telephone active research 800 MHz

1964 - FCC - 450 MHz (Full Duplex)

1969 - FCC - 40 MHz bandwidth

1981 - FCC ? release of cellular land phone in the 40 MHz

- At & T divested and Server RBOC (Regional Bell Operation Companies)

1982
formed to manage the cellular operation.

1984 - Most RBOC market in operations

1986 - FCC allocates 5MHz extended band.

1988 - TDMA voted as digital cellular standard in North America.

1992 - GSM (Group Special Mobile) operable Germany D2 system.

1993 - CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

1994 - PDCC (Personal Digital Cellular Operable) in Tokyo, Japan

1995 - CDMA operable in Hong Kong

- Six Broad Band PCS (Personal Communication Services) licensed bands (120
1996
MHz) almost reader 20 billion US dollar

1997 - Broad band CDMA constructed and of the 3rd generation mobile.

- Powerful WLAN systems were evolved, such as Bluetooth. This uses 2.4 MHz
1999
spectrum.

Generations of Wireless Communication:-

1G:-

This is the first generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile telecommunications, which
was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979.

The main technological development in this generation that distinguished the First Generation
mobile phones from the previous generation was the use of multiple cell sites, and the ability to
transfer calls from one site to the next site as the user travelled between cells during a conversation.

It uses analog signals.

It allows the voice calls in one country.

Disadvantages:-

 Poor quality of voice

 Poor life of Battery
 Size of phone was very large
 No security
 Capacity was limited
 Poor handoff reliability

2G:-
  This is the second generation of mobile telecommunication was launched in Finland in 1991.
 It was based on GSM standard.
 It enables data transmission like as text messaging (SMS - Short Message Service), transfer
or photos or pictures (MMS ? Multimedia Messaging Service), but not videos.
 The later versions of this generation, which were called 2.5G using GPRS (General Packet
Radio Service) and 2.75G using EDGE (Enhanced data rates for GSM Evolution) networks.
 It provides better quality and capacity.

Disadvantages:-

 Unable to handle complex data such as Video

 Requires strong digital signals

3G:-

 3G is the third generation was introduced in early 2000s.

 The transmission of data was increased up to 2Mbits/s, which allows you to sending or
receiving large email messages.
 The main difference between 3G and 2G is the use of packet switching rather than circuit
switching for data transmission.
 Faster communication
 High speed web or more security
 Video conferencing
 3D gaming
 TV streaming, Mobile TV, phone calls etc. are the features of 3G.

Disadvantages:-

 Costly
 Requirement of high bandwidth
 Expensive 3G phones
 Size of cell phones was very large.

4G:-

 4G is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunication which was appeared in 2010.

 It was based on LTE (Long Term Evolution) and LTE advanced standards.
 Offer a range of communication services like video calling, real time language translation
and video voice mail.
 It was capable of providing 100 Mbps to 1Gbps speed.
 High QoS (Quality of Service) and High security.
 The basic term used to describe 4G technology is MAGIC. Where :
M - Mobile multiedia
 A - Anytime anywhere
G - Global mobility support
I - Integarted wireless solution
C - Customized personal service

Disadvantages:-

 Uses more battery

 Difficult to implement
 Expensive equipment are required

5G:-

 It is refered to fifth generation wireless connection which will be probably implemented by

2020, or even some years earlier.
 Machine to machine communication can be possible in 5G.
 5G will be able to performs Internet of Things (IoT) for smart home and smart city,
connected cars etc.
 This generation will be based on lower cost, low battery consumption and lower latency than
4G equipment.
 There will be much fater transmission rate of data to the previous versions. Thus the speed of
5G will be 1Gbit/s.

 Simplified Reference Model :-

 The protocol stack implemented in the system according to the reference model shows in the
Figure.

End-systems, such as the PDA and computer in the example, need a full protocol stack
comprising the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer.

Applications on the end-systems communicate with each other using the lower layer services.

Intermediate systems, such as the interworking unit, do not necessarily need all of the layers.

Physical layer:-

This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible for the conversion of a
stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted on the sender side.

The physical layer of the receiver then transforms the signals back into a bit stream.

For wireless communication, the physical layer is responsible for frequency selection,
generation of the carrier frequency, signal detection (although heavy interference may disturb the
signal), modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and (depending on the transmission scheme)
encryption.

Data link layer:-

 The main tasks of this layer include accessing the medium, multiplexing of different data
streams, correction of transmission errors, and synchronization (i.e., detection of a data frame).

Altogether, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point-to-point connection between
two devices or a point-to-multipoint connection between one sender and several receivers.

Network layer:-

This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a network or establishing a
connection between two entities over many other intermediate systems.

Important functions are addressing, routing, device location, and handover between different
networks.

Transport layer:-

This layer is used in the reference model to establish an end-to-end connection

Application layer:-

Finally, the applications (complemented by additional layers that can support applications)
are situated on top of all transmission oriented layers.

Functions are service location, support for multimedia applications, adaptive applications
that can handle the large variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access to the world-
wide web using a portable device.

2. Wireless transmission
 Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media.

Wireless data transmission is also called "Unguided Transmission" .

Transmission via Bluetooth is one of the best examples of wireless transmission media.

Wireless communication involves no physical link established between two or more devices,
communicating wirelessly.

Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate
antennas.

 Frequencies for radio transmission :-

Frequency is expressed in Hertz and is the number of cycles per second.

In the electromagnetic spectrum, all omnidirectional waves in the frequencies 3KHz to 1GHz are
called radio waves.

Radio waves have omnidirectional antennas, i.e. antennas that can send signals in all directions.
The properties of radios waves vary according to their frequencies.

However, radio waves at all frequencies are prone to interference from electrical equipments like
motors etc.

Low and Medium Frequency Radio Waves Low and medium frequency radio waves can pass
through obstacles and have ground propagation.

However, the power diminishes rapidly depending upon the distance from the source.

This attenuation in power is called the path loss. AM radio uses LF and MF bands.

Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers,
over the earth’s surface.
 High Frequency Radio Waves High frequency radio waves travel in straight lines and have
sky propagation.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere.

High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread upwards. When they reach
Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Radio transmission can use many different frequency bands.

Each frequency band exhibits certain advantages and disadvantages.
The Figure gives a rough overview of the frequency spectrum that can be used
for data transmission.
The figure shows frequencies starting at 300 Hz and going up to over 300 THz.

Fig:- Frequency spectrum

Frequency and wave length: l = c/f

wave length l, speed of light c = 3x108m/s, frequency f .

Traditional wired networks, frequencies of up to several hundred kHz are used for
distances up to some km with twisted pair copper wires, while frequencies of several
hundred MHz are used with coaxial cable .
 Fiber optics are used for frequency ranges of several hundred THz, but here
one typically refers to the wavelength which is, e.g., 1500 nm, 1350 nm etc. (infra
red).
Radio transmission starts at several kHz, the very low frequency (VLF) range.
These are very long waves.
Waves in the low frequency (LF) range are used by submarines, because they
can penetrate water and can follow the earth’s surface.
The medium frequency (MF) and high frequency (HF) ranges are typical for
transmission of hundreds of radio stations.

The military communicates in the HF and VHF bands.

They are also used for long distance broadcasting and FM radio.

VLF, LF, MF HF not used for wireless.

Higher frequencies, the TV stations follow.
Conventional analog TV is transmitted in ranges of 174–230 MHz and 470–
790 MHz using the very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF)
bands.

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio:-

 Simple, small antenna for cars.
 Deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections.
Super high frequencies (SHF) are typically used for directed
microwave links (approx. 2–40 GHz) and fixed satellite services in
the C-band (4 and 6 GHz), Ku-band (11 and 14 GHz), or Ka-band
(19 and 29 GHz).
Extremely high frequency (EHF) range which comes close to
infra red.

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication:-

 Small antenna, beam forming.
 Large bandwidth available.
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range:-
 Some systems planned up to EHF.
 limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading.
E.g signal loss caused by heavy rain.
 Optical transmission, which is not only used for fiber optical
links but also for wireless communications.

Infra red (IR) transmission is used for directed links, e.g., to

connect different buildings via laser links.
Finally, visible light has been used for wireless transmission for
thousands of years.
While light is not very reliable due to interference, but it is
nevertheless useful due to built-in human receivers.

Frequencies and regulations:-

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands worldwide (WRC,
World Radio Conferences)

Applications:-

Some of the areas of applications of radio waves are

 Broadcasting and multicasting

 Fixed and mobile radio communications

 AM and FM radio

 Television

 Marine communication

 Wireless computer network

 Cordless phones

 Signals:-
Signals are the physical representation of data.
Users of a communication system can only exchange data
through the transmission of signals.
Layer 1 of the ISO/OSI basic reference model is
responsible for the conversion of data, i.e., bits, into signals.
Signals are functions of time and location.
Signal parameters represent the data values.
The signals for radio transmission are periodic signals, sine
waves.
The general function of a sine wave is:

g(t) = At sin(2 π ft t + φt )

Signal parameters are the amplitude A, the frequency f, and the phase shift
φ.
The amplitude as a factor of the function g may also change over time, thus At,.
The frequency f expresses the periodicity of the signal with the period T = 1/f.
(In equations, ω is frequently used instead of 2πf.)

The fre- quency f may also change over time,

thus ft .
Finally, the phase shift determines the shift
of the signal relative to the same signal without a shift.
An example for shifting a function is shown in Figure
 This shows a sine func- tion without a phase shift and the same function, i.e., same
amplitude and frequency, with a phase shift φ.

Sine waves are of special interest, as it is possible to construct every periodic signal
g by using only sine and cosine functions according to a fundamental equation of Fourier:
 Antennas:-
  SIGNAL PROPAGATION:-
Signal propagation in wireless communication needs two points (like wired
communication),
One to generate the signal and other to detect the signal.
But in wireless networks, the signal has no wire to determine the direction of
propagation.
Practically radio transmission has to contend with our atmosphere, mountains,
buildings, moving senders and receivers etc.
Refer Fig. 2.1 in reality, the three circles refer to ranges for transmission, detection
and interference of signals.

1. Transmission Range: -
It is possible within a certain radius of the sender transmission.
In this range, a receiver receives the signals with an error rate low enough to able to be
communicate and can also act as sender to establish a new connection.
2. Detection Range:-
It lies within second radius of the sender transmission side.
In this range, the transmitted power is large enough to be differentiated from background
noise.
However, the error rate is too high to establish connection in this range.
3. Interference Range :-
This range lies within a third even larger radius.
The sender may interfere with other transmission by adding a background noise.
A receiver will not be able to detect the signals under this range.
Path loss of radio signals:-
Additional signal propagation effects:-
Multi path propagation:-
  Multiplexing:-

Multiplexing is a technique used in the area of electronics and signal processing.

Multiplexing is used to combine multiple analog or digital signals into one signal over a
shared medium.

The main aim of using this method is to share a scarce resource.

Example:-

You can see a real-life example of Multiplexing in the telecommunication field where
several telephone calls may be carried using one wire.

Multiplexing is also called as muxing.

Multiplexing can be classified into the following four types:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):-

Frequency division multiplexing or FDM is inherently an analog technology.

As the name specifies, in Frequency Division Multiplexing, the frequency dimension spectrum
is split into smaller frequency bands.

It combines several smaller distinct frequency ranges signals into one medium and sends them
over a single medium.

In FDM, the signals are electrical signals.

 FDM's most common applications are a traditional radio or television broadcasting, mobile or
satellite stations, or cable television.

For example:-

In cable TV, you can see that only one cable is reached to the customer's locality, but the
service provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all
customers without any interference.

The customers have to tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the required
signal.

In FDM, several frequency bands can work simultaneously without any time constraint.

Advantages of FDM:-

o The concept of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) applies to both analog signals and
digital signals.
o It facilitates you to send multiple signals simultaneously within a single connection.

Disadvantages of FDM:-

o It is less flexible.
o In FDM, the bandwidth wastage may be high.

Usage:-

It is used in Radio and television broadcasting stations, Cable TV etc.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):-

 The Time Division Multiplexing or (TDM) is a digital or analog technology (in rare cases) that
uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams.

It is used for a specific amount of time in which the whole spectrum is used.

The Time frames of the same intervals are divided so that you can access the entire frequency
spectrum at that time frame.

Advantages of TDM:-

o It facilitates a single user at a time.

o It is less complicated and has a more flexible architecture.

Disadvantages of TDM:-

o It isn't easy to implement.

Usage:-

o It is mainly used in telephonic services.

3. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM):-

The Code Division Multiplexing or (CDM) allots a unique code to every channel so that each of
these channels can use the same spectrum simultaneously at the same time.
Advantages of CDM:-

o It is highly efficient.
o It faces fewer Inferences.

Disadvantages of CDM:-

o The data transmission rate is low.

o It is complex.

Usage:-

o It is mainly used in Cell Phone Spectrum Technology (2G, 3G etc.).

4. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM):-

The Space Division Multiplexing or (SDM) is called a combination of Frequency Division

Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

It passes messages or data-parallel with the use of specific frequency at a specific.

It means a particular channel will be used against a specific frequency band for some amount of
time.

Advantages of SDM:-
 o In SDM, the data transmission rate is high.
o It uses Time and Frequency bands at its maximum potential.

Disadvantages of SDM:-

o An inference may occur.

o It faces high inference losses.

Usage:-

o It is used in GSM (Global Service for Mobile) Technology.

 Modulation:-

"Modulation is the process of converting one form of signals into another form of signals."

For example, Analog signals to Digital signals or Digital signals to Analog signals.

Modulation is also called signal modulation.

Figure 2.21 shows a (simplified) block diagram of a radio

transmitter for digital data.
The first step is the digital modulation of data into the
analog base- band signal according to one of the schemes
presented in the following sections.
The analog modulation then shifts the center frequency of the analog
signal up to the radio carrier. This signal is then transmitted via the antenna.

Figure 2.21 Modulation in a transmitter

The receiver (see Figure 2.22) receives the analog radio

signal via its antenna and demodulates the signal into the
analog baseband signal with the help of the known carrier.
 This would be all that is needed for an analog radio
tuned in to a radio station.
(The analog baseband signal would constitute the
music.) For digital data, another step is needed. Bits or
frames have to be detected, i.e., the receiver must
synchronize with the sender.
How synchronization is achieved, depends on the digital
modulation scheme.
After synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the
signal represents a digital 1 or a 0, reconstructing the
original data.

Types of Modulation:-

Modulation can be classified into two types:

1. Digital Modulation
2. Analog Modulation

1. Digital Modulation:-

Digital Modulation is a technique in which digital signals/data can be converted into analog
signals.

For example, Base band signals.

Figure 2.21 shows a (simplified) block diagram of a radio

transmitter for digital data.
The first step is the digital modulation of data into the
analog base- band signal according to one of the schemes
presented in the following sections.
The analog modulation then shifts the center frequency of the analog
signal up to the radio carrier. This signal is then transmitted via the antenna.

Figure 2.21 Modulation in a transmitter

The receiver (see Figure 2.22) receives the analog radio

signal via its antenna and demodulates the signal into the
analog baseband signal with the help of the known carrier.
This would be all that is needed for an analog radio
tuned in to a radio station.
(The analog baseband signal would constitute the
music.) For digital data, another step is needed. Bits or
frames have to be detected, i.e., the receiver must
synchronize with the sender.
How synchronization is achieved, depends on the digital
modulation scheme.
After synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the
signal represents a digital 1 or a 0, reconstructing the
original data.
 Digital Modulation can further be classified into four types:

1. Amplitude Shift Key (ASK) Modulation:-

In Amplitude Shift Key or ASKS Modulation, the amplitude is represented by "1" and if the
amplitude does not exist, it is represented by "0".

Using Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is very simple, and it requires a very low bandwidth.

Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is vulnerable to inference or deduction.

2. Minimum Shift Key (MSK) Modulation:-

The Minimum Shift Key or MSK Modulation is the most effective technique of Modulation
and can be implemented for almost every stream of bits.

It is easy and effective than Amplitude Shift Key, Frequency Shift Key and Phase Shift Key.
 MSK is mostly used because of its ability and flexibility to handle "One(1)" and "Zero(0)"
transition of binary bits.

3. Frequency Shift Key (FSK) Modulation:-

In Frequency Shift Key or FSK Modulation, different notations f1 and f2 are used for
different frequencies.

Here, f1 is used to represent bit "1" and f2 represents bit "0".

It is also a simple modulation technique but uses different frequencies for different bits;
bandwidth requirement becomes high.

4. Phase Shift Key (PSK) Modulation:-

In Phase Shift Key or PSK Modulation, the phase difference is used to differentiate between
the "1" and "0" bits.

If the bit is "1", a simple wave is drawn, and if the bit becomes "0", the phase of the wave is
shifted by "180 or π".

PSK Modulation is more complicated than ASK and FSK Modulation, but it is robust too.

2. Analog Modulation:-

Analog modulation is a process of transferring analog low-frequency baseband signal such

as an audio or TV signal over a higher frequency carrier signal such as a radio
frequency band.
 Baseband signals are always analog to this modulation.

"Analog Modulation is a technique which is used in analog data signals transmission into
digital signals."

An example of Analog Modulation is Broadband Signals.

There are three properties of a carrier signal in analog modulation i.e., amplitude, frequency
and phase.

So, the analog modulation can further be classified as:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation (PM)

Difference between Digital and Analog Modulation:-

Both digital and analog modulation are used to vary or transform signals from one for to
another, but the difference is that an analog-modulated signal is demodulated into an analog
baseband waveform.

In digital modulation, a digitally modulated signal contains discrete modulation units,

called symbols, that are interpreted as digital data.

1. Amplitude Modulation:-

Amplitude modulation or AM is a modulation technique that is used in electronic

communication.

It is most commonly used for transmitting messages with a radio carrier wave.

It varies the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier signal or waves according to the
message signal's instantaneous amplitude.

If we denote the message signal as m(t) and c(t)= Acoswct, then amplitude modulation
signal F(t) will be written as:

F(t)= Acoswct+m(t) coswct

F(t)=[A+m(t)] coswct
 2. Frequency Modulation:-

Frequency Modulation or FM is the process of encoding the information in a carrier wave

by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave.

It varies the instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal according to the instantaneous
amplitude of the message signal.

If we denote the message signal as m(t) and c(t)= Acoswct, then Frequency modulation
signal F(t) will be written as:

F(t)= Acos(wc t+kf ∫m(α)dα)

3. Phase modulation (PM):-

Phase modulation or PM is the technique of varying the carrier signal's instantaneous

phase according to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
 It encodes the message signal as changes occurred in the instantaneous phase of a carrier
signal.

If we denote the message signal as m(t) and c(t)= Acoswct, then Phase modulation
signal F(t) will be written as:

F(t)= Acos(wct+kpm(t))

 Spread Spectrum:-

"Spread Spectrum is a technique in which the transmitted signals of specific frequencies are
varied slightly to obtain greater bandwidth as compared to initial bandwidth."

Now, spread spectrum technology is widely used in radio signals transmission because it can
easily reduce noise and other signal issues.

Types of Spread Spectrum:-

Spread Spectrum can be categorized into two types:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):-

The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us to utilize bandwidth properly
and maximum.
 In this technique, the whole available bandwidth is divided into many channels and spread
between channels, arranged continuously.

The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency signals are transmitted according
to their occupancy.

The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels available for a particular amount
of time in milliseconds.

So, you can see that it implements the frequency division multiplexing and time-division
multiplexing simultaneously in FHSS.

The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS can also be classified into two types:

o Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a specific frequency or
same frequency.
o Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and then transmitted on different
frequencies.

Advantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):-

The following are some advantages of frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS):

o The biggest advantage of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is its high
efficiency.
o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS signals are highly resistant to
narrowband interference because the signal hops to a different frequency band.
 o It requires a shorter time for acquisition.
o It is highly secure. Its signals are very difficult to intercept if the frequency-hopping
pattern is not known; that's why it is preferred to use in Military services.
o We can easily program it to avoid some portions of the spectrum.
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS transmissions can share a frequency band
with many types of conventional transmissions with minimal mutual interference. FHSS
signals add minimal interference to narrowband communications, and vice versa.
o It provides a very large bandwidth.
o It can be simply implemented as compared to DsSS.

Disadvantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):-

The following are some disadvantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

o FHSS is less Robust, so sometimes it requires error correction.

o FHSS needs complex frequency synthesizers.
o FHSS supports a lower data rate of 3 Mbps as compared to the 11 Mbps data rate
supported by DSSS.
o It is not very useful for range and range rate measurements.
o It supports the lower coverage range due to the high SNR requirement at the receiver.
o Nowadays, it is not very popular due to the emerging of new wireless technologies in
wireless products.

Applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):-

Following is the list of most used applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS:

o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is used in wireless local area
networks (WLAN) standard for Wi-Fi.
o FHSS is also used in the wireless personal area networks (WPAN) standard for
Bluetooth.

2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):-

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread-spectrum modulation technique

primarily used to reduce overall signal interference in telecommunication.

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum modulation makes the transmitted signal wider in
bandwidth than the information bandwidth.
 In DSSS, the message bits are modulated by a bit sequencing process known as a spreading
sequence.

This spreading-sequence bit is known as a chip. It has a much shorter duration (larger
bandwidth) than the original message bits.

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS can also be classified into two types:

Advantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):-

The following are some advantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is less reluctant to noise; that's why the DSSS
system's performance in the presence of noise is better than the FHSS system.
o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS, signals are challenging to detect.
o It provides the best discrimination against multipath signals.
o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum, there are very few chances of jamming because it
avoids intentional interference such as jamming effectively.

Disadvantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):-

The following are some disadvantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS system takes large acquisition time;
that's why its performance is slow.
o It requires wide-band channels with small phase distortion.
o In DSSS, the pseudo-noise generator generates a sequence at high rates.

Applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):-

Following is the list of most used applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is used in LAN technology.

 o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is also used in Satellite communication
technology.

 Cellular system:-

Cellular Concepts refers to the use of a group of cells to provide communication from
one place to another place when the user is mobile.

A cellular system in mobile computing implements space division multiplexing or

SDM.

Each transmitter in the cellular system is called a base station.

The base station covers a specific area that is called a cell.

Cell radius can vary from tens of meters in building, hundreds of meters in a city, and
tens of kilometers in the country.

The shape of a cell depends on the environmental conditions such as type of building,
mountains, weather conditions, load, and other conditions.

Generally, it is hexagon shape but not an exact hexagon.

Figure: Cell Structure

Advantages:-

 Higher Capacity:-

Cellular system uses SDM. SDM allows frequency reuse.

 If one transmitter is far away from another transmitter particularly out of the range of
the interference area then another transmitter can use the same frequency as shown in the
following figure-

Mobile systems assign one specific frequency to a certain user and that frequency is
blocked for the use by other users.

But frequency is a scarce resource therefore for their optimum utilization of the same
frequency, the same frequency is used for other users using the technique frequency reuse.

 Less Transmission Power:-

Transmission power is not a big issue for the base station but it is important for the
mobile receivers.

Keeping cell size small facilitate mobile receivers because as they move far from the base
station their receiving capacity reduces and due to small cells after a few distances they can again
access receiving power from the cell nearby them and the problem of the mobile receiver is
solved.

 Local Interference:-

When the distance is large between the sender and receiver then interference is also more
and difficult to manage.

There is only local interference when cells are small and that is easy to handle by the base
station and the mobile station.

 Robustness:-

The cellular system is decentralized therefore more robust as compared to when

centralized.
 If any component fails only that specific area affected and the rest of the part remains
unaffected and works efficiently.

Disadvantages:-

 Infrastructure Requirement:-

Cellular system establishment needs complex infrastructure, storage registers to locate

mobile users in local areas and roaming, antennas, transmitters, receivers, and amplifiers, etc.
that are expensive.

 Handover Needed:-

The mobile system needs handovers when they change cells. This is quite often which
further incur a cost.

 Frequency Planning:-

To avoid the interference between transmitters frequencies are planned carefully.

Frequency is a limited resource therefore they are distributed intelligently so that they can
be reused without any kind of interference.

 Frequency Management and Channel Assignment:-

The function of frequency management is to divide the total number of available

channels into subsets which can be assigned to each cell either in a fixed fashion or
dynamically.

The terms “frequency management” and “channel assignment” often create some
confusion.

Frequency management refers to designating setup channels and voice channels (done
by the FCC), numbering the channels (done by the FCC), and grouping the voice channels into
subsets (done by each system according to its preference).

Channel assignment refers to the allocation of specific channels to cell sites and mobile
units.

A fixed channel set consisting of one more subsets is assigned to a cell site on a long-
term basis.
 During a call, a particular channel is assigned to a mobile unit on a short- term basis.

For a short-term assignment, one channel assignment per call is handled by the mobile
telephone switching office (MTSO).

Ideally channel assignment should be based on causing the least interference in the
system.

However, most cellular systems cannot perform this way.

Numbering the channels:-

The total number of channels at present (January 1988) is 832.

But most mobile units an systems are still operating on 666 channels.

Therefore we describe the 666 channel numbering first.

A channel consists of two frequency channel bandwidths, one in the low band and
one in the high band.

Two frequencies in channel 1 are 825.030 MHz (mobile transmit) 870.030 MHz (cell-
site transmit).

The two frequencies in channel 666 are 844.98 MHz (mobile transmit) and 898 MHz
(cell-site transmit).

The 666 channels are divided into two groups: block A system and block B system.

Each market (i.e., each city) has two systems for a duopoly market policy.

Each block has 333 channels, as shown in Fig.1.1.

 Fig.1.1. Frequency management chart

The 42 set-up channels are assigned as follows.

Channels 313-333 block A

Channels 334-354 block B

The voice channels are assigned as follows.

Channels 1-312 (312 voice channels) block A

Channels 355-666 (312 voice channels) block B

These 42 set-up channels are assigned in the middle of all the assigned channels to
facilitate scanning of those channels by frequency synthesizers.

In the new additional spectrum allocation of 10 MHz (sec Fig. 1.2.), an additional 166
channels are assigned.
 Since a 1 MHz is assigned below 825 MHz (or 870 MHz) in the future, additional
channels will be numbered up to 849 MHz (or 894 MHz) and will then circle back.

The last channel number is 1023.

There are no Channels between channels 799 and 991.

Grouping into subsets: -

The number of voice channels for each system is 312.

We can group these into any number of subsets.

Since there are 21 set-up channels for each system, it is logical to group the 312 channels
into 21 subsets.

Each subset then consists of 16 channels. In each set, the closest adjacent channel is 21
channels away, as shown in Fig.1.1.

The 16 channels in each subset can be mounted on a frame and connected to a channel
combiner.

Wide separation between adjacent channels is required for meeting the requirement of
minimum isolation.
 Each 16- channel subset is idealized for each 16-channel combiner.

In a seven- cell frequency-reuse cell system each cell contains three subsets, iA+iB+iC,
where i is an integer from 1 to 7.

The total number of voice channels in a cell is about 45. The minimum separation
between three subsets is 7 channels.

If six subsets are equipped in an omnicell site, the minimum separation between two
adjacent channels can be only three (21/6> 3) physical channel bandwidths.

For example, 1A+1B+1C+4A+4B +4C or 1A+1B+1C+5A+5B+5C

 Channel Assignment strategies:-

Channel Assignment Strategies are designed in such a way that there is efficient use of
frequencies, time slots and bandwidth.
There are three types of Channel Assignment Strategies they are:
1. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA): -
It is a strategy in which fixed number of channels or voice channels are allocated to the cells.
Once the channels are allocated to the specific cells then they cannot be changed.
Fixed channel assignment are very simple and requires least amount of processing.
Cells in this strategy are allowed to borrow channels from adjacent cells if their channels are
fully occupied while adjacent cells have free channels.
No interference occurs by moving the channel from one cell to another.
2. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA): -
Dynamic Channel Assignment is a strategy in which channels are not permanently allocated
to the cells.
When a User makes a call request then Base Station send that request to the MSC (Mobile
Station Cente) for the allocation of channels or voice channels.
Each time a call request is made, serving BS requests a channel from the MSC.
MSC assigns a channel only if it is not used and if it will not cause co‐channel interference
with any cell in range.
In this MSC has to collect real time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution, radio
signal strength indication of all channels on continuous basis, thus increasing the computational
load on MSC.
3. Hybrid Channel Assignment (HCA): -
 Hybrid Channel Allocation is a combination of both Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA) and
Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA).
In this total number of channels or voice channels are divided into fixed and dynamic
sets.
If a user make a call then first fixed set of channels are utilized but if all the fixed sets are
busy then dynamic sets are used.
The main purpose of HCA is to work efficiently under heavy traffic.
 Types of hand-off and their characteristics:-

Handover or handoff refers to the process of transferring ongoing call or data

connectivity from one Base Station to other Base Station.
When a mobile moves into the different cell while the conversation is in progress then the
MSC (Mobile Switching Center) transfer the call to a new channel belonging to the new Base
Station.

When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal strength
loses for the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and thus ongoing calls or
data connectivity for mobile user goes on without interrupting.
Hand-off and their characteristics:-
Handoffs are triggered in any of the following situations :−
 If a subscriber who is in a call or a data session moves out of coverage of one cell and
enters coverage area of another cell, a handoff is triggered for a continuum of service.
The tasks that were being performed by the first cell are delineating to the latter cell.
 Each cell has a pre-defined capacity, i.e. it can handle only a specific number of
subscribers.
If the number of users using a particular cell reaches its maximum capacity, then a handoff
occurs.
Some of the calls are transferred to adjoining cells, provided that the subscriber is in the
overlapping coverage area of both the cells.
 Cells are often sub-divided into microcells.
A handoff may occur when there is a transfer of duties from the large cell to the smaller
cell and vice versa.
 For example, there is a traveling user moving within the jurisdiction of a large cell. If the
traveler stops, then the jurisdiction is transferred to a microcell to relieve the load on the
large cell.
 Handoffs may also occur when there is an interference of calls using the same frequency
for communication.

Types of Handoff:-
1. Hard Handoff:-
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station
to another Base Station.
There is no burden on the Base Station and MSC because the switching takes place so
quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the users.
The connection quality is not that good.
Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before make’ policy.

Advantages:-

 Hard Handovers are cheaper as they require only one channel to be active at a time.
 Hard Handoffs are generally implemented more than Soft Handoffs thanks to their
efficiency.

Disadvantages:-

 A delay is often experienced while switching, but it generally is quite small such that the
user does not experience it.

2. Soft Handoff:-
In Soft Handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or removed to
the Base Station.
Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. Soft Handoff is more costly than
Hard Handoff.
Advantages:-

 It provides better Quality Assurance as a channel is always on stand by in case of power

loss in any other channel.
 More than one repeater can send and receive signals to transmit signals to and from
mobiles, increasing transfer speed.
 Delay is very low
 Soft Handoffs lead to an increase in the signal to interference ratio, without performance
loss. This is known as the Soft Handover Gain.

Disadvantages:-

 Only supported for phones that employ CDMA/ WCDMA, and cannot be implemented in
LTE or GSM.
 Costlier to implement than Hard Handoff as a channel is always wasted by being the
backup.

3. Forced Handoff:-
A Forced Handoff can occur in two ways, either by forcing a handoff to occur or forcibly
preventing a handoff that was supposed to happen from not happening.
This could be done when the number of users exceeds the capacity of the network.
Advantages:-

 Helps in mobility management by controlling which devices are to remain connected.

 Prevents the network from the threat of being down due to congestion.

Disadvantages:-

 Increased chances of high latency and dropped calls.

4. Delayed Handoff:-
A delayed handoff occurs when no BTS is available to accept the transfer.
In such a case, the call generally continues until the signal strength reaches a certain
threshold.
 If it goes below the threshold, the call is dropped.
Advantages:-

 Help in handling the call more adequately.

Disadvantages:-

 The quality of the call could go for a toss.

 Chances of calls being dropped are very high.

5. Mobile-Assisted Handoff:-
A mobile-assisted handoff (MAHO) is a process used specifically in GSM networks where
a mobile phone assists or helps the BTS to transfer a call to another BTS, with stronger signal
strength and improved connectivity.
Advantages:-

 Reduced handoff time as the device is responsible for facilitating the handoff.
 Reduced traffic at the BSC/ MSC as the decision to switch is taken by the MS.
 Suitable when handoffs are frequent.

Disadvantages:-

 Added load on the processor of the MS in comparing signal strength of nearby BTS.

6. Intersystem Handoff:-
Intersystem Handoffs come into play when the user moves from one network that is under
the jurisdiction of an MSC to another.
During this handoff, the call is transferred to the destination MSC, which further tries to
allocate a specific bandwidth at the cell site where the user is at present.
Advantages:-

 Facilitates roaming and preserves the mobility promise of cellular networks.

Disadvantages:-

 This is only possible if the two MSCs are compatible and have the necessary software
that can facilitate these handoffs.

7. Intercell Handoffs:-
An intercell handoff occurs when an MS is transferred from one BTS to the other, mostly
to balance the load on the network.
It is generally the BSC that takes control here and acts as the switching agent.